GUIDELINES ONROADDRAINAGE FOR

BORDER ROADS ORGANISATION

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Adequate drainage is a primary requirement for maintaining the structural

soundness and functional efficiency of a road. Pavement structure including
subgrade must be protected from any ingress of water; otherwise over a period of
time it may weaken the subgrade by saturating it and cause distress in the pavement
structure. That is why rapid dispersal of water from pavement and subgrade is a
basic consideration in road design. This Technical Instructions No. 13 deals with the
drainage system for roads in BRO. The aspects covered in this Technical Instruction
are influence of surrounding topography and geography, alignment and geometrics
of the road, transverse and longitudinal drainage, drainage of shoulders, verges and
median (central verge), internal drainage of pavement structure, drainage of
subgrade, drainage of high embankment, surface & subsurface drains and cross
drainage.

1.2 The detrimental effects of water in the pavement system are as under

i) Water in the asphalt surface can lead to moisture damage, modulus

reduction and loss of tensile strength. Saturation can reduce the dry modulus of
the asphalt by as much as 30 percent or more

ii) Added Moisture in unbound aggregate base and sub base is anticipated to
result in a loss of stiffness on the order of 50 percent or more

1.3 The role of proper drainage to ensure longevity of pavement has been
emphasized in IRC.37 “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”. Among
the measures mentioned therein, to guard against poorly drained conditions is
maintenance of transverse sections in good camber to reasonable cross fall so as
to facilitate quick runoff of surface water and provision of appropriate surface and
sub-surface drains, where necessary.
1.4 If the water present in the surface course is not prevented from entering the
road pavement by means of impervious wearing and binder course or a
 completely impervious bond coat, water will enter the road pavement from
above and weaken it, even to the extent of resulting in pavement failure.

1.5 Despite measurers for quick drainage of pavement surface as well as provision of
fairly watertight surface, water enters from top through cracks and travels through
various pavement layers and gets accumulated at the surface of sub-base/base
course and subgrade causing considerable functional problems.
1.6 Also the road pavement itself must be constructed so that it will drain in the event
of a failure of the integrity of the surfacing layers, i.e. if water is able to enter the
road pavement there must be a path for it to exit. The internal drainage function of
a road pavement is usually performed by the GSB and drainage layer, and this
layer must be drained in some way.

2. GENERAL CRITERIA

Highway construction is an engineering project with the objective of providing a

uniform solid surface (road) on which the vehicle can travel with safety and ease
preferably in all weather conditions. Water and traffic impact are the main
causes of road failure or its distress. Following are the important factors which
are required to be kept in mind before deigning a drainage system for a road:

i) Expected traffic, importance and configuration of the road (2-

lane/4-lane/ 6-lane)
ii) Sources of water which may reach the road from above, sides
and below
iii) Drainage catchment areas and existing drainage systems
iv) Geology, hydrologic and hydro-geologic conditions in the
surrounding area of the road
v) Geometric characteristics of the road (alignment, profile and
cross-section)
vi) Presence of extreme gradients and cross slope, areas of
excavation and land fill, probability of frost formation
vii) Any limitations in and around the road which may affect the
design of drainage system.

2.1 Reason for Damage to Road Pavement

i) Due to hydraulic pressure of water inside pavement layers or
subgrade
 Once water has entered a road pavement damage is initially
caused by hydraulic pressure, i.e. vehicles passing over the road
pavement impart considerable sudden pressure on the water
present in the road pavement. This pressure forces the water
further into the pavement matrix and breaks it up. This process
can be very rapid once it begins. Water that has entered the
pavement and is subject to the process of freezing (expension)
and thawing during the winter also brings about the swift failure of
the road pavement. Eventually the water will descend to the
subgrade layer below the pavement courses and weaken this
layer, and deep seated failure of the road will begin.

ii) Binder stripping in pavement layers due to water

Most aggregates have a greater affinity for water than they do
for bitumen, and with the presence of water and movement of
the aggregate it is quite possible for the binder film on the
aggregate particle to be broken and water to come in contact
with the aggregate surface. Once the integrity of the binder
layer has been broken it will depend uponm the chemical
nature of the aggregate particles and the viscosity of the
binder as to how long it will be before stripping of the
aggregate particles becomes an engineering problem.
Depending on the viscosity of the binder and the thickness of
the binder film surrounding the aggregate the stripping of the
bitumen will occur harly at all, failry slowly or quite quickly.
2.2 Roads are Constructed with Two Types of Drainage Systems
i) Surface Drainage
a) Transverse drainage
b) Longitudinal drainage
ii) Subsurface Drainage
It is very important to release water trapped inside subgrade
and pavement layers. This is because soil resistance to
compression may drop substantially if its moisture content
increases. Increase in moisture content inside pavement
beyond a limit (e.g. Liquid Limit) results in reduction of the
load carrying capacity of the road and premature failure and
distress of the pavement resulting in reduction in the design
life of the pavement.
Following two types of sub surface drains are constructed to
dispense trapped water inside the subgrade and pavement
layers:
 a) Longitudinal interception drains
b) Longitudinal water table lowering drains

2.3 Alignment of the road can have a vital bearing on the problem of drainage.
Therefore, in case of new roads, surface drainage should be one of the criteria
while fixing the alignment. An ideal alignment should avoid steep and heavy
cuts/fills as these situations have the potential of throwing up piquant problem
of drainage and erosion control. In each case where cutting is involved
meticulous care is needed right at the start to anticipate the volume of water
flow so that necessary design measures to avoid instability of the road can be
taken.
2.4 Normally in plain areas road subgrade elevation in fill sections is so fixed that
the top of the subgrade shall be at least 0.5 m above the original ground level
- in non-flood area. The bottom of the subgrade shall be 0.5 m to 1.00 m
above the HFL based on type of soil. The HFL should be decided by intelligent
inspections, local observations, enquiries and studying the past records.
Where it is not possible to assess the HFL, it shall not be lower than the
general ground level. IRC :SP 87 allows top of subgrade at 0.5 m above
ground level.

There are three requirement of surface drainage design. The first requirement
is fast dispersal of precipitation on the road surface so as to minimize danger
to moving vehicles. This is achieved by proper geometric design of the road,
e.g. by crowning the carriageway or side cross fall, giving proper cross slope
to the shoulders and verges, providing requisite longitudinal gradient etc.
Second requirement is that water from the road and the surrounding area
should be successfully intercepted and led away to natural outfalls. Thirdly the
engineer must build adequate cross drainage structures at river crossings and
minor streams.

3 SURFACE DRAINAGE
3.1 General
When a road is constructed on a natural terrain, the waterways are
intercepted and hence necessary measures have to be taken to divert such
water from road. Besides, water on road surface received from rain and
snowfall has to be disposed of as quickly as possible to keep the road surface
free from a sheet of water from safety considerations. Normally side- ditches,
lined drains, catch-drains and network of cross-drainage structures are
provided as part of the overall surface drainage system. This water received
 on surface of pavement, medians and shoulders also seeps to lower layers
through permeable pavement, cracks, potholes, joints (in the case of concrete
pavement) which needs to be got rid of for durability of pavement. Such
moisture in the base and sub-base of pavement is disposed of through
subsurface drainage system.

3.2 Effect of Standing Water on Pavement

Consequence of standing water differs from pavement to pavement
depending upon the type of surfacing provided.
i) Flexible Pavement
Standing water remaining on bituminous pavement for a long period of time is
not desirable as it tends to cause early deterioration of pavement. It can cause
stripping of bitumen from aggregates especially when they are prone to
stripping in case of some stones like granite, quartzite, quartz etc. If the
bituminous mix is open-graded or poorly compacted or surface has
cracks/potholes, the water seeps to lower layers and accelerates the process
of stripping. This water tends to migrate to lower layers of pavement and gets
entrapped in granular base and sub-base layers. If the base and sub-base layers are
not permeable enough to drain away this water laterally, it results in pavement
resting on a water bed leading to loss of aggregate to aggregate contact thus
reducing load dispersal capacity and eventually leading to premature
deterioration of pavement.
A typical aged bituminous surface where a layer of water takes more time to
get cleared from road surface can be seen in Photo 3.1.
 Photo 3.1 Texture of a Bituminous Pavement

ii) Concrete Pavement

A well compacted concrete pavement as such is generally impervious to
water and does not get affected by standing water. But joints, cracks and
shoulders permit moisture to seep through. Full depth cracks are another
source through which water seeps under. Seeped water in some cases is
ejected to the surface through joints under moving load bringing out fine soil
particles thus creating hollow pocket below pavement.

Photo 3.2 A Damaged Joint Groove can Permit Seepage of Water to Lower Layers
In due course pavement loses support leading to corner cracks. Such
moisture can also reach to lower granular layers saturating them thus
weakening them leading to premature failure of pavement. Concrete
pavement surface is textured for improving the skid resistance and also for
facilitating quick surface drainage through tiny channels of texture. Tine and
brush textures are the two types of textures applied on concrete

Photo 3.3 Tine Textured Photo 3.4 Brush Textured

Concrete Pavement Concrete Surface
iii) Granular/Earthen Surface
 Standing water on granular or earthen surface is not desirable as it seeps to
lower layers. Earthen surfaces become slushy making them unusable. Cross-
slope of shoulder provided should be steeper so that water can flow
expeditiously on such surfaces. Requirement of cross-slope in earthen
shoulder, therefore, always has to be more than the paved surface.
3.3 Factors Affecting the Surface Drainage of Pavements
For quick surface drainage to take place the following features of pavement
have to be detailed suitably:
i) Geometric features of pavement like longitudinal and transverse slopes
ii) Kerbs and gutters/outlets provided
iii) Type of surface
iv) Texture of pavement
v) Median drains in divided carriageways
vi) Lane widths
3.4 Effect of Geometric Features of the Pavement
3.4.1 Longitudinal gradient of the pavement
With a view to facilitate quick removal of rain water, longitudinal profile of the
road normally is not designed flat. When the road is provided with kerbs as in
the case of urban scenario, flat surface can result in collection of large
quantity of water on the road. To avoid this situation a minimum longitudinal
gradient of 0.3 percent is considered essential in most conditions.
3.4.2 Pavement cross-fall or camber
By providing cross-fall or camber to the pavement, the runoff water gets
cleared from the surface rapidly. The cross-slopes proposed for adoption in
Indian Roads are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Proposed Camber/Cross-Fall
Surface Type Non-Kerbed Roads Rds with Kerb
Earthen, Graveled or 3—5%
WBM Surface
Thin open graded 2.5—3% 2.5-3%
bituminous surfacing
High type bituminous 2.5%
surfacing
Cement concrete 2.0%—2.5% in case of 2.5%
surfacing transverse tine or brush
texturing
2.5%-incase of 2.5%
longitudinal Tine texturing
3.4.3 Requirement of camber in different pavement configuration.

3.4.3.1 Non-kerbed pavement

Camber requirement varies depending upon the geometric configuration of a
road. A few cross-sections of roads are showing Figs. 3.1 to 3.2. In the case
of earthen shoulders, the water flowing on surface is guided away from the
pavement including in super elevated sections as seen in these Figs. 3.1 to
3.2. Normally earthen or granular shoulders are provided with 0. 5 percent
more cross-slope than the paved surface.

Fig.3.1 Typical Double Camber

Fig.3.2 Typical One-Way Camber in Super Elevated Sections

3.4.3.2 Disposal of water from kerbed pavement surface

Shown in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 are a few typical kerbed pavement sections. In the
case of kerbed pavements which are adopted by and large in urban sections where
the footpaths are paved, the surface water is guided towards road edge as shown in
the Figs.3.3 to 3.4.The surface water thus collected at road edge is disposed of
through outlets provided in the kerbs.

Fig 3.3 A Typical Cross-Section of Road with Double Camber Provided in a Kerbed
Carriageway (Urban Situation)

Fig.3.4 A Typical Cross-Section of Road in Super-Elevated Section with Single

Camber Provided in a Kerbed Carriageway (Urban Situation)

3.4.4 Drainage of shoulders

Black topped shoulders are durable and help in quick disposal of surface
water. For economizing cost of construction, shoulders are generally
constructed with subgrade soil. As surface water cannot flow freely on earthen
surface and camber is enhanced from 2.5 percent to 3 percent in normal cross-
section.
A few eroded earthen shoulders with rain cuts can be seen in Photos 3.5 to
3.8. Silt and clayey soil are generally susceptible to erosion as seen in Photos
3.5 and 3.6, where as good moorum / gravelly soil is relatively less prone to
erosion as seen in Photo 3.7. Earthen or granular shoulders have to be
periodically maintained by leveling and compacting to avoid drop-off
(depression at road edge), erosion and consequential channelized flow of
water in longitudinal direction as seen in Photo 3.8. This operation involves adding
of fresh material to compensate for loss of soil due to erosion, vehicle movement
etc. and compacting the same after mixing necessary moisture to achieve MDD.
 Photo 3.5 Eroded Earthen Shoulder of a Photo 3.6 Severely Eroded Earthen
Concrete Road Shoulder of Concrete Road

Photo 3.7 Limited Erosion Seen Photo 3.8 Earthen Shoulder

on a Shoulder Constructed with of a Bituminous Pavement in
Granular Material Neglected Condition

3.4.5 Treatment of batter

The longitudinal edge where shoulder and side slope join is known as batter. This
junction is highly vulnerable to erosion especially in the case of earthen or granular
surfaces. This is the most neglected part of road. Therefore, for reducing erosion,
rounding the sharp comer and compacting it as shown in Fig. 3.5 is helpful. Even when
shoulder is blacktopped as shown in Fig. 3.6, kerb provided at batter helps in controlling
breaking of edge.
 BATTER SHOULDER PAVEMENT

ROUNDED BATTER
Fig. 3.5 A Rounded Batter for Controlling Erosion

BLACK TOPPED
CC KERB SURFACE PAVEMENT

Fig. 3.6 Kerbed Shoulder to Control Erosion

3.4.6 Control of erosion of shoulder
3.4.6.1 Surfacing of shoulder
On account of cost considerations shoulders are constructed normally with earth used in
subgrade. But in the long run, earthen shoulders are expensive to maintain them
periodically. Width of brick
brick-edging can vary from 0.3 m to entire width of shoulder
depending on the availability of funds.
Shoulder surface can be of various types:
i) Paved shoulder with bituminous surface
ii) Hard shoulder with grand surface or brick edging.
iii) Earthen shoulder with soil surface

3.4.6.2 Grade and level control

Erosion of shoulder surface especially the unpaved types can be controlled by
maintaining proper grade and level. Adequate camber has to be maintained at
all the times as indicated in Table 3.1.. Besides, shoulder drop should not be
allowed to occur as it causes not only damage to the shoulders runoff ability
but also permits water to infiltrate into the pavement through the shoulder
edge.

3.4.6.3 Turfing
Turfing helps in controlling erosion of earthen shoulder provided it is periodically
trimmed and kept clean. Some variety of grass which spreads horizontally and
does not obstruct flow of water must be selected for protection of shoulders and not
the wild variety. Use of a mini CC ke kerb
rb or brick edging on batter helps in
keeping shoulder edge intact(Fig.
intact(Fig.3.6).
 Photo 3.9 A View of Tall Grass Photo 3.10 Naturally Grown Turfon Earthen
Obstructing Surface Drainage Shoulder Causing Resistance to Disposal of
Surface Water

3.4.6.4 Use of graded material

Provision of brick edging at the junction of pavement and shoulder will eliminate drop-
off. Width of brick edging can vary from 0.3 m to entire width of shoulder
depending on the availability of funds.

3.4.7 Drainage of side slopes

Side slopes are again susceptible for erosion because of steeper slopes and higher
velocity of flow. This slope can be protected by providing turfing with
Sods/Seeding & Mulching /Jute Netting /Coir Netting /Geo Netting etc. Guidance
can be taken regarding erosion control measures from Clause 307/308 of
MORTH Specifications & IRC:56.
3.4.8 Drainage of high embankments
High embankments are vulnerable to erosion of side slopes on account water
attaining high velocity. In such cases special arrangement like flumes/chutes are
provided at regular intervals so the water collected from the shoulder is
channelized to these chutes or flumes. An arrangement for collecting water and
diverting it to chute with special kerbs is shown in Fig. 3.7. As water flows at high
velocity through plain chutes with energy dissipater would be required at the toe
as shown in Figs. 3.8 and 3.9. But stepped chute (Fig. 3.10) is preferable as it is a
self-energy-dissipating structure. But generally a spacing of 20 m C/C can be
considered as reasonable as recommended in IRC: SP:50. On both sides of the
chutes stone pitching is normally done over 1.0 m width. A filter bed, however, is
to be provided under pitching. The rest of the slope is normally covered with
grass turfing or stone pitching as per the site condition. Two-Dimensional/Three-
dimensional erosion control mats or simple bio-engineering mats like jute/coir
 can be spread for growing turf by using seeds as per Section 5 of IRC:56 and
Section 700 Clause 706 of MORTH.

CONCRETE SLAB AT
outlet Paved Shoulder

CCKERBAND

Fig.3.7 Detail of CC Kerb and Channel

Placed at The Edge of the Shoulder of High
Embankment for Collecting Surface
Water and Diverting it to Chutes

Fig. 3.8 A Schematic View of

Slope Protection Arrangement
with Plain Chute / Flume
Fig. 3.9 Details of Energy Dissipater as Plain Chutes

Fig. 3.10. A Schematic View of Slope Protection

Arrangement with Stepped Chute / Flume
3.4.9 Drainage of water when reinforced soil structures are provided in high
embankments
Reinforced Soil walls and slopes are constructed as cost effective and technically
viable alternative for all applications in embankments in lieu of conventional gravity,
cast in place concrete cantilever retaining walls are needed. This includes bridge
abutments as well as locations where conventional earthen embankments cannot
be constructed due to right of way restrictions.

3.4.9.1 Drainage for reinforced soil system-stability considerations

Uncontrolled subsurface water seepage can decrease stability and could
ultimately
Result in failure.
(i) Hydrostatic forces on the back of the reinforced zone will
decrease stability against sliding failure.
II) Uncontrolled seepage into the reinforced zone will increase the weight
of the reinforced mass and may decrease the shear strength of the soil, thus
decreasing stability.

(III) Seepage of water through the reinforced zone can reduce pullout capacity
of the reinforcement at the face and increase soil weight, creating erosion and
sloughing problems.

As a precaution, drainage features should be included unless detailed analysis

proves that drainage is not required. Drains are typically placed at the rear of the
reinforced soil zone to control subsurface water seepage. Surface runoff should
also be diverted at the top of the slope to prevent it from flowing over the face.
3.4.9.1.1 External drainage
a) Drainage at the Top of the Wall or Slope
Considerable water percolation should not be allowed from the top surface of any
reinforced soil system. Provision for collection and channelization of rain water
should be provided. For walls which support roads on their fill side, a sealed kerb
channel at the back of the paved shoulder / edge of the carriageway should
normally be sufficient. Where there is no hard shoulder, a channel with flexibly
sealed joints should be provided at the back of the hard strip/edge of carriageway
as shown in Fig 3.11 (a & b).
 Fig.3.11 (a) Drainage Arrangement at the Top of Wall-Typical Detail for a
Full Height Wall

Fig.3.11 (b) Drainage Arrangement at the Top ofg Wall Typical Details for a
Full Height Wall with Drainage Composite

For Part height walls, a drainage system should be provided at the top of the
facing behind the panel top or coping, if used, in order to remove water running on
the side slope. This may consist of simple drain channel leading surface water
along the wall top to discharge beyond the end of the wall as illustrated in Fig.
3.12 (a & b)
GROUTED STTONE PITCHING
(300mm thick)

ELEVATION

SECTIONAL VIEW
Fig.3.12 (a) Drainage Arrangement at the Top of Wall-Part Height Wall
 Fig.3.12 (b) Drainage Arrangement at the Top of Wall—Part Height Wall
b) Drainage of the Wall
In many cases the structural fill in a reinforced soil mass may be effective as a
drain without the use of other arrangements. However, the free draining
characteristic of the fill material need to be verified. If the structure is located on a
permeable foundation soil above the water table, any small water seepage will
pass into the foundation soils and a drain layer/pipe might not be necessary.
However, if the base soil is not pervious enough, a longitudinal porous or open
jointed pipe of not less than 150 mm diameter should be used to collect water and
bring it into the site drainage system (Fig. 3.13 a & b).

To enable any seepage to pass through a hard facing, weep holes may be located
in selected panels. For discrete facings, the drain path may be easily provided by
omission of the vertical joint filler between all panels at the foot of the wall in the
embedded depth. A continuous drain at the base of the structure may be required
in situations where capillary rise of deleterious ground water might need to be
prevented. The layer should connect with the drainage system at the base of the
structure.

Fig.3.13(a) Drainage of Reinforced Soil Wall / Slope

 Fig.3.13(b) Drainage of Reinforced Soil Wall / Slope
3.4.9.1.2 Drainage of walls supporting cuttings

For locations, where water flow is expected from the retained soil, drainage trenches
typically 300 mm thick and 1000 mm wide should be placed at intervals along the wall.
In case of significant water flows, a drainage blanket 300 mm thick may be constructed
below the reinforced soil wall and discharged beyond the toe. As an alternative,
Geosynthetic drainage composite shall be used.
For cases where downhill discharge is not possible, a toe collector pipe may be
used. The dimensions of the drainage trenches and blanket should be designed to
suit the anticipated conditions. In all cases the drainage filter material should be
designed to avoid loss of reinforced fill or adjacent soil in to the drain.

3.4.9.1.3 Special detailing required for drainage in reinforced soil system

• All details for construction around drainage facilities, overhead sign footings and
Abutments (Fig.3.14).

Fig.3.14 Drainage Detailing for Abutment Bank Seat

• All details for connection to traffic barriers, copings, parapets, noise walls, and
attached lighting.

• All details for temporary support including slope face support where
 warranted.

• All details for wall initiation and termination, and any transitions.
3.4.10 Drainage of rotaries
Drainage of rotary requires special treatment as there is super elevation on the
inner curve which forces water to collect at the central island. The surface water is
collected and disposed of through gullies placed inside or outside of kerb-line
kerb of
central-island.
island. One such arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.15 where there are gullies
outside the central island for collecting and disposal of water. A cross section of
rotary is also given.
3.4.11 Drainage of intersections
Similar to rotaries, there are pockets at the edge of slip roads in intersections where
water gets accumulated on account of camber provided on all the merging roads.
This water normally has to be collected with the help of grated chambers as shown
in Fig. 3.15 and disposed of.

Fig.3.15 Drainage Arrangement of a Rotary

Fig. 3.16 Surface Drainage of a Road Junction (Schematic)

3.4 Maintenance of Side Drains and Culverts

Maintenance of side-drains and medians is important for satisfactory performance

and long life of road.

3.5.1 Road Side Drain

Road side drains are provided on the road side at the foot of the hill slope to drain
out water from the road surface and the water from the portion of hill slope below
the catchment drain. It allows the water to flow from the pavement across the
shoulders or from the hill slope, and ultimately down the side slope to the natural
drainage area or side ditches.

3.5.2 Side drains can be of various shapes. The selection of the shape is made after
consideration of points mentioned below:-
(a) Rectangular and Trapezoidal Drains: It has bottom width ranging from
0.3 to 0.6 m. In hill roads, the Rectangular drains with bottom width 0.6 m is
generally proposed to allow full discharge of water. Trapezoidal section is
adopted where the discharge is very high and sufficient road width is available
(Fig. 3.17).
 (a) Rectangular Drain (b) Trapezoidal Drain
RECTANGULAR AND TRAPEZOIDAL DRAINS
Fig. 3.17
(b) Semi-Circular and Saucer Drains: It has the advantage of having the smallest
wetted area but it requires more skill in construction and is not preferred as
compared to other shapes. Fig. 3.18

SEMLCIRCULAR AND SAUCER DRAINS

Fig. 3.18
(c) Angle a nd K erb Drain : In hilly areas, the road width available is
restricted and road side drain is bound to reduce the available effective width
of the road. It is, therefore, desirable to build the V-shaped or kerb drain
in such a way that besides functioning as a drain i t may act as a part of the
road surface in an emergency when fast moving vehicles are compelled to
move to the extreme edge of the road to avoid accidents (Fig. 3.19). In both
the cases of V-shaped lined (Fig. 3.19) drains should be strengthened using
15 cm GSB where width is restricted and there is all possibility of vehicles
plying on it.
 ANGLE AND KERB DRAIN
Fig. 3.19
3.5.3.1 The section of the drain is based largely on terrain and the rainfall
conditions. In high rainfall areas, the drain is made as deep as possible.
(cross section 0.6 m x 0.6 m or even 1.3 m x 0.6 m) consistent with
attaining the non-silting and non-scouring velocity. The side drains may be
made with varying Cross Section i ncreasing towards outlet as the flow
keeps on increasing.

3.5.3.2 The drains are Lined or Unlined: Lining is not required in the stretches
of hard /soft rocks and unscourable soil. Lining is done by random rubble,
dry stone masonry filling joints with soil or sand or RRM in CM 1:6. Angle
drain is lined with stone pitching or cement concrete. The kerb and
channel drain is lined with 15 cm stone pitching or cement concrete
slab.

3.5.3.3 Slope of a road side drain in hill should generally follow the gradient of
road provided that the slope keeps the drain free from silting and scouring.
The slope of the bed should be 1:20 to 1:25 to allow water to flow at self
cleaning velocity and thereby prevent the floating debris from being
deposited in the drain itself. In case requirement is of steeper slope in the
drain than the gradient of the road, depth of the drain goes on
increasing till it reaches the catchpit but at the same time the depth
should not be so large that it becomes hazardous from the point of view of
safety of traffic.
3.5.3.4 The problem of scouring can be avoided by provision of steps of suitable
depth at suitable intervals in the drain to break and reduce the velocity of flow.
A blunt corner at the upper bed and a fillet just downstream of the slope at
lower bed is provided to avoid anticipated scouring.

3.5.3.5 In both the cases i.e. drains with steeper slopes or deeper steps,
parapets are extended or guide /guard stones are provided on the
stretch upto which safety of traffic is endangered.

3.5.4 Basic considerations in the design of a drain are as follows:-

(a) Size of the drain to accommodate the maximum flow (with a free board).
(b) Shape is chosen depending on site conditions but generally
rectangular shape is provided.
(c) Non-silting and non-scouring condition is satisfied.
(d) Shape of the drain is to match with the existing road gradient as far as
possible:
(e) Consideration of free board.
(f) Lining of drain.

3.6 Catch Water Drain

3.6.1 Catch water drain is located at crown to intercept and divert the water
from the hill slope. It is used for the erosion protection of the cut slopes by
diverting the surface run-off from the hill above the cut and disturbed
slope and conducts it to natural water courses or milder slopes or into
the chute, thus preventing the erosion that would be caused by permitting
the run-off to drain down the cut faces.

3.6.2 A series of parallel or a number of inter-connected catch-water drains

at the crown may be needed on the slope to collect the surface run-off
if the area of the slide is large. Long and excessive slope drains are
avoided for reasons of severe and concentrated erosion.

3.6.3 Design and location of the catch-water drains should fit well with the
ground requirements as mismatch may produce negative results.
3.6.4 Catch-water drains should be lined and properly maintained and
 should be given a gradient 1 in 50 to 1 in 33 to avoid high velocity and
possible wash out. Unlined (Kachcha) deep drain in the thickly wooded
areas at the crown of the hill slope i s also adopted but these require
regular maintenance.
3.7 Interceptor Drains
3.7.1 The disturbed or unsterilized hill slope areas between the Catch-water drain
crown drain) and the road formation are provided with interceptor Drain
regulate the collection and disposal of surface run-off. The interceptors
are spread o v e r the slope and are connected to the chutes or
catchpits or natural water courses.

3.7.2 These drains are not lined in case the hill slope is highly u n s t a b l e or
there is doubt about the efficacy of the network.

3.7.3 It has the shape and size like that of the rectangular road side drain

3.7.4 These should fit well with the ground f o r ef f e ct iv e functioning.

3.8 Water Chutes

3.8.1 These are channels for the disposal of the water of the network of Catch-
water drain and interceptor drains. It drains out the water either
directly to natural water course or to a catchpit for storage and final
disposal to nature surroundings in a manner that the erosion of hill
face is contained.
3.8.2 The Chutes are provided both in the up and / or down slope as
per the requirements on the ground. (Fig . 3.20).

ANGLE, KERB AND CHANNEL DRAIN

Fig.3.20
3.8.3 Providing more uniform shapes and slopes of the chutes with
smoother channel lining tend to cause higher velocity and present
 scouring problems in the channel and at the toe of the embankment.
Therefore, the chutes should have gentle slope matching with the rock
or soil characteristics. In situations of steep hill slopes, chutes are
designed with steps at Intervals to contain the velocity of flow
.
3.8.4 The chutes are lined and properly maintained. The lining may be of
masonry or concrete or any other local material to provide impervious layer
for stopping the infiltration of arrested water.
3.9 Catchpit

3.9.1 Catchpit i s provided to arrest uncontrolled flow of water and debris from
the hill slope or from the drainage network of the hill slope and / or road
side drains and further to dispose it through cross-drainage work. lt is also
provided at the outlet of the chute at the road level to dissipate the
energy of the flow of water.

3.9.2 The catchpit either adopts a natural pit or is cut in the rock or
constructed by masonry work. The shape is either rectangular /square or that
of the natural configuration at its location. The top level of catchpit should be
about 0.2 mtr lower than the top of abutment s o that water / debris flow
i n to the catchpit and not on the nearby road surface.

4 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

Subsurface drainage is as important as surface drainage for long life and better
performance of pavement. The moisture which reaches lower layers of pavement
from different sources like pavement surface, seepage from shoulders, seepage
from adjoining hills and capillary rise of moisture from ground is termed as
subsurface moisture. Disposal of this moisture away from the pavement body is
termed as subsurface drainage. Consequences of lack of effective subsurface
drainage system results in premature failure of pavement with formation of cracks,
settlement, rutting and boggy action in the case of bituminous pavement whereas
formation of crack, fragmentation and settlement of slab in the case of cement
concrete slabs. Moisture reaching lower layers from pavement surface is dealt
separately from that of capillary rise of moisture from shallow water table. IRC:34
entitled ‘Recommendations for Road Construction in Waterlogged Areas’ has
dealt this subject in details.
4.1 Sources from which Water / Moisture Reaches Lower Layers of Pavement
 i) From poor quality bituminous mixes which are permeable
ii) From the cracks, potholes and joints
iii) From the failed joint seals of cement concrete pavement
iv) Through the longitudinal joint between pavement and shoulder
v) From earth filled medians and shoulders
vi) Seepage water from the adjoining high ground in the cut sections of hilly
terrain or from impounded water level higher than the road level in the abutting
agriculture fields(e.g.Paddyfields)
vii)From capillary rise of moisture when water-table is high.

4.1.1 Ingress of water from top of pavement and shoulders

Cracked and potholed, porous and open graded bituminous layers and joints in
concrete pavements, shoulders and medians are primary sources from where
moisture seeps to lower layers of pavement. This has been shown
schematically in Fig. 4.1. Typical cracked bituminous and concrete slabs shown
in Photos 4.1 and 4.2 readily permit moisture to enter to lower layers. In extreme
situation the quantum of moisture infiltrating to lower layers through porous and
poor quality bituminous mixes in pavement exposed near the edge can be seen
in Photo 4.3. Pavement edge too is one of the primary sources of water
infiltration to lower layers. Two such longitudinal joints with wide openings can
be seen in Photos 4.4and 4.5.

Fig.4.1Sources of Ingress of Moisture from Top of Pavement and Shoulders

 Photo.4.1 A Cracked and Settled Photo.4.2 A View of a Cracked
Bituminous Pavement which Concrete Slab which Facilitates
Permits Seepage of Water Seepage of Water

Photo.4.3 SubsurfaceWater Found Photo.4.4 A large opening in

at Subgrade Level in a Road longitudinal joint between concrete
pavement and earthen shoulder

Photo.4.5 An Open Joint Between

Concrete Pavement and Bituminous
Shoulder
4.1.1 Seepage from hills
Seepage from hill sides in cut sections is a source from where embankment, subgrade,
and base /sub-base get soaked. This has been shown schematically in Fig.4.2.
4.1.3 Capillary action
Some soils like silt, clay, fine sand, chalk and pulverized fly ash (PFA) which are
susceptible to formation of capillary tubes, through which moisture migrates upwards
due to surface tension when water table is high. This is shown schematically in Fig. 4.2.
The effect of saturation of lower layers of pavement due to above causes has to be
prevented to protect the pavement from premature failure.

Fig.4.2 Seepage from Sides and Capillary Rise of Moisture is Shown in the Sketch
4.1.4 Effect of infiltration, seepage and capillary moisture on pavement layers
Trapped moisture from all sources in the pavement layers reduces the load taking
capacity of the structure thus causing loss of strength leading to premature cracks,
rutting, potholes etc. A soaked subgrade does not affect the strength or CBR as
pavements are designed based on soaked CBR of subgrade. But loss of aggregate
to aggregate contact is a primary factor for loss of strength.
4.2 Treatment of Subsurface Moisture
4.2.1 Drainage of infiltrated moisture from pavement and shoulder surface
Subsurface moisture which infiltrates from the pavement surface or shoulders has to be
drained out to avoid loss of aggregate to aggregate contact so that load transference is
not affected. An upper granular sub-base layer called as Drainage Layer (DL) has been
suggested to drain this trapped water lately by both MORTH Specifications and IRC:37.
The drainage layer is part of a pavement structure which is considered to perform the
function of both structural as well as a drainage layer. GSB Layer can be constructed in
two layers such that one layer can serve the purpose of Drainage Layer (DL) and the
other layer can serve as Granular Sub-Base (GSB). The basic ingredients of both mixes
are same but the difference lies in percentage of fines passing in Drainage Layer and
GSB mix. Regarding relative placement of DL and GSB layer, both MORTH
Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, 2013 and IRC:37 have suggested that DL to
be placed above GSB layer as explained below:
(I) MORTH Specifications, 2013 has specified six grading for Granular
Sub-Base (GSB). But out of that Grading III and IV have been proposed for use
as lower sub-base and Grading V and VI for using as sub-base-cum-Drainage
Layer.(as given in Table 4.1)
(II) Similarly, IRC:37 in Para 7.2.1.3 states that the sub-base should be
composed of two layers, the lower layer forms the separation/filter layer to prevent
intrusion of subgrade soil into the pavement and upper GSB forms the drainage layer
to drain any water that may enter through surface cracks. Filter and drainage layers
can be designed as per IRC:SP:42 and IRC:SP:50. Six grading suggested by IRC:37
in Annexure V are extracts of AASHTO grading (1993). Coefficient of permeability
‘k’, of each grading has been given for all six grading given in Annexure V, Grading-2
mix (as given in Table 4.2) has coefficient of permeability ‘k’ of 35 m/day is best
suited for drainage layer.

(III) The basic reasoning for providing drainage layer is to dispose of seeped
moisture due to gravity from upper layers of pavement in lateral direction as quickly
as possible instead of allowing it to seep down to lower layers as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Without an intercepting free-draining drainage layer (DL), water has a tendency to
migrate downwards due to gravity. If a dense GSB layer provided below drainage of
low permeability, it is helpful for forcing moisture to flow laterally rather than moving
towards downwardly direction. Moisture must not be allowed to accumulate in base
and sub base layers as it can lead to loss of aggregate to aggregate contact
essential for load dispersal to lower layers.
 Fig. 4.3 A Pavement Section Showing Day Lighted Drainage Layer
Table 4.1 Grading VI of Granular Sub-base Material Recommended by
MORTH Specifications-2013
IS Sieve Percent by Weight Passing the IS Sieve
Designation (GradingVI)
75.0mm —
53.0mm 100
26.5mm 75-100
9.50mm 55-75
4.75mm 30-55
2.36mm 10-25
0.85mm
0.425mm 0-8
0.075mm 0-3
Table 4.2 Grading 2 of IRC:37(AASHTO-1993)
Sieve Opening ,mm Percent by Weight Passing the IS
Sieve(Grading2)
20 100
12.5 84
9.5 76
4.76 56
2.36 39
2 35
0.84 22
0.42 13.3
 0.25 7.5
0.105 0
0.075 0
Coeff. of permeability m 35
/day

(IV) Out of six grading of sub-bases given in MORTH Specifications and IRC:37 two have
been selected for use in drainage layer. Grading-VI of MORTH Specifications and Grading-2
of IRC:37 suggested for use in drainage layer are given in Tables 4.1and 4.2.
Coefficient of permeability k of the mix in Table 4.2 is the physical properties of
aggregate used shall comply with clause 401 for granular sub-base of MORTH
Specifications. The loss Angeles abrasion value of aggregate should be less than 40
percent.

In lieu of aggregate drainage layer, geosynthetic drainage composite (drainage

Geonet between two Geosynthetic layers) can also be provided (Fig. 4.4) wherever
it proves to be cost effective and technically meeting the requirements. The Geotextile
will act as a separator and filter also. Drainage composite specifications shall be
adopted as per MORTH 704.2 or IRC:34, 4.6.2.

SHOUTDER CARRIAGEWAY

Fig.4.4 A Pavement Section Showing Day Lighted Drainage Layer (Drainage Composite)
When the drainage and GSB layers are day-lighted i.e. extended up to side slopes,
the coarse aggregates in mix tend to get dislodged and roll down from side slope
affecting slope stability. To have a stable permeable edge, 0.5 m wide strip of both
layers have been suggested in IRC:37 for treating with either 2.5 percent of
bituminous emulsion or 2 percent cement. Use of bitumen emulsion or cement will
have implication on cost of project and has to be introduced with caution. An
 arrangement of constructing a stabilized strip of drainage layer along with a strip of
GSB layer is illustrated in Fig. 4.5. When there is a lined side drain, PVC or HDPE
pipes can be provided at regular interval to drain moisture from DL and GSB layers
as shown in Fig.4.6.

GSB(DRAINAGELAYER)

”^GSB (F!LTERLAYER)

Fig. 4.5 Day Lighted Part of GSB and Drainage Layers

(To be stabilized with either 2.5% bituminous emulsion or 2% cement in
a day lighted drainage layer as per IRC:37)

SHOULDER CARRIAGEWAY

LINEDDRAIN
H
F
L

Fig. 4.6 Proposal for Disposal of Subsurface Moisture in Case of Lined Side-
Drain
4.2.2 Granular Sub-base Layer (GSB)
The layer below the drainage layer shall be granular sub-base layer (GSB), which
shall be acting as separation/filter layer. The layer shall be constructed in
conformity with Clause 401 of MORTH Specifications.
4.2.3 Use of Geotextile for Sub-Surface Drainage
Geotextile are found to be extremely efficient as separation cum drainage layer
and for uniform distribution of load to sub-grade. For detailed specifications
MORTH Section 700 shall be referred.
4.2.4 Management of Seepage Moisture from Hills in Cut Sections
There are two situations where seepage moisture affects the performance of road.
In the first case when a road is close to a Nallah or a channel and the HFL is high,
the seepage water can lead saturation of foundation layers of pavement leading to
boggy action especially when there is clayey and silty soil. The other situation is
when the road alignment passes through the cut section in a hilly terrain where
there is cultivation on hill tops. In both situations intercepting seepage lines and
disposing of moisture through subsurface drain is an appropriate solution.
4.2.5 Seepage from an adjoining Nallah or channel
This condition can lead to premature failure of pavement and may even exhibit
boggy action. Solution to such situation rests by raising the road level so that side
drains can intercept seepage of moisture from sides thus protecting road
foundation. Introducing sand layer below subgrade or replacing it partIy with sand
sometimes helps in controlling the premature failure of road and boggy action.
4.2.6 Seepage from an adjoining hill in cut sections
Seepage water is a serious problem in cut sections of hilly terrain especially when
there are farms uphill. During monsoon the problem further gets aggravated.
Photos 4.6 and 4.7 give an idea about the extent of seepage which takes place
even in dry season. The quantum of seepage water collected in a side ditch of road
in typical hilly terrain can be seen from Photo 4.7. A cross-section of a road in hilly
section is shown schematically in Fig. 4.7 showing arrangement of intercepting
seepage and surface water.
Photo 4.6 Seepage Taking Place Photo 4.7StagnatedSeepage
through Soft Sandy Soft Rock Water in a Cut Section in a Hilly
Terrain

4.2.7 Surface drains in cut-sections of hilly terrain

4.2.7.1 Surface water from pavement
Management of surface water from pavement in cut sections of hilly terrain can be
done by providing suitable lined drains as shown in Fig. 4.7. If there are stone or
precast concrete kerbs, openings have to be provided for water to flow towards
side drain as shown in Fig. 4.7.
 Fig. 4.7 A Sketch Showing an Arrangement to Intercept Seepage Water in a Cut
Section in Hill with a Subsurface Drain. Drainage of Surface Water is Taken Care
of by Side Drains
4.2.7.2 Disposal of surface water from hills
Surface runoff from hills should be intercepted due to following reasons:
I) Water can carry considerable quantity of soil and muck from hill and
choke the side-drains of road making it ineffective.
II) The runoff water may seep into the hilly terrain and trigger landslides.
III) Surface runoff flowing at high velocity may cause severe erosion unless
it is intercepted.
Depending upon the type of soil and area of the hill top, a couple of catch drains
may have to be provided parallel to each other. A typical cross-section of cut and fill
area is shown in Fig.4.9 showing a catch drain, lined side-drain and a retaining
wall.
4.2.8 Details of subsurface drain for intercepting seepage water in hilly terrain
Intercepting seepage moisture in cut-sections in hilly terrain can be done effectively
by installing French drains as shown in Fig. 4.8 at an appropriate depth to intercept
seepage water reaching subgrade and lower layers. Normally the subsurface drain
is extended up to hard strata as shown Fig. 4.7. In plain terrain subsurface drain
can be provided on hill side from where seepage is likely to take place. Whereas
when there are hills on both sides, subsurface drain can be provided on both sides.
But when there is a steep longitudinal gradient in cut sections, there is a chance of
water seeping from higher ground along the middle of carriageway, and hence it is
desirable to intercept transverse or diagonal drains as shown in Figs. 4.9 and 4.10.
The subsurface drain shall be constructed as per Clause 300.9 of MORTH
Specifications gives details of subsurface drain. Graded aggregates when placed in
the trench surrounded by soil normally will enter graded aggregates. Therefore, a
geo- filter fabric is used for wrapping the aggregate to function as separation and
filter medium. Some details of aggregates, synthetic geo-filter, perforated pipe and
sand required for this work are explained in Clause 300.9 of MORTH
Specifications. Geo- filter shall conform to Clause 702 of MORTH Specifications.

Fig. 4.8 Cut and Fill Sections in a Hilly Terrain Showing Catch Drain, Side Orain and
Retaining Wall
Fig. 4.9 Layout Plan of Longitudinal Fig. 4.10 Layout Plan of Longitudinal
and Diagonal Subsurface Drains & Horizontal Subsurface Drains

Details of perforated HDPE/PVC pipe (with bottom 1/3 without

perforation)
Fig. 4.11 Cross-Section Details of Subsurface Drainage System
4.2.9 Sinking of hill road due to seepage of water underneath the road
Where sinking phenomenon of road is noticed in hills, depressing the side-drain
side
toward the hill and providing RCC Lining is one of the solutions. Water should not
be permitted to seep under the pave
pavement
ment layers. If necessary, a couple of more
cross-drainage
drainage structures should be constructed at such locations.
4.2.10 RCC box drain to serve as surface cum sub
sub-surface
surface drain
It is possible to combine both surface and subsurface drains with the help of a RCC
Box section. The drain will have grated openings for collecting surface runoff from
pavement and at the same time it can intercept subsurface water like seepage
water from cut section in hilly terrain through well designed weep-holes
weep
4.2.11 Use of RCC
C pipe for the purpose of side
side-drain
drain fo dispose of surface
water
In a kerbed pavement use of RCC pipe (preferably NPNP-3 3 pipes) can be used for the
purpose of surface drainage as shown in Fig. 4.12.. Manholes shall be constructed
at a spacing of 10 to 20 m as per the requirement of site condition so that the water
collected at the edges is disposed from the opening provided in kerbs.

Fig. 4.12 Arrangement of Providing Pipe for Collecting and Disposing Water
4.3 Treatment of Capillary Rise of Water
Locations where water-table
table or high flood level is too high, it is likely to affect
subgrade and embankment and weaken them and hence the IRC.37 recommends
that road level should be maintained such that the water table or high flood level
should be such that at the bottom of subgrade should have a free board of not less
than 0.6—1.0
1.0 m above design HFL. If increasing of road level is difficult or due to
financial implication, a capillary cutcut-off
off should be provided. This has been
discussed in IRC:34 entitled ‘Re ‘Recommendations
commendations for Road Construction in
Waterlogged Areas’. Capillary cutcut-off
off suggested in IRC:34 consist of sand blanket,
HDPE sheets, drainage composite etc. as explained in Section 7. A cushion of 10- 10
15 cm thick layer of sand or granular material is requ
required
ired to be provided over the
capillary cut-off
off layer. Consequence of not providing capillary cut-off
cut leads to the
’boggy action’ i.e. spring action which is common in roads near canals and Nallahs
especially where soil is predominantly silty or clayey. In the absence of a cut-off
cut
layer the pavement fails prematurely with cracks, rutting and potholes etc.
The details of capillary cut
cut-off
off and a blanket of granular or sand are schematically
shown in Fig. 4.13.. Design of capillary cut off can be referred in IRC:
IRC 34.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.13 Details of Cut-Off

Off Layer (The above sketches are from IRC: 34)
4.3.1 Retrofitting of subsurface drainage system
4.3.1.1 Subsurface drainage arrangement
There are situations where old roads are found getting distressed due to lack of
subsurface drainage system. Where the longitudinal joints with shoulder has
widened as seen in Photo 4.4 there will be requirement of retrofitting subsurface
drainage system or providing bituminous or concrete shoulder which can be
sealed. It does not help if the opened joint is filled with fresh soil or granular mix. In
such cases construction of subsurface drainage system as shown in Figs. 4.6 and
4.7 will be helpful.
4.3.1.2 Aggregate drains
After completion of a pavement without subsurface drainage arrangement, if
subsurface moisture is trapped in granular base and sub-bases, aggregate drains
suggested in Clause 309.3.7 of MORTH Specifications can be provided as shown
in Fig. 4.14. Two types of arrangements can be provided; one with longitudinal
drain along the road edge with laterally drains at regular intervals of 5 to 10 m as
per site conditions. The minimum width of drain can be 300 mm and should be
provided up to the depth of granular layers. Such drain can perform without getting
chocked if the aggregates are wrapped with geo-filter fabric. The grading of
aggregates to be used in drain is given in Table 4.3 (Table 300-4 of MORTH
Specifications). The grading however is as under:
Table 4.3 Grading Requirements for Aggregate Drains

Sieve Percent Passing by Weight

Designation Type A Type B
63mm 100
37.5mm 100 8W100
19mm 0—20
9.5mm 45—100 0-5
3.35mm 25-80
600micron 8-45
150micron 0—10
75micron 0—5
 Fig. 4.14 Aggregate Drains

5 FOR HYDROLOGICAL DESIGN OF ROADSIDE DRAINS

5.1 General
Hydrological design of road drainage system is the study and analyses of the
physical characteristics of catchment, intensity-duration characteristics of rainfall of
different frequencies to arrive at a suitable method of predicting design (peak) flood
and corresponding HFL. It is very important step prior to the hydraulic design of
road drainage system. Such analysis is necessary to determine the magnitude of
flow and the duration for which it would last. It includes the analysis of size and
shape of catchment area, topography, land use characteristics, natural storage, soil
type, soil cover, drainage pattern, rainfall intensity of the area, time of concentration
and the flood peak. Highway drainage facilities range from very small road side
drains and culverts to large drain systems comprising minor and major bridges.
Roadside drains, through a minor component in terms of cost ensures conveyance
of runoff to the outlet points, thus ensuring safety of road embankment and paved
surface of road as well.
A longitudinal stretch of a roadside drain originates at a ridge point of natural
ground along the proposed alignment of road and ends at a predetermined outfall,
be it a proposed culvert or an existing stream. A longitudinal profile of the existing
ground on either side of the proposed road alignment should, therefore, be
available with designer for demarcating the existing primary and secondary ridges
and valley points (outfalls). The longitudinal profile when studied with the cross
 slopes of the ground (within ROW for which sufficient survey details need to be
available for easy generation of ground level contours) and presence of nearby
outfall streams / water bodies if any, would surely bring out the intermittent
stretches where longitudinal toe drain may not be required (for carrying runoff from
adjacent land).
Upon identification of the ridge and valley points, the lengths of different stretches
of roadside drains are determined. With increase in length, the corresponding
design discharge and consequently the section of drain go on increasing. Based on
the length of stretches (and other general hydro-meteorological/catchment criteria),
the designer develops a preliminary idea as to where an intermediate outlet
structure (balancing culvert) is to be planned, if at all, so that the length of drain can
be reduced and the drain can be designed with a reasonable shape and size.
For data requirement and its sources, factors affecting runoff, design
methodologies and compilation and presentation of design output may be referred
in IRC: SP: 42 - 2014.

6. HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF ROAD DRAINAGE

6.1 For design of road drainage system IRC: SP: 42 – 2014 may be referred which
gives exhaustive details regarding design.
7 ROAD SIDE DITCHES AND DRAINS
7.1 The Purpose
The water collected primarily from surface runoff is required to be collected and
disposed of in a nearby culvert or bridge on a rivulet or river. To facilitate disposal
of surface water, earthen side-ditches or lined drains are provided on both sides of
the pavement. Depending upon the type of soil encountered, whether road is in cut
or a fill section or in an urban or rural location, the type of side-drain/ditch is
planned.
7.2 Cross-section of Side Ditch/Drain
There are a few typical cross-sections which are adopted viz. triangular,
rectangular, parabolic, saucer shaped and trapezoidal as shown in Figs. 7.1 to 7.6.
Side ditches in natural ground provided are either rectangular or trapezoidal. These
trenches can be formed either manually or by trench cutter. Lately these trenches
 can be formed by trench cutter using electronic sensor for achieving the required
gradient
dient and invert level accurately. The rectangular section is commonly used in
urban areas where it is normally lined with RCC. This section is easy to clean and
maintain. Lined drains can be designed to place a RCC slab or steel grating so that
pedestrianss and vehicles can move on it. But unlined rectangular drains tend to
erode and collapse in the presence of flowing water. The size of the side drain is
decided by the quantity of water to be discharged using Manning’s formula.
Normally the longitudinal gr
gradient
adient of invert shall be as much as possible parallel to
the road profile but it may change where it cannot be maintained. For facilitating
easy cleaning, the width at bottom should be at least 0.3 m. The invert level of
drain should preferably be kept su such
ch that the water surface corresponding to
design discharge remain at least 0.3 m to 0.6 below the bottom of drainage layer of
the pavement. The earthen drains , if found inadequate to carry the discharge, can
be widened after observing its performance aft after
er first monsoon. The earthen drain
must not be allowed to run full for long duration as it may lead to erosion of sides.

Fig. 7.1 Trapezoidal Cross-Section

Section Fig. 7.2 Parabolic Cross-Section
Section of a Drain

Fig. 7.3 Rectangular Cross-Section

Section Fig. 7.4 U-shaped
shaped Drain
Fig. 7.5
.5 A Trapezoidal Drain with a Secondary Fig.7.6 V-Cross
Cross-Section of a
Channel Drain
7.3 Drain Linings
Earthen ditches, unless they are flat and shallow, tend to get eroded. In the case
of urban roads, however, due to constraint of space and safety considerations of
pedestrians they have to be lined. The material used for lining varies from RCC,
stone slabs, bricks, precast sections, stone masonry, stone slabs, turfing,
geosynthetic material covered with grass etc. The option of lining depends on the
availability of construction material locally, and cost consideration etc.
7.4 Reinforced Cement Concrete Lining
RCC lining is suitable for drain of any cross
cross-section.
section. Precast concrete (RCC)
(R linings
are randomly easy to construct and the work can be done faster. The RCC lining
tends to crack due shrinkage and hence needs to be provided with sealed joints at
8 to 10 m interval or as specified in the contract. All the joints have to be sealed
seale
effectively with sealants in order to stop seepage of water. Open drains are
normally covered in urban stretches for safety of pedestrians and for using the area
for footpath etc.

Photo 7.1
.1 A View of Precast RCC Lined Drain
7.4.1 Lining with rubble/coursed masonry
Lining of drain can be done using random rubble or coursed masonry, dry-stones
dry
and stone slabs. Coursed rubble stone lining is aesthetically more appealing and
allows waterr to flow smoothly but it is costly. Where stone is available nearly this
type of lining works out to be economical. Use of brick is popular where stones are
not available. In some South Indian States use of stone slabs is very common. A
typical cross section
ion of a drain with random rubble masonry is given in Fig. 7.7.

Fig. 7.7
.7 A Drain Lined with Random Rubble Masonry
7.4.2 Brick lining
Brick is another material which is used extensively for lining as shown in Photos 7.2
and 7.3.
.3. The drain bottom can be constructed with nominally reinforced concrete
slab or brick. Brick can be used in trapezoidal as well as rectangular sections
economically (Fig. 7.8).
.8). Rectangular sections can be used where RCC cover or
steel grating is required to be placed on the top (Fig.7
(Fig.7.9).

Photo 7.2
.2 A Brick Lined drain Provided Photo 7.3
.3 An Open Side-Drain
Side with
with smaller secondary channel Brick Lining

`
Fig.7.8 A Brick Lined Drain of Trapezoidal Section

Fig.7.9 A Rectangular Brick Lined Drain

7.4.3 Concrete lined drains
A few RCC lined drains are shown in Figs. 7.10 anf Fig. 7.11.

Note
Note-
The RCC cover and capping shall be designed.

Fig.
Fig.7.10 A Rectangular RCC Drain

Fig. 7.11 A Schematic View of a Precast Concrete Drain

7.4.4 Stone lined drain
Where
re stone slabs are available, it is economical to use stone slabs. Fig. 7.12
 Fig. 7.12 Drain Lined with Stone Slabs
(This is common in places where granite stone available locally)

7.4.5 Drains in hilly terrain

Flow of water in side drains in hilly terrain remains at high velocity due to steep
gradient causing erosion of drain. As a precaution sometimes no-fines-concrete
dykes or stone or concrete benches can be provided on the bottom of lined drain to
control the velocity as shown in Fig. 7.13.

Fig. 7.13 Concrete Dykes or Benches in Steep Slope Provided to Reduce Velocity
7.4.6 Lined side drains in hill terrain
Two typical side drains normally adopted in cut-sections of hilly terrain. In case
where there is rock below, stone pitching can be done after the undulating rock
surface is leveled to required grade and level with M-15 or M-20 concrete.

Note : If the side drain are to be prepared on rock surface, sand bed and bed
concrete are not required.

Fig. 7.14 Two Designs of Side Drains Adopted in Hilly Terrain

7.5 Special Requirements of Drainage in Hilly Roads

7.5.1 Surface drainage
When a road passes through a hilly terrain, it has usually hill on one side and
valley on the other side. Runoff coming from the hill side must be intercepted by
providing a ditch at the foot of the hill and disposed of in the valley side by
providing drainage culverts at suitable intervals. If drainage is not adequate, the
 runoff water will flow above the road surface resulting in damage of the road as
shown in Photo. 7.4. Often debris and stones fall into the drain blocking it and
causing overflow of the drain and road. V-shaped shallow drains as shown in Fig.
7.6 and 7.14 (a) are normally provided for safety of vehicles. The drains are lined
with concrete or stone masonry to avoid erosion since the longitudinal slope of
drain is quite high and rolling stones cause high friction. As these shallow drains
have limited conveying capacity, culverts are required at closer intervals compared
to those in plain areas. Spacing of the culverts is governed by the rainfall intensity,
width of terrain (normal to road) contributing to runoff, slope of the ditches etc.
Culverts are required at innumerable streams crossing the road for passage of
fishes and stones brought by these streams. The outlets of culverts need proper
arrangement for flow diffusion, energy dissipation and anti-erosion measures.
Unlike plain terrain, culvert inlets must be properly designed so that the stones do
not block the culverts and they can easily be cleared of debris and stones. When
deep rectangular or trapezoidal drains are required to be provided to increase
conveyance, the drain should be covered with perforated slabs on top for safety of
traffic. Width of road side ditches is normally restricted to 60 cm since wide drains
required large volume of cutting on hill side which is not only costly but it causes
instability of hill side slope requiring costly retaining walls. Stepped chutes/baffles
are to be provided where the longitudinal bed slope exceeds critical stage to
prevent supercritical flow resulting in shock waves in curved areas, change in
direction, change in width etc.

7.5.2. Sub-surface drainage/Intercepting drains at higher altitude

Water table in a hilly region follows more or less the gradient same as that of hill
slope. When a cut is made in the hill to accommodate a road, there is seepage
flow into the side ditch. Suitable weep holes are to be provided to take care of the
seeping water. Otherwise, pore-water pressure will build up resulting in slope
failure with failure of retaining walls.
Where the width of terrain ( at right angle to the road) contributing to flow in to the
drain is very high, additional intercepting drain at higher elevations may be needed
to reduce the inflow into the road side ditches of limited conveying capacity.
Further details of drainage arrangements in hilly terrain are given in Hill Road
Manual ( IRC:SP:48). ). Extensive damage caused in hilly road due to inadequate
drainage can be seen in Photo. 7.4.

Photo. 7.4 Damage to Road Surface Due to Inadequate Drainage

8 CROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE OF BRIDGE DECK
8.1 Necessity of Drainage Culverts
Construction of a road embankment unavoidably obstructs and interferes with the
natural overland flow and flow through the natural channels e.g. rivers, Nallahs,
canals, drains etc. Suitable cross-drainage works like bridges and culverts under
the road must be provided across these channels with a view to pass the peak
discharge through the channels without causing harmful afflux and disturbing the
natural flow regime. Provision of adequate numbers of culverts and outfall points of
appropriate size is a prerequisite for a healthy road. Submergence and overtopping
of road causes damage to the road and road structures, it results in disruption of
traffic, loss of travel time and miseries to people using roads.
Where a road runs in an undulating terrain, causeways or dips are often provided in
valleys to avoid road in high embankment. Frequent dipping down from high road
levels to the ground produces a very undesirable road profile. Constructing bridges
and culverts under road in high embankment is a better proposition than providing
so many dips and causeways leading to disruption in traffic movement during flood
season. In a very flat terrain, most of the streams are shallow and the banks are
spilled with flood water moving in wide flood plains. In the absence of road, the spill
flow moving over the land surface constitutes a substantial amount of peak flood.
When a road is built in such a terrain with wide flood plains, the entire flood water
has to move across the road through the bridge opening of limited span, resulting
in very high afflux and other problems. Usually, the spill water is found to move
along the toe of the road causing scouring and damage to road embankment.
Provision of relief culverts on either side of the bridges in such flood plains are very
helpful in the quick disposal of spill flood across the road which results in less afflux
and ensures safety of the road embankment.
8.2 Planning of Culverts for Effective Road Drainage
Proper planning of culverts is a very important aspect of road design from the point
of view of safety of the road - new or existing one. Planning generally covers
selection of location, type, numbers and size of culverts. To be most effective,
location of culverts have to be very carefully decided after studying the terrain and
collecting relevant information from topo sheets and other sources. Field visit and
 consultation with local people and local authorities conversant with local
topography and drainage problem of the area is extremely useful.
In the hilly terrains, culvert locations are identified directly from the presence of
streamlets, not big enough to be spanned by a bridge. In the stretches where the
road is planned by cutting hill slopes, innumerable streamlets come down the hill
slopes and cross the proposed road. Runoff water and sediments from such
streamlets must be disposed of either directly through culverts at the crossings and
/ or intercepted by longitudinal drains and disposed off in to the valley through
closely spaced intermediate culverts with a view to limit the drain size.
Box or slap type culverts or small bridges are suitable for free movement of the
incoming water when it carries a lot of sediments and debris. It is necessary that
the span of culverts should be equal to or a little more than the linear waterway at
design HFL for such streamlets flowing at supercritical velocity.
For a road upgrading project, the task of selecting culvert locations reduces to
selection of locations for additional culverts only. Even if the conveying capacity of
some of the existing culverts are not hydraulically adequate, replacement of such
culverts by a bigger size culvert or a small bridge shall be made in the existing
locations only. For additional culverts, the location shall be based on the natural
dips along the stretches of existing road vulnerable to overtopping.

8.3 Types and Size of Culverts

Culverts may be of several types and geometry, namely,
i) Pipe Culverts (circular and elliptic),
ii) Box culverts (square and rectangular),
iii) Slab and Arch culverts (with or without bottom slab) etc.
Selection of type and geometry of culverts inter-alia depends on the required width
and area of opening, height and vertical clearance required, length of culvert and
height of embankment decided from geometrics of road design. While it is easier to
decide between a pipe culvert and box / slab culvert, selection between box and
slab culvert is a matter of cost optimization. For minor crossings, circular hume pipe
culverts suffice hydraulically. However, a pipe culvert has more joints owing to
smaller length of precast pipe units manufactured in the market. The more the
carriageway width of the road more will be the length of culvert and consequently
more will be the number of joints. As such it has now become a common practice to
 avoid pipe culverts for new major projects. However, for many other new projects in
India, hume pipes having minimum diameter of 1200 mm are being used.
For mountainous regions, the culverts are generally provided at frequent interval.
Pipe culverts are, therefore, very common in hilly stretches of roads. However, in
stretches where the streamlets carry large size cobbles and boulders, there is a fair
possibility of pipes getting damaged / choked. Pipe culverts are, therefore, avoided
in such stretches and either slab type or box type culverts are preferred. For
crossings where pipe culverts may not be feasible from hydraulic point of view, box
or slab culverts are chosen for installation. From structural definition, a box culvert
is a reinforced box structure with rigid joints whereas a slab culvert is one where a
simply supported reinforced slab is placed over abutments. Generally, for medium
height of embankments, both of the options viz., box culverts with road
embankment supported on roof slab and slab culvert with roof slab directly
supporting the wheel loads, are feasible.
The size of the culvert is designed on the basis of the following considerations from
the points of view of:
a) Peak flow and hydraulic conveyance requirement
b) Ease of maintenance and desilting operation
c) Permissible velocity for fish movement where the channel carries fish
d) Movement of debris, gravels, boulders etc.
The required size of the culvert is decided on the basis of hydrologic, hydraulic and
structural analysis. However, the minimum size of the culvert is fixed on the basis
of ease in maintenance, movement of fish, debris etc. For upgrading projects,
hume pipe culverts having diameter less than 900 mm are to be replaced with a
minimum diameter 1200 mm as recommended by IRC:SP:13.
8.3.1 Plate No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 of IRC SP:13 placed with this TI-
13 should be referred for construction of various type and span of culverts, wing
walls, apron, catch pits and requirement of reinforcement of culvert slabs etc.
8.4 Data Collection
Data may be collected from site investigation/study of topo sheets/satellite
Imagery/local enquiry and from records maintained by Government agencies like
CWC, IMD, RDSO and Irrigation/PWDs. Several data required for the design of
 cross drainage for new construction as well as road upgradation scheme to be
referred in IRC: SP:42-2014.
2014.
Further details about hydrologic and hydraulic design of culverts and bridges are
available in IRC: SP: 13 and IRC
IRC: 5, IRC: 78 and IRC Hand
and book, 2000 (Pocket
Book for Bridge Engineers).
8.5 Bridge Drainage
Bridge drainage is important from two aspects, first is drainage and other is road
safety. It is important to provide the effective drainage of runoff on bridges to avoid
flooding of deck, which may lead to traffic safety hazards and can severely limit the
life span of concrete deck. The uncontrolled flows of water, will lead to corrosion of
concrete and steel surfaces below deck level.
8.6 Design Consideration
The drainage system for bridges are designed as Open Drainage system, i.e.
allowing the free fall of water when bridges pass through the water way i.e. River,
Creek, Nallah etc. and Closed drainage system in which proper channelized Pipe
conduit system are provided to take the wa water
ter to main drain applicable for Grade
separator, side walk and rail road right of way beneath the bridges. Designer shall
suitably select the appropriate drainage system based on the project
characteristics.
The design of the MORTH in which the opening at top is 30 cm X 30 cm for a 15
cm dia drain is good from this angle (Figs. 8.1 to 8.3).
 Fig. 8.1
.1 Cross
Cross-Section of Drainage Spout

Fig. 8.2 Plan Showing the Drainage Spout Fig. 8.3

.3 Details of Footpath Drain

In case of wider bridges, the numbers of drainage spouts will have to be increased
to match the increased area to be drained. In very wide bridges of 4x4 divided
carriageways with a central divider, it may be better to provide a crown in each
carriageway and camber in both directi
direction
on and (hen to provide drainage spouts
along both edges of each carriageway.
Deck Slab Drainage Inlet
Inlet: To ensure effective drainage of the bridge deck a
minimum cross slope of 1 percent and a minimum longitudinal grade of 0.5 percent
should be provided withh a gutters grading at 1 percent. The collected runoff water
shall be taken by pipes through the deck at regular interval. Grating the inlet points
are necessary aids for achieving the efficient drainage.
8.7 Sloping Ramps of Bridges and Flyovers
In case of sloping ramps of bridges or flyovers, it is often said that due to the steep
longitudinal slope, it is no use providing drainage spouts on the ramps, which creates
pool of water at the start of bridge approach (Photo 9.1).Considering the situation such
as, a driver of a smaller car trying to go up an approach ramp of a flyover or bridge in
heavy rains faces a daunting situation with a heavy stream of rainwater rushing
towards him through which he has to drive his car.

Photo. 8.1 Pool of Water at the Start of Bridge Approach

8.8 Spacing of Drainage Spout
In the olden days the standard practice was to provide drainage spouts at a
spacing of 3 m on both edges of a two lane bridge. But the inlets were of the same
diameter as the drain pipes. Some of these used to get choked due to debris or
garbage fully or partly. Sometimes during renewal of road surface, some of them
used to get closed also. Design must cater to all such contingencies. The drain
openings should be in the deck slab. In case of submersible bridges, the
discontinuous kerb provides ample drainage facilities.
In a segmental construction, it is easier to provide a drain hole in each segment
instead of providing the drains at odd spacing which will result in some of the
 segments with drain holes and some without drains. Hence it is suggested to
provide the drain hole in each segment.
8.9 Disposal of Drain Water
The water coming out of the spout can fall into the river or creek below. But the
outlet should be shaped so that it does not fall on the superstructure. It could be
pointed away from the bridge (Photo 8.2). There was a trend to provide long down
take pipes to ensure that the water discharged does not splash on to sides of main
beams. But when it is raining heavily the entire surroundings are wet and moist.
Hence long down take pipes are not favoured.

Photo 8.2 Water Channelization

8.10 Maintenance of Drainage System
It is very important to maintain the drainage system in good working order. This
mainly consists of looking at all the drainage inlets frequently to see that they are
not choked or clogged. The elbow plugs must be opened and the pipes cleared of
any material like paper, plastic etc. which might have got lodged in the pipes. Any
piece of pipe which might have got damaged or taken away must be replaced
forthwith. This aspect must be checked during the pre-monsoon inspection of
bridge structures and corrected wherever necessary.
The cost of drainage spouts as compared to that of the bridge is minuscule. The
public judges the work not by the strength of concrete but by the alignment of
parapet, the condition of road surface, the expansion joints and the efficiency of
drainage system. Hence it is not prudent to try to economize on it at the cost of a
water free bridge.