'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Author(s): David St Leger Kelly

Source: Furniture History , 2006, Vol. 42 (2006), pp. 153-178
Published by: The Furniture History Society

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 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

by David St Leger Kelly

INTRODUCTION

The introduction of French polishing into Britain is widely re

most significant change in furniture finishing during the nin
French polishing was introduced, there were five main w
painting, gilding, oil rubbing, wax rubbing and varnishi
variation of the last method.

Traditionally, varnish was applied with a brush. Several coats were applied, each
being rubbed back with an abrasive after it dried.2 The finished varnish was then
brought to a high sheen, or 'polished', usually by rubbing it with finely powdered stone
mixed with oil or water. In the case of more expensive furniture, the process was a
complex one. Sheraton, for example, recorded that varnish was polished with pounded
pumice stone and water, then with Tripoli, then with 'rotten stone' and water; all finally
cleared off with oil and flour.3

The new, 'French polishing', method was different.4 The varnish was applied not
with a brush, but with a small pad or 'rubber' made of fabric or wadding. The fabric
or wadding was folded over a number of times and then covered with a piece of fine
linen (Figure 1). A small quantity of the varnish was applied to the inner fabric and
the covering replaced. The pad was then rubbed over the wood, the pressure applied
by the polisher forcing the varnish through the linen onto the wood. The pad was
rubbed in a mainly circular motion until it no longer ran freely over the varnish as it
dried. The rubber was then replenished and the process was repeated.
After several coats had been applied in this way, and any necessary rubbing back
with an abrasive had been completed, the varnish was 'polished' by means of a process
usually called 'spiriting-off'. This involved using diluted varnish in the rubber with a
few drops of linseed oil applied to its face.5 The rubber was rubbed over the varnished
surface, again in a circular motion, until it no longer ran freely, at which stage either
the diluted varnish or the linseed oil, or both, were replenished. When the whole surface
had been rubbed, a yet more dilute polish, again with linseed oil on the face of the
rubber, was used; and so on, until the mixture was almost entirely alcohol, and a very
high and even gloss was obtained.6
The new method was not suitable for all varnishes. Numerous recipes tor varnish
were in use in Britain at the time when French polishing was introduced. Each was
composed mainly of one or more resins dissolved in a base. The base was either fat
(undistilled) oil, essential (distilled) oil, or alcohol (normally in the form of spirits of
wine). Oil-based varnishes (particularly fat oil varnishes) dried much more slowly than
alcohol-based varnishes.7 They were also more difficult (and usually more dangerous)
to prepare than alcohol-based varnishes.8 The new method of application depended on
the quick-drying properties of alcohol-based varnish. Consequently, it was not
appropriate for oil-based varnishes.

© Furniture History, Vol. XLII (2006), pp. 153-78

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154 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

FIG. 16. STAGES IN MAKING THE RUBBER.

Take piece of rag 9 in. square, and place over wadding, with the
heel a couple of inches from back edge. Hold as at Av firmly.
Place fingers as at B underneath rag, where second finger presses
against point, while finger and thumb draw rag taut. Left hand can
now be disengaged to take up the position shown at Ct where finger
and thumb hold the point and rag closely together.
With point held firmly folds shown at D can be made, first from
the dotted lines to position shown, and secondly that marked edge
I to the heavy dotted line at the face of the rubber. In first fold
the right thumb plays a big part in obtaining crease at the point
which is so desirable, it pressing back while forefinger rolls rag over.
Hold all tight in the left hand, and place the heel and ends of
rag as in E, where thumb does not grip tightly and fingers only act
as a support. If rubber is kept at a right angle to the palm, the
binding turns at the end may be made by turning the rubber away
from the worker, much as using a screwdriver.

Figure i. Making a rubber for French polishing (from

C. H. Hayward, Staining and Polishing
(New York, 1969))

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 'FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY *55

Today, many people think of French polish not as a substance, but only
method of application, but that was certainly not the case in the nineteenth c
Many writers referred to a substance called 'French polish' (in one case,
varnish'). They used the term solely in relation to a small number of varnish
Other recipes were called 'varnishes' and were to be applied with a brush in t
tional way. Today, French polishing is associated almost solely9 with 'lac varn
varnish made of lac resin (normally in the form of flake shellac)10 dissolved in alc
Lac varnish was termed French polish in the first known discussion of the subject
nineteenth-century trade guides failed to take up the term until the very last
the century. They gave various recipes for French polish, but lac varnish was not
them. Oddly, encyclopaedias presented a different picture. They treated lac va
French polish from the middle of the century.
The aim of this article is to examine the history of lac varnish; to identi
varnish recipes that were called Trench polish' during the nineteenth century
line the development that led to lac varnish becoming the predominant, if not the
French polish; and to note the implications for conservators of the range of resins
in French polish recipes during the nineteenth century.

LAC VARNISH

Lac was only one of a number of resins used in the va

were current when French polishing was introduced
seedlac and shellac, both of which are still available
exudations of the tiny, parasitic 'lac beetle', Coccus lacca
mainly in India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand. Hug
themselves to the branches and twigs of a variety of tre
females exude a protective resinous coating, which en
their offspring until they are fully developed and can e
(Figure 2). The exudations come together to form a thick
varying in colour from yellow to red.16 The coatings
attached, and dried in the sun. The dried substance is
The stick lac is then crushed, the twigs and other
the lac is washed with water. The water dissolves a considerable amount of the colour
ing, and that colouring or 'lac dye' is recovered from the solution. Two resin products
are made from the residue. Some residue is simply dried and crushed into small grains.
It is called seedlac. Some residue is dried, treated, melted, filtered and then cooled. It
is called shellac. Most of it is poured thinly onto a usually cylindrical surface and then
stretched by hand (Figure 3) into large thin plates while it is still malleable. When dried,
these plates are broken up to form what is called 'flake' shellac. Some of the melted
residue is poured more thickly, dried and broken into larger pieces (about % inch thick).
In that form, it is called 'garnet' lac. It is usually darker than flake shellac.17 Some of the
residue is not poured into sheets but is allowed to 'drop' onto a cold metal plate,
creating a distinctive button shape. When dried, it is called 'button' lac. The buttons are

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156 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

« *rto

THE LAC INSECT

Reproduced (in slightly reduced facsimile), by the courtesy of the

Indian Lac Cess Committee, from Glover's A Practical
Manual of Lac Cultivation
I—Lac Larva (magnified 40 time*). II—Winged Male Innect (magnified 16
timos). Ill—Apterous Male Insect (magnified 16 time*). IV—Newly Settled
Ur Larva (magnified 3} times). V—Immature Lac, Showing Developing
Male and Female Cell* (magnified 4 time*). VI—Mature Lac 8-20 I)ayu Prior
to Swarming (magnified twice). VII—Mature Lac 3-4 Days Prior to Swarming
(magnified twice). VIII—Female Lac Cell at about the Time of Male Emergence
(magnified 20 time*). IX—Main Cell Ju*t Prior to Male Emergence (magnified
20time*). X—Immature Cells on Twig, Showing Cell* Damaged by Clialcld
Parasites (magnified 4 time*). XI—Male and Female Cell* on a Ber Twig
(magnified 4 times).

(C-S9) Frontiêpieee

Figure 2. Stages
(from E. Parry

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 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 157

Figure 3. Shellac sheet being

stretched (from E. Parry, Shel
(London, 1935))

often stamped with the maker's mark. Flake shellac is usually of better quality than
either garnet or button lac.
Lac varnish has been used in Britain since the seventeenth century. In his
Polygraphice, or The Art of Drawing etc (London, 1672), William Salmon gave several
recipes for alcohol-based varnishes. 'Gum lake' was a resin ingredient in three of them.
In Salmon's recipe for 'red varnish', gum lake was the sole resin ingredient, dragon's
blood being added to it as a colouring agent. In his recipe for 'a varnish for wood and
leather', gum lake was again the sole resin ingredient, tincture of saffron or turmeric
being the colouring agent.18
Lac varnish featured more prominently still in the famous work, A Treatise of
Japanning and Varnishing (London, 1688), by J. Stalker and G. Parker. The authors
strongly recommended the use of 'seed-lacc'. However, they were almost contemptuous
of 'shell-lacc', which they considered to be 'unserviceable' for a 'neat, glossy piece of
work'. It would 'never be fine, clear and transparent' and was only 'fit for ordinary
work that requires not a polish . Although a good shme could be obtained with shellac,
it only lasted a short time. It was popular with 'varnish-daubers' because 'if it looks
tolerably bright till tis sold, they matter not how dull it looks afterward; and lucre being
designed, if they can compass that, farewell credit and admiration'.19 It was nonetheless

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158 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

TREATISE
OF

JAPANING AND

VARNISHING
Being a compleat Difcovery of th
with

The beft way of making all forts of

JAfa», Wnnn, PRINTS, Or pictures.
1 The Method of

GUILDING, BURNISHING, and LACKERING,

with the Art of Guilding, Separating, and Refining M et al s.
and of Painting Mezzo-Tinto - Prints.

Alio Rulef fût

Counterfeiting Tortoise-shell, and Marble, and for

Staining or Dying Wood, Ivory, and Horn.
Together with
Above an Hundred diftinfl Patterns for J A P A N - work , in
Imitation of the 1N D t A \S, for TMti,SnmU,Frm^t, Cctmai,
Bvcct, &c.

Curioufly Engraven on z-f l*rge Copper'Plates*

By -JOHN STALKER, *od GEORGE PARK.EK

OXFORD,
Printed for, and fold by the Authors, John Stdkcr, at the Golden Ball in St. .7
Market, London ; or by GirorPt Pdrier, at Mr. Rnh*td Woods I loufc over againft
the T'sctucr iu Oxford. In the Year MDCLXXXYIII»

Figure 4. Title page: G. Stalker and J. Parker, A Treatise of japanning an

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 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 159

good enough, if mixed with a little Venice turpentine, fo

for table, chair and stool frames.
Despite the perceived weaknesses of shellac as a varnis
of lac varnish continued to be used during the eighteenth ce
Handmaid to the Arts (London, 1758) referred to seedlac as 't
lacquers',21 and gave instructions for a pure lac varnish
final coats being of seedlac varnish — unless greater brig
some writers on varnish failed to mention lac varnish at
A New and Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (Lo
spirits of wine varnish for picture frames that contained
and mastic — but no lac. Indeed, for Barrow, the primar
an 'atténuant, aperient and diuretic'.22 However, Barrow
more concerned with oil-based than alcohol-based varni
mention of lac varnish is probably not significant.
Neither seedlac varnish nor lac varnish were mentioned in Thomas Sheraton's
Cabinet Dictionary23 (London, 1803). Under 'Varnish', Sheraton gave a number of recipes
for alcohol-based varnishes, including some for small boxes; for 'larger work'; and for
delicate surfaces. One of the recipes includes 'seed lack', but also a number of other
substances.24 The lack of any mention or lac varnish itself suggests that it was not as
important or as commonly used at the end of the eighteenth century as the other
alcohol-based recipes set out in the Cabinet Dictionary. However, the continued use of
both shellac and seedlac varnish is confirmed by other early nineteenth century sources.
A Rees's Cyclopaedia25 (London, 1819) recognised both forms of varnish. While
expressing a preference for seedlac varnish, it noted that shellac varnish was then used
for varnishing 'ordinary woods'. N. Whittock's The Decorative Painter's and Glazier's
Guide (London, 1827) also contained a recipe for shellac varnish.26
Lac varnish also had a long history in France. In the 17th and 18th centuries,
French vernisseurs made determined efforts to develop a varnish that could compete
with the hard and brilliant Oriental lacquer based on the resin of the Chinese Rhus
vernicifera.17 They had originally used different resins, including lac, dissolved in
alcohol, but many had then turned to resins like copal and amber (each of which was
virtually insoluble in alcohol), dissolved in oil.28 The most famous of all eighteenth
century French lacquers was 'Vernis Martin', a varnish developed by the famous French
vernisseurs, Guillaume and Etienne-Simon Martin.29 This was an oil-based varnish in
which copal and amber were dominant and lac played no part whatever.30 It was
applied with a brush.
In the second half of the eighteenth century, at least, lac varnish itself appears to
have been regarded poorly. In the classical French work on varnish, L'Art du peintre,
doreur, vernisseur (Paris, 1772-73), J-F. Watin gave numerous recipes for both oil-based
and alcohol-based varnishes. He was clear that sandarac and mastic were the main
ingredients of alcohol-based varnish.31 Lac varnish was mentioned only in the particular
contexts of gilding and lacquering. In the latter context, Watin said that lac was excellent
for varnishing black and brown grounds, but that its strong colour could cause prob
lems by obscuring or tarnishing the colour of lighter grounds.32 He also recommended

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TOO FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

it for repairing existing lacquered surfac

denigrated lac varnish as an inferior product. It
time was short — 'quand on est très pressé'.
'ce liquide qui n'a ni consistence ni brillant est m
lac varnish was not peculiar to Watin. In his Tr
les vernis (Paris, 1845), A. M. Tripier-Deveau
commented on them in similar terms to Wat
moins qu'on n'y adjoigne d'autres resins ou même

NINETEENTH CENTURY FRENCH POLISH RECIPES

Given the criticisms made of lac varnish in both Britain

from Sheraton's discussion of varnishes in his Cabinet D
find that it played a central role in what appears to hav
French polishing in the English language.36 In an article en
for Cabinet Work, &c', Thomas Gill described in detail t
that had been 'long employed by the French for varnishing
He gave the following recipe:
Shell lac, three parts; gum mastich, one part; gum sandarach

However, Gill went on to explain that shellac, when di

hardest and most durable spirit varnish known', and n
were added to the shellac 'chiefly for the purpose of ren
is a desirable circumstance in some of the works to whi
In cases where a greater degree of hardness in the varnis
but a secondary consideration, one composed of one part of
is to be preferred.38

So, in the first written reference to French polish in th

was not only treated as French polish, but was said to b
varnish containing both lac and other resin ingredients.
was required (as for 'blond' woods) was any other resin
Given Gill's strong preference for lac varnish, and
bleaching of shellac became commonplace early in the n
reasonably infer that lac varnish quickly became recognized
polish: unbleached lac for dark woods; bleached lac for blond ones.40 But that did not
happen. Trade guides are the main source of nineteenth century French polish recipes.
The majority of them recognised shellac or seedlac as a common, often the dominant,
ingredient of French polish, but did not recognise lac varnish itself as French polish.
Some noted that, for blond woods, bleached shellac was to be preferred;41 but, even in
the case of dark woods, all of them required additional resin ingredients. The additional
ingredients were obviously not thought to be required, as Gill had suggested, only to
weaken the natural colour of shellac. It was not until the turn of the century that two
trade guides were published in which lac varnish was recognised as French polish.

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 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY l6l

Oddly, a number of general encyclopaedias had recognized l

from the middle of the century. The later two trade guides
considerably further than the encyclopaedias: as Gill had
varnish was not simply a French polish; it was to be prefer
for that substance, bleached shellac being used in the case o

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TRADE GUIDES

Not all of the trade guide recipes were original; some were sim
authors. There was little agreement on the ingredients that
proportions in which they were to be mixed. Apart from
shellac should be used with blond woods to preserve the n
guides made no attempt to explain why particular resins we
also made no attempt to explain why other alcohol-based va
able for the French polishing technique.
Seven main trade guides published in London in the deca
article contained French polish recipes.42

i Richard Brown, The Rudiments of Drawing Cabinet and Upho

Brown set out two recipes, each of which was more comp
(French polish) comprised:
i oz mastic; 1 oz sandarac; 1 oz seed lac; 1 oz shell lac; 1 oz gum
one quart spirits of wine.

Brown s 'alternative recipe was:

i oz gum lac; 2 drams mastic; 4 drams sandarac; 3 oz shell lac
of camphor the size of a nut; 8 oz spirits of wine.44

2 Henry Robinson, The Cabinet Maker's Complete Guide to the A

Robinson set out four main46 recipes. The first, entitled 'I
Polishing Composition', was:
2 oz gum benzoin; '4oz gum sandrach; '4 oz gum anime; Z, gill be
spirits of wine.48

The second, 'Clarified Polish/ designed specifically for Tu

and tea caddies, was:

2 oz gum benzoin; % oz gum sandrach; and 1 pint spirits of wine.49

The third, 'A Genuine French Receipt was:

oz gum copal; '4oz gum Arabic; 1 oz gum shell lac; and 1 pint spirits of wine.50

The fourth, 'Another Improved Polish7, was:

i oz seed lac; 2 drachms of gum guaicum; 2 drachms gum mastic; 2 drachms dragon's
blood; and 1 pint spirits of wine.51

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1Ô2 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

CABINET MAKERS

(bwsqiib
to thb

art anïi Jtïauasement

of

ïPjwLasaaasï<a <& ©mwsaffsrast©

# every

DESCRIPTION OF FURNITURE
after the manner of the

CELEBRATED FRENCH POLISHING,

ou I
■
containing also

A Collection of Receipts on Japanning and Cleaning

Kinds of Brass, Work, &c. &c.

BY HENRY ROBINSON.
Cabinet Varnisher.

Honîron :
POINTED by j. harris, 2, frontier coort, st. martin'S ( ANB.

1821.

Entered, at Stationers' t Hall.

Figure 5. Title page: H. Robinson, The Cabinet Maker's Complete Guide to the
Art of Polishing (1821)

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 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 163

3 G. A. S., The Cabinet-Maker s Guide (2nd ed, 1825).52

In a special section entitled 'Friction varnishing or French polishing , this guide set out
four main recipes, all derived almost entirely from Robinson. The first, which the author
called the 'True French Polish' was identical53 with Robinson's third recipe. The second,
'An Improved Polish', was copied from Robinson's fourth recipe. The third, 'Water
proof Polish' reproduced Robinson's first recipe, but substituted poppy seed oil for
linseed oil. The fourth, 'Bright Polish' was a copy of Robinson's second recipe.

4 Anon., Painter s, Gilder's and Varnisher s Manual (1827).

This work contained just one recipe for French polish — the third one provided by
Robinson, entitled 'A Genuine French Receipt'. Later in the book, 'shellac varnish' was
used in the context of French polishing. But the reference appears to be to the recipe
provided in the book, in which shellac was the predominant ingredient. There is no
reason to believe that the author meant what is referred to as iac varnish' in this article.

5 T. H. Vanherman, Painters Cabinet, and Colourman s Repository (1828)54

Vanherman set out one, original, recipe for French polish:55
6 oz shellac; 6 oz seedlac; 3 oz juniper; 2 oz mastic; and % gallon rectified spirits of wine.

6 J. Stokes, The Complete Cabinet Maker's and Upholsterer's Guide (1829).56

Stokes copied verbatim the French polish recipes from The Cabinet-Maker's Guide,
1825, which were themselves taken from Robinson.57 He added another recipe —
'Another French Polish' — which, apart from the addition of 1 oz of 'gumlac', was
identical with Brown's first recipe in 1821.

7 P. F. Tingry, The Varnisher's Guide (3rd edition, 1832)

Tingry's book dealt briefly with French polish in a section that had not appeared in
previous editions of that work.58 Its sole recipe incorporated much the same ingredients,
and in the same proportions, as Vanderman's recipe three years earlier, but used
seedlac alone instead of a combination of shellac and seedlac:

Seed lac 6 ounces; gum juniper 1.5 ounces; gum mastic 1 ounce; rectified spirits of wine
32 ounces.59

Earlier in his book, Tingry gave a recipe which he claimed was 'very similar to that now
known in this country under the name 'French polish'. In fact, it was quite different
both from his own recipe for French polish and from all others that had appeared at
that stage:
Sandarac 6 oz; shellac 2 oz; yellow resin, white glass pounded and clear turpentine 4 oz
each; rectified spirits of wine 32 oz.60

These, then, are the trade guide recipes published during the decade and a half after
the publication of Gill's article. Not one of them referred to lac varnish as French polish.
Many of the later publications were new impressions or new editions of the earlier
guides. However, four original guides were published in London during the second

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164 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

THE

CABINET MAKERS GUIDE;

v on,

RULES AND INSTRUCTIONS

IN the ART of

varnishing, dying, st A tni ng, japanning, polishing

lack kit ing, .,nd beautifying

WOOD, IVORY, TORTOIS ESHELL & METAL.

with

OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR MANAGEMENT

< AND APPLICATION.

INCLUDING AN APPENDIX,
CONTAINING several valuable tables.

A new edition,
considerably augmented by the addition o9
SEVERAL new ARTICLES, receipts, &C.

PRINTED FOR KNIGHT AND LACEY

paternoster-row
' ?■'

AND westley and tyrrel, dublin.

m.dccc.xxv

Figure 6. Title page: G. A. S., The Cabinet-Maker's Guide (1825)

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 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 165

half of the nineteenth century. Three of them again ignored lac varnish when speakin
of French polish.

1 Richard Bit mead, The Cabinet-Maker's Guide (1873).61 Bitmead's sole recipe for Fren
polish was:

1 pint methylated spirit; 4 oz shellac; Z, oz benzoin; '4 oz sandarach.

2 'A French Polisher', The French Polisher's Manual( 1888)

This manual also gave just one recipe;
28 oz shellac, 1/ oz each of sandrac, benzoin and white resin, in a gallon of OP finishin
spirit.62

3 Richard Bitmead, French Polishing and Enamelling (1900)63

This went much further than Bitmead's earlier, more general, publication. It reproduced
the 'original recipe as first invented' for French polish, as reported in the Dictionnaire
Technologique. This recipe used the same ingredients as those in Gill's 1818 recipe, but
the proportions were different:

14 oz 2 drachms gum sandarach; 7 oz 2 drachms gum mastic; 14 oz 2 drachms shellac;

3 qts 1 pt alcohol.64

Having criticized that recipe because it gave a brown tinge to light coloured woods,65
Bitmead gave two 'improved' recipes for French polish. The first was:
Shellac 14 oz; sandarach K oz; white resin Y, oz; benzoin Y, oz; gum thus /, oz; OP Finishing
spirit / gallon.66

The second was:

12 oz orange shellac; 1 oz benzoin; 1 oz sandarach; 1 gallon methylated spirits.

Bitmead also gave a recipe for 'Waterproof French polish' which was similar to that
given by Robinson and by G. A. S's Cabinet-Maker's Guide (1825):
2 oz gum benjamin; 5i oz sandarach; 'A oz gum anime; 1'/ oz gum benzoin; 1 pt alcohol;
and /, gill poppy-oil.67

4 Paul Hasluck's Wood Finishing; Comprising Stains, Varnishing, and Polishing (1898)68
Unlike the three previous guides, this recognised lac varnish as French polish. Indeed,
lac varnish was to be preferred over all other French polish recipes. Hasluck referred
to the practice of some manufacturers of adding certain other resins to shellac, on the
basis that they improved elasticity or hardness. But he suggested that their addition
might actually be explained as a cost-cutting strategy (the other resins being cheaper
than shellac) that had nothing whatever to do with improving quality.69 He maintained
that, for many French polishers, shellac by itself could not be improved upon.70 He
expressed the same view, in virtually the same words, in his more specialized, early
twentieth century book, French Polishing (1907).71

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i66 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

OTHER SOURCES

Trade guides are not the only source of nineteenth cen

Encyclopaedias published in London during the period
Interestingly, they present a significantly different p
varnish. In 1820, A. Rees's The Cyclopaedia, or Universa
literature recognized that Tacca varnish' was often us
woods',72 though it made no mention of French polish
'French polish' was being included as an entry in the
was immediately recognized as French polish. Charles
Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts (1854)73 noted that:

The recipes for making French polish are innumerable.

the same manner by two different makers.74

It then stated that the simplest recipe was shellac varn

and most durable finish, though it admitted that thos
other spirit varnishes:
The simplest method is to dissolve l/ lbs shell-lac in x g
heat. Copal, sandarac, mastic, and gum Arabic are sometim
according to the fancy of the preparer.

Much the same view was put forward by Charles Knig

edn, 1854-62). The 'best' recipe for French polish was p
wine, though sometimes mastic, gum elemi or sandar
and a little linseed oil or copal was mixed with the spir
Finally, Chambers's Encyclopaedia (1861), gave four 'r
mahogany.76 The first contained shellac as the sole res
sandarac as well; the third gum mastic instead of sandarac
as the first, with the addition of linseed oil.
The mid-nineteenth century encyclopaedias were no
varnish was French polish. That view was also clearly
Polishers and their Industry (London, 1897).77 Indeed,
ingredient (colouring agents apart) of French polish. A
recipes for staining wood, it was not a trade guide in the
on the source of shellac; the methods of its production; an
lems experienced by the French polishing industry in the
not give a recipe for French polish; but it is abundant
was the sole resin ingredient of French polish. After a
which support the lac beetle, four other plants were m
part in the art of French Polishing'. Two of them are the
dragon's blood and alkanet; the third, of linseed oil; a
benzoin was noted by Hervé solely as 'the well-kno
mixture that was applied with a brush and was not F
suggestion that benzoin might also be used as an ingre

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 'FRENCH POLISH7 IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 167

CONFLICT BETWEEN SOURCES

As the previous section has demonstrated, the nineteenth cen

French polishing as being restricted to a small number of par
varying resin ingredients mixed in varying proportions. The
referred to as 'French polish'. All the recipes required more t
resin suspects turn up again and again — lac, sandarac, mas
often one (sometimes the predominant) ingredient, but not a
the extent that lac varnish was dealt with at all by the guides, it
a brush, and not with a rubber. It was not a 'French polish'. H
the encyclopaedias that, from the middle of the nineteenth cent
of the trade were paying less attention to the trade guides t
tempted to. Some French polishers were undoubtedly French
lac varnish rather than one of the multi-ingredient recipes reco
It is unclear why the trade guides failed to recognize this, at
of the century. Most of the authors of the guides were invo
them clearly had considerable trade experience. Their writing
claim to credibility. Presumably, they both reported existi
quent, polishing practices. Those guides that lasted through
editions, or that were copied by other authors, are likely to hav
than those that disappeared within a few years after publicat
Of course, the fact that some of the trade guides went throu
or editions may have resulted in material being uncritically
after it became out-of-date. That applies to two early guides, in
Cabinet-Maker's Guide (1825) went through numerous edition
as 1897.81 A number of editions were also published in the U
Other trade guides apparently 'lifted' sections from it witho
these went through many editions as well.82 J. Stokes's The Com
Upholsterer's Guide (1829) went through at least 5 editions, the
ing was limited. As Clive Edwards has pointed out, changes w
but noted in a brief appendix to each edition.83 But repetitio
certainly cannot explain why Bitmead's The Cabinet-Maker's G
Polisher's Manual (1888) and Bitmead's French Polishing and E
recognize lac varnish as French polish many years after the
to do so.
In fact, like their forerunners, the nineteenth century trade guides failed to present
a coherent account either of varnish in general or of French polish in particular. None
of them explained why particular resin ingredients were necessary for the success of
the particular recipes they recorded.85 None of them explained the difference between
French polish and other alcohol-based varnishes. Some of them gave, without explana
tion, recipes for 'spirit varnishes' that were not much different from the recipes given
for 'French polish'.86 In French Polishing and Enamelling, Bitmead even gave a recipe for
'French varnish' in which shellac was predominant and the other ingredients were all
among the list of those used in recipes for French polish!87 The trade guide distinction

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i68 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

between French polish spirit varnishes (applied with a rubber) and 'other
based varnishes (applied with a brush) obviously owed little to science. T
nothing about lac varnish, in particular, that made it inappropriate in principl
new method of application.

THE SUPREMACY OF LAC VARNISH

By the end of the nineteenth century, lac varnish was well

predominant, if not the only, French polish. Why did it ta
the multi-ingredient recipes? Shellac varnish, in particu
by Stalker and Parker in Britain and by Watin in Fran
both forms of lac varnish in his Cabinet Dictionary. It
earlier criticisms of lac varnish were simply misguided.
shortcomings of lac varnish (particularly shellac varni
brilliance) had been cured either by improved manufactu
by the spiriting-off process involved in the new m
combination of the two. On that basis, it is possible th
article, Charles Tomlinson's Encyclopaedia and Paul Hasl
trade guides asserted, lac varnish simply proved to be su
brilliance) to the multi-ingredient recipes; and that, as
resins were added to shellac simply to reduce costs.
But that is certainly not uncontroversial. Some 'Frenc
contain additional resins. B. Baron, for example, states t
... 'other materials may be added to provide special propert
to give good brilliance, or damar rosin to provide heat resi

E. Joyce, while himself preferring pure lac varnish, record

'commercial brands incorporate various gums and synthet

up, also increased heat and water-resistance, which is usu
polish'.89

Similarly, N. J. Leach states that:

'other things are added such as gum Arabic or gum copal, and sometimes a little cellulose
to make [lac varnish] slightly water-resistant and also to flow better.'90

The view that lac varnish can be improved by adding other resins is, of course, not
just a recent one. As late as the middle of the nineteenth century, the Encyclopédie
Moderne, while recognising that shellac had the advantage of being more readily soluble
in alcohol, and of being more easy to apply, nonetheless strongly supported the addi
tion of copal on the basis that it provided greater durability as well as greater brilliance
than lac on its own.91 Other sources support the view that other common ingredients,
including mastic, sandarac and benzoin, were used not only because they lightened the
colour of shellac (in which case, they would have been simply de trop in varnish for
dark woods), but also because they added to durability, were excellent plasticisers,92 or
increased the brilliance of the finished product. This was particularly true of benzoin.

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 'FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 169

Trade guides throughout the century included a recipe for spiriting-off that in
rated shellac and benzoin in equal quantities, the reason given by Bitmead being
it added to the lustre and durability of the surface and gave it a brilliant finish.93 Fi
the use of lac varnish ignored its susceptibility to heat and to dampness. If one
believe the nineteenth century trade guides, a recipe was available for a water
French polish that dispensed with shellac and seedlac. Everyone knows that lac va
is highly susceptible to water staining and to heat. Why would one ever use lac v
on tables, in particular, rather than a recipe that provided a waterproof, or at l
water-resistant, finish?
An alternative explanation for the eventual discarding ot these other ingred
is that, as the nineteenth century passed, French polishers progressively found i
time-consuming and expensive to prepare the traditional recipes, except perhap
higher quality work. After all, short cuts were hardly unknown in furniture-m
during the nineteenth century. The standards set in the eighteenth century declined
the guild system weakened. Decline accelerated as furniture-makers came under
pressures: demand from a much larger and less discerning market; and h
competitive, cheap imports, from the Continent in particular.94 This decline aff
all aspects of furniture-making, and was evident in finishing techniques. For exa
in the second half of the century, in particular, 'glaze'95 — a mixture of resins inclu
benzoin (sometimes, benzoin alone) dissolved in alcohol, and often applied w
rubber, though not in the elaborate and time-consuming French polishing manne
was apparently used in place of French polish in many cases, not only for those w
a carved surface made French polishing impractical, but also for any 'cheap wor
No one has suggested that the use of brushed glaze was justified by anything other th
the fact that it reduced the costs of polishing and, consequently, the price of furnitu
Perhaps the omission from French polish of the earlier resin ingredients c
explained on a similar basis.

CONCLUSION

The historical information provided in this article lea

that are probably now beyond an answer. We do not k
guides recipes, in particular, reflected and influenced
teenth century. We do not know whether lac varnish
polishers during the period, nor whether it was used
polish recipes. We do not know whether any particula
more widely used than others. We do not know to w
simple lac varnish and multi-ingredient varnishes was
sment of the finishes they produced or by the relative af
the furniture was being produced.
In Victorian Furniture," Clive Edwards stated in re
furniture construction that 'the trade seems to have relie
of instruction rather than any serious text-book learning
sources of learning than written ones were available d

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170 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

both existing members of, and new entrants to, the French polishing trade. They wo
undoubtedly have picked up recipes and techniques by word of mouth in the c
of apprenticeship or later employment, as well as (often, instead of) by readin
relevant sections of trade guides. The former may even have been the most impo
source of instruction for participants in the French polishing mystery.
Despite these uncertainties, the plethora of multi-ingredient recipes for Fre
polish in nineteenth century publications suggests that one can be reasonably con
that a significant proportion of French polished nineteenth century furniture, p
larly before the middle of the century, was polished with one or other of those r
rather than with lac varnish — today's French polish.101 That fact has conside
implications for the conservation of nineteenth century British furniture. For impor
pieces, in particular, conservation principles require that every attempt be ma
preserve, as far as possible, the original finish. But repairs made to a varnished surfa
or the loss of all or part of the original finish, may call for some re-finishing. To re-f
with a substance that is chemically different from the original finish is undesira
would obviously be contrary to principle to re-finish an item with French polish
the item was originally oil-polished, wax-rubbed, or varnished in the traditiona
It would be equally contrary to principle to re-finish with today's French polish
the original French polished finish was based on a mixture of seedlac, sandarac
mastic; or shellac, gum juniper and copal.
Ideally, the refinishing of an originally French polished item should be don
the French polishing manner with a varnish that has the same resin ingredients,
same proportions, as the original finish.102 That assumes, of course, that the or
ingredients and their proportions can be established. There are several scientific
ods that can be used to assist in the process of identification of ingredients, incl
solvent tests and separation and spectroscopic techniques.103 Difficulties noneth
remain. As Ian Bristow pointed out in 1996:
Many of the substances originally present in varnish formulae undergo changes w
time, volatiles evaporate, complex polymers are formed, and progress is hampere
the lack of a complete corpus of knowledge of the species of plant exploited in the fi
instance. Besides this, many harder resins were melted before incorporation with
solvents, a process ... which will also have altered their original character.104

Nonetheless, Bristow noted that more subtle analytical techniques, includin

chromatography, enable more detailed identification of organic compounds, and
as a consequence, 'increasing attention is being given to the subject of historic
ishes'.105

No doubt many conservators are already aware of the fact that a nineteen
century 'French polish' finish may be chemically different from today's varnish
the same name. Some of them may already be using scientific tests and techniqu
help identify the relevant resin ingredients. No doubt, new scientific methods, includ
ones based on DNA, will be developed that produce more precise and reliable re
than existing techniques. Hopefully, the variety of multi-ingredient nineteenth centu
French polish recipes collected in this article may be of some assistance to those

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 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 171

are involved in developing improved testing techniques or are asked to attempt to

identify the resin ingredients of a particular French-polished finish.

GLOSSARY

This glossary provides short explanations of some technical term

detailed information on terms denoting particular resins, the read
texts:

I. Bristow, Interior House-painting, Colours and Technology, 1615-1840 (New Haven, 1996).

H. W. Chatfield, Glossary of Terms Used in the Paint, Varnish and Allied Trades (London, 1951).

A. H. Church, Chemistry of Paints and Painting (4th ed, London, 1915).

N. Heaton, Outlines of Paint Technology (2nd ed, London, 1940).

G. Hurst, Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products used in the manufacture of paints, colours, varnishes
and allied preparations (London, 1917).

R. D. Mussey, 'Early Varnishes', Fine Woodworking, No 35 (July-August 1982).

Anon., The Cabinet-Maker's Guide (Concord, Penn, 1827)-, reprinted in The First American Furniture
Finishers' Manual, R. D. Mussey, ed (New York, 1987).
]. Stalker and G. Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing (London, i960).

Smithsonian Centre for Materials Research and Education, www.si.edu/scmre/takingcare/coatings.htm.

J-F. Watin, L'Art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur ( Paris 1772-73); facsimile edition (Paris, 1977) of the
4th edition (Liege, 1778).]
Alkanet, Alkanet root A dark dye, derived from the alkanet plant, that was used in
varnish for mahogany, in particular.
Anime (Gum anime), animi These terms seems originally to have been used to refer to hard
copals from Zanzibar and Tanganyika. But they were also used
to refer to a variety of yellowish resins from Africa and South
America, possibly because they sometimes contained insects (as
did amber). Only a few of these resins were soluble in alcohol.
Arabic (Gum Arabic) Resin from African Acacia trees (including Acacia arabica and
Acacia verek), which varies in colour from straw yellow to deep
red. Some authors state that it is insoluble in alcohol.

Amber A very hard, fossil resin from certain species of now extinct pine
trees, that is washed up on the shores of the Baltic sea and some
lakes, and is also quarried or mined in some places. Its colour
varies widely, from off-white to reddish. It is soluble in oil at
high temperatures, but not in alcohol.

Benjamin (Gum Benjamin) Treated by many writers as another name for Benzoin. However,
the recipe in the text at n. 66 includes both resins. Perhaps
Benzoin and Benjamin came from trees from different regions.
Benzoin from Sumatra was known to be different in colour from
benzoin from Siam.

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172 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Benzoin (Gum benzoin) A white to yellow resin from the tree Styrax benzoin in South-
Asia. It is aromatic and also contributes to a particularly high
gloss.

Camphor This is not strictly a resin, but a ketone obtained from a number
of plants, including some Laurus species. It was used mainly as
a plasticiser, but it was also thought to facilitate the dissolution
of resins, and to add toughness.

Copal (Gum copal) The name given to a variety of resins sharing some characteris
tics. The resins come from different trees in various parts of the
world, and are sometimes found in fossil form. They are some
times divided into 3 groups: hard, semi-hard, and soft. Hard and
semi-hard copals come from West Africa, East Africa and New
Zealand ('Kauri' copal). They are insoluble or only partly soluble
in alcohol, but soluble in oil through heating. Hard and semi
hard copals were used in oil-based varnishes by French vernis
seurs in the eighteenth century . 'Soft' copals come mainly from
the Far East (often called 'Manila' copal). They are soluble in
alcohol. They were used in alcohol-based varnishes from the 17th
century.

Dragon's blood (Gum dragon) A dark red dye derived from certain trees or their fruits,
variously identified as being of the Calamus, Dracaena, Daemono
rops or Pterocarpus species.

Elemi (Gum elemi) A name given to the resins of a variety of trees from Africa,
South America, the West Indies, and the East Indies, including
Canarium commune from the Philippines and Amyris elemifera
from Mexico. They range from white to grey to yellowish or
greenish in colour, and are soluble in alcohol.
Essential oil Distilled oil. Only oils that dry reasonably quickly were used to
make varnish. Linseed oil was the most common, but oil of tur
pentine, poppy-seed oil and walnut oil were also employed. Oil
based varnishes dry partly by evaporation, but mainly by a
chemical change known as polymerization, which can be accele
rated by the addition of drying agents ('driers' or 'siccatives').
Fixed oil See Essential oil.

Fat oil Oil that has not been distilled.

Guaicum (Gum guaicum) A greenish resin from the Lignum vitae trees, Guaicum officinale
and Guaicum sanctum, of Central and South America.
Gum In many cases, another term for 'resin', and often combined with
resin names - eg, 'Gum benzoin'. In other cases, 'Gum' is used
more narrowly to refer only to water-soluble resins; while 'resin'
is used for those that are not water-soluble. But the terminology
is not consistent.

Gum lac, Gumlac The general name for resin substances produced from stick lac.

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 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 173

Gum lake This term is used to refer to Gum lac, not Lac dye, which is also
sometimes called Lake

Juniper (Gum juniper) A resin similar to Sandarac, with which it is often identified.
Lac The general name for the various types of lac resin, including
Seedlac and Shellac.

Mastic (Gum mastic) MastichA pale resin from the shrub Pistacia lentiscus from the Mediter
ranean. It is soluble in both oil and alcohol.

OP Finishing Spirit A form of alcohol.

Poppy oil A light-coloured oil made from seed from the opium poppy,
Papaver somniferum.

Rectified spirits of wine Spirits of wine, further distilled to reduce its water content.
Resin Includes resinous substances exuded by parasitic insects, such
as the lac beetle.

Rottenstone See 'Tripoli'.

Thus (Gum thus) Resin from the spruce fir (Picea excelsa). However, it is also the
name for a resin from North American pines.
Sandarach, Sandarac,

Sandrac) A very pale resin from Tetraclinis articulata (formerly Callitris

quadrivalvis) from North Africa. It was particularly useful in
varnishes to be used on 'blond' woods, when the original colour
was to be preserved.

Spirits of wine Made by distilling wine or another alcoholic beverage, such as

brandy.

Tripoli Tripoli and rottenstone are soft, siliceous stones. They were
ground to a very fine powder. Some early writers treat the two
as the same. Rottenstone was found in England; Tripoli in North
Africa. Substitutes for Tripoli came from France and Italy.

Venice Turpentine Turpentine from the European larch tree, Pinus larix.
Pure beeswax.
Virgin Wax
White resin Unidentified.

Yellow resin Unidentified.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Helen J. Kelly, Adrian S

J. S. Hodgetts.

PHOTOGRAPHIC ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Bodleian Library: Illustration 6 (from G. A. S., The Cabinet-Maker's Guide

British Library: Illustration 5 (from H. Robinson, The Cabinet Maker's Comp
Polishing (1821))

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174 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Drake Publishers Inc. New York: Illustration x (from C. H. Hayward, Staining and Polishin
State Library of Victoria: Illustrations 2, 3 (from E. Parry, Shellac (London, 1935) and
J. Stalker and G. Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing (1688))

REFERENCES

1 The exact date is unknown. Most sources suggest that it was introduced
nineteenth century. However, F. Hervé, French Polishers and Their Industry
French polishers were pursuing the trade in London in 1808. It is quite pos
brought to London by cabinet-makers accompanying French émigrés fleein
2 Abrasives were also used to prepare timber for finishing, and to polish oil-
included rushes, sea-grass, dogfish skin, sealskin, sharkskin, brick dust, p
paper. See C. D. Edwards, Eighteenth Century Furniture (Manchester, 1996),
3 The Cabinet Dictionary (London, 1803), 'Varnish'. The typical French pro
appears to have been equally complex: Anon, Genuine Receipt for Making t
and Dublin, 1776); discussed by R. D. Mussey, 'Early Varnishes', Fine Wood
1982), 54-8 (p. 56).
4 What follows is an abbreviated description of the procedures involved. For
the French Varnish for Cabinet Work etc', Annals of Philosophy, 11 (1818)
Polishing and Enamelling (London, 1900), pp. 17-44; P- Hasluck, French Poli
Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme, French Polishing (Me
Staining and Polishing (New York, 1969), pp. 34-63; F. Oughton, The Comp
(London, 1982), pp. 65-71.
5 The use, during the early stages of finishing-off, of a small amount of fin
to act as an abrasive and to complete the filling of the grain may have bee
mentioned by early nineteenth century writers. R. Bitmead, The Cabinet-M
does not mention it. His French Polishing and Enamelling, p. 107-8, mentions
Polisher', The French Polisher's Manual (London, 1888), is silent on the issue
4, pp. 42ff, indicates that pumice had been in use for some time.
6 A special mixture of equal parts of shellac and benzoin in rectified spiri
for this last stage of French polishing.
7 In some respects, essential oil varnishes are closer to spirit varnishes th
op. cit. at note 3, p. 55; I. Bristow, Interior House-painting; Colours and Tec
1996), p. 3.
8 Considerable heat was necessary for the dissolution of hard resins like copal and amber in oil. The resin
usually had to be 'run' (melted) with oil under heat. See, e.g., J. Barrow, A New and Universal Dictionary of
Arts and Sciences (London, 1751), 'Varnish': 'great care must be taken not to set the house on fire'; Anon.,
The Cabinet-Maker's Guide (Concord, Penn, 1827); reprinted in The First American Furniture Finishers' Manual,
R. D. Mussey ed. (New York, 1987), p 32ff; N. Heaton, Outlines of Paint Technology, (2nd edn, London, 1940),
p. 299ft; R. Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. 56.
* See, eg, H. W. Chatfield, Glossary of Terms Used in the Paint, Varnish and Allied Trades (London, 1951),
p. 118; C. Hayward, op. cit., p. 32; F. Oughton, op. cit., p. 75. Within the wood-finishing trade, the term
'French polish' has also been used (rarely) to refer to other spirit varnishes when they are applied with a
rubber. See, eg, Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme, op. cit. at note 4, Section 23, 'Spirit
Varnishes and Spirit Lacquers'. But that is not a common use of the term.
10 The forms of lac are discussed below. While shellac is now the predominant form of lac, seedlac is also
still used.

11 The common form is methylated spirits, a type of ethyl alcohol usually produced from grain, to which
substances are added to make it unpalatable. Other forms of alcohol have been used in the past. The main
one was spirits of wine. Alcohol produced from wood has also been used: Chambers's Encyclopaedia (1861)
10 vols, vol. IV, 'French polish'; 'A French Polisher', op. cit., p. iii; R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 5, p. 21.
12 By T. Gill, op. cit. at note 4
13 R. Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. 54, states that 'during the 150 years prior to 1800, the same 15 or so resins
appear in countless combinations in varnish formulas.' This may understate the true number, since the same
name was often used for different resins with similar characteristics.
14 Other names have been used in the past, including 'coccus ficus' and 'tachordia lacca'. A similar insect,
coccus cacti, is found in Mexico and Guatemala.

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 'FRENCH POLISH' IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 175

15 For named varieties, see G. Hurst, Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products used in the manufact
colours, varnishes and allied preparations (London, 1917), 'Lac'; E. Hicks, Shellac, Its Origins and A
(New York, 1961), p. 12; N. Heaton, op. cit., p. 281; F. Hervé, op. cit., p. 28.
16 The colour varies from one locality to another: H. W. Chatfield, Varnish Constituents (Lo
p. 221, records yellow/orange (West Calcutta), pale red (Assam); dark red (Thailand). See also E
cit., p. 17.
17 G. Hurst, op. cit., p. 203; E. Parry, Shellac (London, 1935), p. 69.
18 pp. 217-18.
19 p. 10.
20 R. Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. 55, says that shellac was rarely used in America in the eighteenth century.
See also his 'Transparent Furniture Finishes in New England 1700-1820', Proceedings of the Furniture and
Wooden Objects Symposium, Canadian Conservation Institute (2-3 July 1980), 77-101 (p. 91).
21 2nd edn, 2 vols 1764,, vol. 1, p. 503. By 'lacquer' (or 'lacker'), Dossie meant varnish for metals. Lac varnish
was also recognised as the appropriate finish for metals by some nineteenth century writers. See, e.g.,
R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 5, pp. 138-40.
22 'Gum Lac'. Under 'Varnish', lac is an ingredient only in a varnish for china.
23 See also A. F. M. Willich, The Domestic Encyclopaedia (London, 1802), who mentions copal varnish, black
varnish and gum-lac varnish; the last being used to lacquer brass or iron: 4 vols, 4, 'Varnish', pp. 260-2.
24 Sandarac, rosin and Venice turpentine.
25 Or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Literature (London, 1819).
26 p. 89. Whittock's recipe for shellac varnish was incorporated in the 3rd edition of P. F. Tingry's The
Varnisher's Guide (London, 1832). Whittock, pp. 90, 100-1, also recommended seedlac varnish for the final
coats of varnish over the painted ground in japanning — the name given to English attempts to reproduce
Oriental panels. The use of varnish in japanning is not covered by this article.
27 The resin was unavailable in Europe.
28 Lac was favoured initially because of a mistaken belief that it was the resin used in Oriental lacquer. See
H. Huth, Lacquer of the West; the History of a Craft and a Trade, 1550-1950 (Chicago, 1971), p. 21.
29 The name 'Vernis Martin' was eventually given, as well, to numerous other recipes that produced a
similar result: H. Huth, op. cit., p. 44, 59,97. Voltaire thought that Vernis Martin surpassed the famed Oriental
lacquer (ibid,, p. 96); J. Whitehead, The French Interior in the Eighteenth Century (London , 1992), p. 192; F. de
Dampierre, The Best of Painted Furniture (London, 1987), p. 22.
30 The recipe was published anonymously in England as the Genuine Receipt for Making the Famous Vernis
Martin (Paris and Dublin, 1776). It contained turpentine, turpentine oil, amber, copal and either poppy,
linseed or nut oil. The recipe is reproduced by Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. 56. See also H. Huth, op. cit., pp.
95-6, referring to the base as 'Brasil copal'. J-F. Watin, l'Art du Peintre, doreur, vernisseur, (facsimile edn (Paris,
1977) of the 4th edn (Liege, 1778), p. 237, gave a simpler recipe for 'vernis blanc au copal' — made of copal,
linseed oil, and Venice turpentine — which he linked to Vernis Martin.
31 A. J. Roubo, l'Art du Menuisier (Paris, 1769) also recommended sandarac and mastic in spirits of wine as
a varnish for blond woods. See R. Mussey, op. cit., p. 57. Talking specifically of attempts to imitate the lacquer
of China, Watin stated that the best resins to use were sandarac, copal and amber, in either spirits of wine
or fat oil.
32 p. 210.
33 p. 299.
34 p. 245. 'This liquid which is neither consistent nor brilliant is inappropriately called a varnish.'
35 Paris, 1845, p. 177. '[Lac varnishes] are strong but not very bright, unless one adds to them other resins,
or even linseed or some other oil.' The reference to adding oil is possibly related to its use in French polishing,
where it was thought to prevent cracking. At p. 222, the author indicated a preference for carnation or olive
oil.
M Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. 56, referred to the 1818 edition of the Cabinet-Maker's Guide as containing
the earliest reference (see also R. A. Crosbie, 'Furniture Polishing Techniques in New South Wales before
1840', Australiana, 15, No 3 (1993), p. 81); but in his later Introduction to The First American Furniture Finisher's
Manual (New York, 1987), p. xv, Mussey stated that the 1818 edition was silent on the matter and that the
first reference was in the Cabinet-Maker's Guide (London, 1825).
37 Op. cit., p. 120. See also A. F. M. Willich, The Domestic Encyclopedia (2nd American edn , Philadelphia,
1821), 4 vols, 3, p. 376. The recipe was repeated in P. and M. A. Nicholson, The Practical Cabinet-maker
(facsimile edn (Menston, Yorkshire, 1973) of the 1826 (London) edn), Glossary, p. 7.
38 p. 121. Cf. later commentaries, where shellac is said to need the addition of other resins to add strength.
39 Gill used the term 'French varnish', but only in relation to the French polishing method.

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176 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

40 In 1827, the Society for the Arts offered a prize for the developme
shellac. The prize is reported to have been won by a Dr Hare, who
pearlash and chlorine: R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 4, pp. 19-20.
41 Eg, R. Bitmead,op. cit. at note 5, p. 136; ibid, op. cit. at note 4, p
p. 28; P. Hasluck, op. cit. at note 4, p. 11.
42 One did not: J. W. Neil, The Painter's Guide to Art of Varnishing, an
43 Relevant excerpts from the first edition are set out in C. Musgra
York, 1961), p. 138. The 2nd edition was published in 1835. The reci
44 Brown expressed a strong preference for the first recipe, apparent
did not require any heating.
45 This work is not mentioned in any of the leading modern discu
held by the British Library.
46 pp. 49ff. Two others, with limited application, were also offered: on
the other for polishing carved areas, where a brush was needed: pp. 54-
benzoin and shellac in spirits of wine, with a little oil added as a
pp. 24-5; 'G. A. S.', op.cit., p. 77; R. Bitmead, op. cit., p. 32. The only dif
Robinson preferred linseed oil, while G. A. S. and Bitmead preferre
was incorporated in the special mixture itself. No other writers mentio
The primary mixture was simply used in diluted form.
47 Oil from the cultivated flax plant, Linum usitatissimum.
48 p. 19.
49 p. 21.
50 p. 22.
51 p. 23.
52 'G. A. S.' has been variously identified as George Smeaton and George Siddons. The latter was certainly
the author of the 5th edition in 1830. Mussey, op. cit. at note 3, p. xiii, says that the 1825 edition was the third,
the second having been in 1818. He questions whether there was an earlier 'first' edition. In fact, the
Introduction to the 1825 edition, p. iii, states that it is the second edition. Perhaps the 1818 edition was the
first.

53 Except for the inclusion of hyphens in the names of ingredients such as gum-benzoin, gum-sandrach
etc.

54 See Bristow, op. cit.at note 7, p. 120.

55 Cf. T. Vanherman's recipe for 'lac varnish', which contained 5 parts lac, 1 part turpentine, and 5 times
by weight of spirits of alcohol.
References to this work in this article are to the 4th edn (c. 1841). Stokes was apparently from Philadelphia.
57 See text at n. 45.
58 The book was originally published in Geneva in 1803 as Traité Théorique et Pratique sur l'Art de faire et
d'appliquer les Vernis. The first English language edition was published in London in 1804 as The Painter's and
Varnisher's Guide. The second English language edition was published in London in 1816. Neither mentions
French polish. It was also published in America as The Painter's and Colourman's Complete Guide, (Philadelphia,
1831). In its 3rd edition in England, the work was split into separate books on painting and varnishing.
59 p. 141.
60 p. 63.
61 References to this work in this article are to the 7th impression (London, 1937).
62 p. 28
63 Published after Bitmead's death in 1898.
64 p.19.
65 Bleached shellac could be used to solve the problem..
66 Given the natural colour of shellac, its inclusion in a recipe to reduce colour is extremely odd. Perhaps he
meant bleached shellac.

67 R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 4, p. 88. To complete the confusion, he gave a separate recipe for 'Fren
Varnish' which also included shellac, along with gum mastic and gum sandarach: p. 89.
68 Text of the 1903 edition is available at www.thelitterbox.org/librum. See also Hasluck, op. cit. at note
Hasluck is named as 'Editor' of both books. The first was developed from a number of contributions m
to the journal Work. Hasluck's French Polishing and Enamelling followed closely the text on French polishin
in the previous book.
69 Whether that is so is not free from doubt. Earlier in the century, the London price for benzoin, for example,
was at least double, and up to 3 times, the cost of an equivalent amount of shellac: East India Company Price
Lists, 1812, 1814, reproduced in F. Hervé, op. cit., p. 40. Nonetheless, N. Heaton, op. cit., p. 318, states (

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 FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 177

1940) that shellac was more expensive than many other resins; and that san
and even rosin were apparently sometimes added in industrial preparations
to reduce costs.
70 To confuse matters, in his Wood Finishing, Ch XIII, P. Hasluck referred not only to 'French polish', but
also to 'shellac varnish'. It was to be applied with a brush for the final coats and finished off with pumice
as an abrasive.
71 pp. 15-16.
72 'Varnish'.
73 This appears to be the second edition, the first having been published only a few years earlier.
74 p. 710.
75 8 vols, vol. VIII, p. 563.
76 Editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica during the nineteenth century did not contain an entry on French
polish, though the edition of 1875-89 said, under the heading 'Varnish', that shellac was the basis of most
varnishes, while sandarac, mastic and other substances were also still used.
77 The only known copy is now at the London Metropolitan University Library. My thanks go to Professor
Pat Kirkham and to Clive Edwards for pointing me in the right direction.
78 PP-34-5
79 However, Tingry questioned whether all the ingredients in his recipe were necessary. He suggested that
little would be lost by omitting the gum juniper: p. 141.
80 The development had apparently taken place in some quarters in France even earlier: J. B. A. Dumas,
Traité du Chimie appliqué aux arts (Paris, 1828-1846), 8 vols, vol. 7, p. 354, referring to French polishing (using
olive oil on the finishing pad) with varnish made solely of lac and alcohol. However, the Encyclopédie Moderne,
published in Paris in 1851, gives a quite different picture. The recipe given for French polish — vernis applied
with a pad or 'chiffon' (later called vernis au tampon) — contained lacque plate, copal, sandaraque, elemi
and terebenthine de Venise (Venice turpentine). However, this was regarded as rather complex, and lacque
plate and copal were thought sufficient: 'la lacque seule et le copal produisaient un excellent vernis': p. 377.
81 R. Mussey, 'Introduction', p. xiv.
82 For the history of editions of The Cabinet-maker's Guide 1825, and repeated plagiarism of its contents in
England and America, see R. Mussey, 'Introduction' p. xiii-xiv.
83 C. Edwards, Victorian Furniture (Manchester, 1993), p. 44.
84 This also suffered from longevity, its last impression being in 1948.
85 The sole exception is the suggestion that, for blond woods, bleached shellac be used in place of ordinary
shellac.
86 Eg, 'white hard varnish' in 'G. A. S.', op. cit., p. 54; Bitmead, op. cit. at note 5, p. 136; 'common varnish'
in 'A French Polisher', op. cit., p. 28.
87 Op. cit. at note 5, p. 89 (my emphasis).
88 The Techniques of Traditional Woodfinishing (London, 1987), p. 46.
89 The Technique of Furniture Making (4th edn , London, 1987), p. 506.
90 Modern Wood Finishing Techniques, (Fresno, Calif, 1993), p. 93.
91 (1846-1852), 27 vols, 2, p. 375.
92 That is, they helped to make the varnish film more elastic and diminish the risk of cracking: N. Heaton,
op. cit., pp. 317-318. The oil itself provided the elasticity in oil-based varnishes.
93 Benzoin was also used because of its lasting aromatic quality.
94 See, eg, R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 5, p. 67ft. This does not mean that all furniture-making was affected
by the decline. Expensive furniture would have been the last to be affected, if at all.
95 Also known as 'slake', 'slick', 'finish', and 'telegraph'. A common late nineteenth century recipe was 1
oz mastic; 5 oz benzoin, 5 gills alcohol: 'A French Polisher', op. cit., p. 28; R. Bitmead, French Polishing and
Enamelling, p. 37.
96 R. Bitmead, pp. 137, 146; 'A French Polisher', op. cit., p. 28; R. Bitmead, p. 37; P. Hasluck, op. cit. at note
4, p. 38; P. Hasluck, Wood Finishing: Comprising Staining, Varnishing, Polishing (London, 1907), p. 66.
97 R. Bitmead, op. cit. at note 5, pp. 136, 146; R. Bitmead, op. cit., p. 37ft; P. Hasluck, Wood Finishing, p. 66;
C. Hayward, op. cit., p. 57; F. Oughton, op. cit., p. 76-7. Bitmead recorded an even simpler American
alternative: just a single coat of varnish over the filled wood: op. cit., p. 81.
98 Cf. the reported American use of a coat of benzoin over a French-polished surface to improve its gloss:
R. Mussey, p. 54.
99 Manchester, 1993.
100 p. 43.
101 A considerable amount of earlier furniture was refinished with French polish during the nineteenth
century.

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178 'FRENCH POLISH IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

102 Even that gives rise to a problem: distinguishing between a French-polished finish and a va
and polished in the traditional earlier manner. Some conservators claim to be able to tell a
finish by its 'feel'. Some claim that traces of brush marks, and the nature of any crazing in a
identify the method of application. Those matters are not within the scope of this article.
103 On this subject, see the literature referred to in S. Rivers and N. Umney, Conservation of Fur
2003), pp. 393-4.
104 Op. cit., p. 75. Similarly, R. Mussey, op. cit. at note 20, pp. 78-79.
i°5 Ibid.

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