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Iron ores: A review

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 22th International Conference on Ore Deposits
(ICOD2020)
September 2-3, 2020
University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM)
Tanzania
Proceeding Book

IRON ORES: A REVIEW

Osama R. Shaltamia, Daniela de Moraisb, Fares F. Faresa, Farag M. EL Oshebia, Hwedi Errishic and Ilas Bustanyd
a
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University, Libya
b
Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
c
Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Benghazi University, Libya
d
Institute of Geosciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Abstract Ramanaidou and Wells, 2014; Shaltami et al., 2017). Ores

Earth's most important iron ore deposits are found in containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite

sedimentary rocks. They formed from chemical reactions (greater than about 60% iron) are known as "natural ore" or

that combined iron and oxygen in marine and fresh waters. "direct shipping ore", meaning they can be fed directly into

The most important minerals in these deposits are iron iron-making blast furnaces. Iron ore is the raw material

oxides: hematite and magnetite. Iron oxide minerals show a used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw

wide array of textures that result from oxidation, materials to make steel—98% of the mined iron ore is used

exsolution or primary crystallization. to make steel. In 2011 the Financial Times has speculated

Keywords: Irons ores, Wadi As Shati, Libya. that iron ore is "more integral to the global economy than

any other commodity, except perhaps oil". Metallic iron is

1. Introduction virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of

iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually deep mantle xenoliths. Some iron meteorites are thought to

rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright have originated from accreted bodies 1,000 km in diameter

yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The iron is usually or larger (Goldstein et al., 2009). The origin of iron can be

found in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), ultimately traced to formation through nuclear fusion in

goethite (FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH)·n(H2O)), ilmenite stars and most of the iron is thought to have originated in

(FeTiO3), pyrite (FeS2), pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5), dying stars that are large enough to collapse or explode as

chamosite ((Fe,Mg)5Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)8) or siderite (FeCO3) supernovae (Frey and Reed, 2012). Although iron is the

(e.g., Shaltami, 2006; Shaltami and El Werfalli, 2010; fourth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust,

ICOD2020 28
composing about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate weight. The typical magnetite iron-ore concentrate has less

or more rarely carbonate minerals. The thermodynamic than 0.1% phosphorus, 3–7% silica and less than 3%

barriers to separating pure iron from these minerals are aluminium (e.g., Zhang et al., 1997; de Magalhaes and

formidable and energy-intensive, therefore all sources of Brandao, 2003; Kim et al., 2010; Ghosh and Baidya, 2017;

iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer Sarjoughian et al., 2020). Currently magnetite iron ore is

iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite. Prior to the mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the U.S., Eastern

industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely Canada and Northern Sweden. Magnetite-bearing banded

available goethite or bog ore, for example during the iron formation is currently mined extensively in Brazil,

American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Prehistoric which exports significant quantities to Asia, and there is a

societies used laterite as a source of iron ore. Historically, nascent and large magnetite iron-ore industry in Australia.

much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has Occasionally granite and ultrapotassic igneous rocks

been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with segregate magnetite crystals and form masses of

grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly magnetite suitable for economic concentration. A few iron

referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores". ore deposits, notably in Chile, are formed from volcanic

Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with the depletion of flows containing significant accumulations of magnetite

high-grade hematite ores in the United States, after phenocrysts (Guijon et al., 2011). Chilean magnetite iron ore

World War II led to development of lower-grade iron ore deposits within the Atacama Desert have also formed

sources, principally the utilization of magnetite and alluvial accumulations of magnetite in streams leading from

taconite. Iron-ore mining methods vary by the type of ore these volcanic formations. Some magnetite skarn and

being mined. There are four main types of iron-ore deposits hydrothermal deposits have been worked in the past as

worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology high-grade iron ore deposits requiring little beneficiation.

of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite, There are several granite-associated deposits of this

massive hematite and pisolitic ironstone deposits. nature in Malaysia and Indonesia. Other sources of

magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of

The key economic parameters for magnetite ore being massive magnetite ore such as at Savage River, Tasmania,

economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite, the grade formed by shearing of ophiolite ultramafics. Another,

of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in

the contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite layered intrusions which contain a typically titanium-bearing

concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite magnetite often with vanadium. These ores form a niche

resources is irrelevant as a banded iron formation can be market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron,

hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers titanium and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated

along strike, and can easily come to more than three billion essentially similar to banded iron formation ores, but

or more tonnes of contained ore. The typical grade of iron usually are more easily upgraded via crushing and screening.

at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe,

becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally 12% Ti and 0.5% V2O5.

yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to

produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by Direct-shipping iron-ore (DSO) deposits (typically

ICOD2020 29
composed of hematite) are currently exploited on all 2.1. Ironstones

continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in Ironstones consist of 15% iron or more in composition.

South America, Australia and Asia. Most large hematite This is necessary for the rock to even be considered an

iron-ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron iron-rich sedimentary rock. Generally, they are from the

formations and rarely igneous accumulations. DSO deposits Phanerozoic which means that they range in age from the

are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other present to 540 million years ago. They can contain iron

rocks which form its main source or protolith rock, but are minerals from the following groups: oxides, carbonates, and

considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require silicates. Some examples of minerals in iron-rich rocks

less beneficiation due to the higher iron content. However, containing oxides are limonite, hematite, and magnetite. An

DSO ores can contain significantly higher concentrations of example of a mineral in iron-rich rock containing carbonates

penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, is siderite and an example of minerals in an iron-rich rock

water content (especially pisolite sedimentary containing silicate is chamosite. They are often

accumulations) and aluminium (clays within pisolites). interbedded with limestones, shales, and fine-grained

Export-grade DSO ores are generally in the 62-64% Fe sandstones. They are typically nonbanded, however they can

range (e.g., Lascelles and Tsiokos, 2015; Tukarambai et al., be very coarsely banded on occasion. They are hard and

2020). noncherty (Petranek and Van Houten, 1997). The

components of the rock range in size from sand to mud, but

2. Iron-Rich Sedimentary Rocks do not contain a lot of silica. They are also more aluminous.

Iron-rich sedimentary rocks are sedimentary rocks They are not laminated and sometimes contain ooids. Ooids

which contain 15% or more iron. However, most sedimentary can be a distinct characteristic though they are not

rocks contain iron in varying degrees. The majority of these normally a main component of ironstones. Within ironstones,

rocks were deposited during specific geologic time periods: ooids are made up of iron silicates and/or iron oxides and

The Precambrian (3800 to 570 million years ago), the early sometimes occur in alternating laminae. They normally

Paleozoic (570 to 410 million years ago), and the middle to contain fossil debris and sometimes the fossils are partly

late Mesozoic (205 to 66 million years ago). Overall, they or entirely replaced by iron minerals. A good example of

make up a very small portion of the total sedimentary this is pyritization. They are smaller in size and less likely

record. Iron-rich sedimentary rocks have economic uses as to be deformed or metamorphosed than iron formations

iron ores. Iron deposits have been located on all major (Middleton, 2003). The term iron ball is occasionally used to

continents with the exception of Antarctica. They are a describe an ironstone nodule (Petranek and Van Houten,

major source of iron and are mined for commercial use. The 1997). According to Evans (1993) the Phanerozoic

main iron ores are from the oxide group consisting of ironstones can be classified into two types, namely Clinton

hematite, goethite, and magnetite. The carbonate siderite type and Minette type.

is also typically mined. A productive belt of iron formations

is known as an iron range (Tucker, 2001). The accepted 2.1.1. Clinton Type

classification scheme for iron-rich sedimentary rocks is to This forms massive beds of oolitic hematite-chamosite-

divide them into two sections: ironstones and iron siderite rock. The Fe2O3 content is about 40-50% and they

formations (James, 1992). are higher in Al2O3 and P2O5 than banded iron formations

ICOD2020 30
(BIFs). They also differ from BIFs in the absence of chert The dominant mineral in the carbonate facies is siderite.

bands, the SiO2 being mainly present in iron silicate The dominant mineral in the sulfide facies is pyrite. Most

minerals with small amounts as clastic quartz grains. The iron formations are deformed or metamorphosed simply due

Clinton type is common in rocks of Cambrian to Devonian to their incredibly old age, but they still retain their unique

age. distinctive chemical composition; even at high metamorphic

grades. The higher the grade, the more metamorphosed it

2.1.2. Minette Type is. Low grade rocks may only be compacted while high grade

This type is the most common and widespread rocks often cannot be identified. They often contain a

ironstones. The principal minerals are siderite and mixture of banded iron formations and granular iron

chamosite. The Fe2O3 content is around 30%, while CaO formations. Iron formations can be divided into subdivisions

runs 5-20% and SiO2 is usually above 20%. The Minette known as: banded iron formations (BIFs) and granular iron

type is common in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Europe, formations (GIFs) (Middleton, 2003). The above

northern Africa and southern United States. classification scheme is the most commonly used and

accepted, though sometimes an older system is used which

2.2. Iron Formations divides iron-rich sedimentary rocks into three categories:

Iron formations must be at least 15% iron in bog iron deposits, ironstones, and iron formations. A bog-

composition, just like ironstones and all iron-rich iron deposit is iron that formed in a bog or swamp through

sedimentary rocks. However, iron formations are mainly the process of oxidation.

Precambrian in age which means that they are 4600 to 590

million years old. They are much older than ironstones. They 2.2.1. Banded Iron Formations

tend to be cherty, though chert cannot be used as a way to Banded iron formations (BIFs) were originally chemical

classify iron formations because it is a common component muds and contain well developed thin lamination. They are

in many types of rocks. They are well banded and the able to have this lamination due to the lack of burrowers in

banding can be anywhere from a few millimeters to tens of the Precambrian. BIFs show regular alternating layers that

meters thick. The layers have very distinct banded are rich in iron and chert that range in thickness from a

successions that are made up of iron rich layers that few millimeters to a few centimeters. The formation can

alternate with layers of chert. Iron formations are often continue uninterrupted for tens to hundreds of meters

associates with dolomite, quartz-rich sandstone, and black stratigraphically. These formations can contain

shale. They sometimes grade locally into chert or dolomite. sedimentary structures like cross-bedding, graded bedding,

They can have many different textures that resemble load casts, ripple marks, mud cracks, and erosion channels.

limestone. Some of these textures are micritic, pelleted, In comparison to GIFs, BIFs contain a much larger

intraclastic, peloidal, oolitic, pisolitic, and stromatolitic spectrum of iron minerals, have more reduced facies, and

(James, 1992). In low-grade iron formations, there are are more abundant (e.g., Adekoya, 1998; Young, 2002; Raju,

different dominant minerals dependent on the different 2009; Rolim et al., 2016; Muhling and Rasmussen, 2020).

types of facies. The dominant minerals in the oxide facies BIFs are divided into type categories based on the

are magnetite and hematite. The dominant minerals in the characteristics related to the nature of their formation

silicate facies are greenalite, minnesotaite, and glauconite. and unique physical and chemical properties. Some

ICOD2020 31
categories of banded iron formations are the Rapitan type, 3. Iron Ore Texture

the Algoma type, and the Superior type. Iron oxide minerals exhibit a variety of textures such

as exsolution, alteration and replacement textures (e.g.,

2.2.1.1. Rapitan Type Shaltami, 2006; Shaltami and El Werfalli, 2010). Basu and

Rapitan types are associated with the glaciogenic Molinaroli (1989) found that consideration of exsolution

sequences of the Archean and Early Proterozoic. The type intergrowth textures significantly improved the usefulness

is distinctive as the hydrothermal-input has notably less of the detrital opaque oxides as provenance discriminators.

influence on this formation's rare earth elements (REE) They found in their studies on detrital magnetite, that the

chemistry than other formations during this time period magnetite from plutonic igneous sources displays more

(Klein and Beukes, 1993). common exsolution intergrowth textures than those from

metamorphic source. However, Fig. 1 shows a variety of iron

2.2.1.2. Algoma Type mineral textures.

Algoma types are small lenticular iron deposits that are

associated with volcanic rocks and turbidites. Iron content 4. Case Study

in this class type rarely exceeds 1010 tons. They range in 4.1. Iron ores in the Wadi As Shati

thickness from 10-100 meters. Deposition occurs in island Shaltami et al., (2017) studied the mineralogical and

arc/back arc basins and intracratonic rift zones (Stow, geochemical characteristics of the oolitic ironstones in the

2005). Wadi As Shati, SW Libya (Fig. 2). They found the following:

1) The oolitic ironstone bed represents the upper parts of

2.2.1.3. Superior Type the Dabdab and Tarut formations, while it is characteristic

Superior types are large, thick, extensive iron deposits of the middle part of Ashkidah Formation (Fig. 3).

across stable shelves and in broad basins. Total iron 2) The detected iron minerals are goethite, siderite,

content in this class type exceeds 1013 tons. They can hematite, limonite, magnetite, chamosite and pyrite (Fig. 4).

extend to over 105 km2. Deposition occurs in relatively 3) The oolitic ironstones are of Clinton type.

shallow marine conditions under transgressing seas (Stow, 4) The oolitic ironstone deposition occurs in shallow water

2005). lagoonal environments.

5) Fe2O3 represents between 43.57 to 64% of all

2.2.2. Granular Iron Formations ironstones contents.

Granular iron formations (GIFs) were originally well- 6) The discrimination diagrams point to a hydrogenous

sorted chemical sands. They lack even, continuous bedding source for Fe mineralization.

that takes the form of discontinuous layers. Discontinuous 7) Climatic conditions of semi-humid to semiarid prevailed

layers likely represent bedforms that were generated by during the deposition of the ironstones.

storm waves and currents. Any layers that are thicker than 8) Direct dating results of molybdenite from the ironstones

a few meters and are uninterrupted, are rare for GIFs. using Re-Os isotope systematics showed that the ages of

They contain sand-sized clasts and a finer grained matrix, the Dabdab, Tarut and Ashkidah formations are Fransnian

and generally belong to the oxide or silicate mineral facies (Late Devonian), Famennian (Late Devonian) and Tournaisian

(e.g., Dodd et al., 2018). (Early Carboniferous), respectively.

ICOD2020 32
Conclusions 3.1 Ga sea during iron oxyhydroxides precipitation.

Iron ore is a mineral substance which, when heated in Precambrian Research; 301: 102-112.

the presence of a reductant, will yield metallic iron (Fe).

The main iron minerals are magnetite, hematite, goethite, Goldstein, J.I., Scott, E.R.D. and Chabot, N.L. (2009): Iron

limonite, ilmenite, pyrite, pseudobrookite, chamosite and meteorites: Crystallization, thermal history, parent bodies,

siderite. Iron oxide minerals exhibit a variety of textures and origin. Geochemistry; 69(4): 293-325.

such as exsolution, alteration and replacement textures.

Guijon, R., Henriquez, F. and Naranjo, J.A. (2011):

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Indian Shield to reconstruct the water chemistry of a 3.3– Muhling, J.R. and Rasmussen, B. (2020): Widespread

ICOD2020 33
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ICOD2020 34
 a b c d

45µm 25µm 45µm 25µm

e f g h

25µm 25µm 45µm 65µm

i j k l

65µm 65µm 45µm 25µm

m n o p

45µm 25µm 65µm 65µm

q r

25µm 25µm

Fig. 1: Photomicrographs showing (a) homogeneous titanomagnetite grain, (b) ilmenite-magnetite trellis intergrowth, (c) ilmenite-

magnetite sandwich intergrowth, (d) ilmenite-magnetite banded intergrowth, (e) ilmenite-magnetite composite intergrowth, (f)

martitized magnetite, (g) magnetite altered to rutile and hematite, (h) magnetite altered to pseudobrookite and hematite, (i)

magnetite replaced by titanite, (j) magnetite strongly replaced by goethite and limonite (goethite and limonite form colloform

intergrowth), (k) homogeneous ilmenite, (l) hematite-ilmenite intergrowth, (m) ilmenite altered to rutile and hematite, (n)

ilmenite altered to pseudobrookite and hematite, (o) ilmenite replaced by titanite, (p) ilmenite replaced by anatase, (q) ilmenite

strongly replaced by goethite, limonite and rutile, and (r) framboidal pyrite replaces goethite and limonite along their

boundaries (after Shaltami, 2006).

ICOD2020 35
 (b)
13o 45' 00"
27o 40' 19"
€H
N
U DmI
D Al Qarat
Qo
Al Bayda
DmQ ßi

QTcM
(a)
10o
DmI
34o 34o
Az Zuwayah
Kurmat Al Ghuraybat

DuQ
Qayqam
Barqawi
Tamzawah
Libya
QTcM Bir Al T5 study area
Duwaysah
T4
DuD
Quttah CDA CIM
20o 20o
DuT 10o 26o
CDA
T3 CIM
Qw Wadi As Sayl
T1 T2 Qc
Qs
Qc
27o 20' 00"
0 8km 14o 15' 00"

Legend
Quaternary Carboniferous-Devonian Structural Symbols

Qw Recent wadi deposits CIM Marar Formation U Fault

D

Qs Sabkha deposits CDA Ashkidah Formation Strike and dip of beds

Qo Old wadi deposits DuT Tarut Formation Traverse

Qc Lacustrine deposits DuD Dabdab Formation

Geographical Symbols
DuQ Quttah Formation
Quaternary-Tertiary Main road

DmI Adri Formation

QTcM Al Mahruqah Formation Loose surface road
DmQ Bir Al Qasr Formation
Track
Tertiary Volcanics
€H Hasawnah Formation
ßi Basalt intrusion

Fig. 2: Geological map showing the distribution of the Dabdab, Tarut and Ashkidah formations in the Wadi As Shati (modified

after Shaltami et al., 2017).

ICOD2020 36
 Environment
Depositional
Sample No.
Formation

Section
System
Series
Stage
………....
………....
………....
Carboniferous

.
Tournaisian

c
Ashkidah

. .
.
Early

S1 S2
S3 S4
S5 S6

Shallow marine (lagoonal conditions)

c
T1 T2
T3 T4
T5 T6
. .
.
. .
Famennian

.
Tarut

. .
. Legend
. . ………....
……….... ………....
……….... Ferruginous silty sandstone ……….... Bivalval sandstone
………....
Devonian

. .
Ferruginous silty claystone . . . Ferruginous siltstone
Late

. .
……….... ………....
……….... Brachiopodal sandstone
D1 D2
D3 D4
……….... Ferruginous sand ………....
D5 D6
Silty claystone Vertical tabular burrows
………....
………....
Fransnian

. .
Dabdab

. ……….... Silty sandstone Cross-lamination

………
……… Oolitic ironstone Reverse graded bedding

3m ………....
Ferruginous conglomerate Tabular cross-bedding
. .
0 ……….... . . . Argillaceous sandy siltstone Ripple marks
……….... . .

Fig. 3: Composite columnar section of the Dabdab, Tarut and Ashkidah formations in the Wadi As Shati (after Shaltami et al.,

2017).

ICOD2020 37
 a b c d e f

g h i j k l

m n o p q r

25µm

Fig. 4: Photomicrographs showing (a) goethite, (b) siderite, (c) hematite, (d) limonite, (e) magnetite, (f) chamosite, (g) pyrite, (h)

quartz), (i) zircon, (j) apatite, (k) rutile, (l) kaolinite, (m) molybdenite, (n) graphite, (o) gypsum, (p) chlorite, (q) bixbyite and (r)

jacobsite altered to cryptomelane (after Shaltami et al., 2017).

ICOD2020 38
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