6

Ceramic Injection Molding

Zdravko Stanimirović and Ivanka Stanimirović
IRITEL A.D.,
Republic of Serbia

1. Introduction
Powder injection molding (PIM), which encompasses metal injection molding (MIM) and
ceramic injection molding (CIM), is a net-shaping process which enables large scale
production of complex-shaped components for use in a diverse range of industries. It
combines plastic injection molding techniques and performance attributes of ceramic and
metal powders. Ceramic injection molding (CIM) uses ceramic powders such as alumina,
zirconia, titania, ferrite powders, etc. It was introduced in 1940's, but for the next thirty years
it was of minor interest to ceramic industry. In 1970's and 1980's CIM provided cost-effective
fabrication method for mass production of ceramic parts for automotive industry. Today
more than 300 companies practise PIM. Most of them practise MIM technology (>70%).
Small percentage (5%) produce metals, ceramics and carbide components and about 25%
practice CIM technology. This positive tendency can be attributed to unique properties of
ceramic materials. They have excellent mechanical properties and low specific weight. Also,
they are suitable for applications under extreme conditions (high temperatures, corrosive
atmospheres, abrasive conditions, high loads at high temperatures). This combination
makes them interesting for a wide variety of applications.
The ceramic injection molding process consists of four basic steps: feedstock preparation,
injection molding, debinding process and sintering (Fig. 1).When powder technologies are
in question, the key step in production process is choosing the adequate ceramic powder.
Specific surface area, particle size, size distribution, particle shape and purity of the powder
influence properties of the feedstock. Typical particle sizes in CIM are 1-2µm, but also much
finer particles down to submicron or nano region are being used in advanced CIM. CIM
uses a feedstock of composite granulate. A high concentration of ceramic powder is mixed
with a thermoplastic binder system to form moderate viscosity feedstock - homogenous
powder-binder mix that is free of agglomerates, has optimum ceramic/binder content and
still maintains sufficient fluidity (Rak, 1999).
The feedstock is molded using injection molding equipment similar to that used for polymer
injection molding. Injection molding involves concurrent heating and pressurization of the
feedstock. It requires close monitoring in order to minimize molding defects. As a result, a
green body is obtained (Fig. 2). After molding, the binder is extracted from the green body.
Debinding usually takes place in two steps. Immersion is the first step. Soluble component
of the binder is removed and system of pore channels develops to allow removal of the
remaining component. The second step is thermal debinding and the insoluble component
is being removed by thermal decomposition thus resulting in brown body (Fig. 2).

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132 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

Fig. 1. The ceramic injection molding process.

Fig. 2. CIM component: green body, brown body and sintered part, respectively.

After debinding process, the sintering process takes place. Sintering parameters depend on
the type and electronic properties of the ceramic powder used and, as a result, CIM
components are obtained. Quality control of ceramic components in the green, brown and
sintered state is commonly carried out by visual inspection and weighting. In that way
surface cracks, impurities, voids, pores, distortions, incomplete parts and skin marks can be
detected. Measuring the density of sintered components is another indispensable method
for characterisation of CIM parts. Additional processing after sintering is optional
depending on the type of component and specific application and in standard applications
is seldom required.

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Ceramic Injection Molding 133

In the recent past extensive international research and development activities were
performed. Ferrite ceramics, piezoelectric ceramics and alumina were recognized as the
most commonly used ceramic powders in production of wide range of CIM components for
various applications and for that reason they are described in this chapter. Also, as an
insight in future trends of CIM technology development, advanced CIM technologies are
presented.

2. Ferrite ceramics for CIM

Ferrites are ceramic materials based on iron-oxide. They exhibit soft magnetism and
therefore are being used in a variety of applications such as antennae, transformer cores,
microwave waveguides, etc. There are three main types of ferrites: Mn-Zn ferrite, Ni-Zn
ferrite and Mg-Zn ferrite. Ferrites have several advantages when compared to other
materials: temperature and stability, high resistivity, wide frequency range and low loss
combined with high permeability. Disadvantages are low saturation flux density and low
tensile strength. Differences between soft ferrites and other magnetic materials are
presented in Table 1 (Z. Stanimirović & I. Stanimirović, 2010).
There are several techniques available to forming ferrite specimens: grinding, extrusion,
pressing and injection molding. Most ferrites are commercially produced by a dry pressing
process. The powder flows into a die cavity and upper and lower punches at about 10 tons
per surface square inch are being applied. Since the pressing is being done in vertical
direction, resulting specimen geometries are limited to simple geometric shapes. Grinding is
the most economical forming technique to produce non standard ferrite cores. It requires no
tooling since cores are ground from isostatically formed sintered bars. Extrusion is an ideal
technique for forming long rods and bars.

Magnetic Iron
Parameter Ferrites
Alloys Powder
Initial permeability
5-15000 5000-300000 5-150
range
Curie temperature
100-500 500 600
range [ºC]
Loss factor [10-6]
10kHz 5 8 25
100kHz 10 80 30
160kHz 25 4000 100
Resistivity [m] 10-108 10-5 104
Saturation flux
300-500 800-2400 1000-1200
density range [mT]
Table 1. Differences between soft ferrites and other magnetic materials.

However, in recent years ceramic injection molding technique (Rodrigez et al., 2003; Zlatkov
et al., 2008) has been applied as an alternative forming process. Injection molded ferrite
parts can be produced from very simple forms to quite complex shapes. Further processing
is rarely required, but if necessary, this can be achieved using conventional tools. Parts
produced through this process can have very intricate shapes and tight tolerances. Injection

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molded ferrite components have properties similar to conventionally produced parts

(Skolyszewska et al., 2003; Zlatkov et al., 2010).
Manganese zinc ferrite is a magnetically soft material suitable for use as magnetic cores in
low frequency range (1kHz-1MHz). For soft ferrite magnetic core production uniaxial
powder pressing technique is usually used. However, CIM as an extremely flexible
technology enabled production of Mn-Zn ferrites with characteristics comparable with
commercial samples prepared by conventional methods. There are two reasons for CIM
investigations of Mn-Zn ferrites: the shape complexity and the better permeability.
The starting material used for the production of Mn-Zn ferrite samples was commercially
available Mn-Zn ferrite powder shown in Fig. 3(a). Prior to injection molding, powder was
processed in a conventional manner. Mn-Zn ferrite powder in combination with binder
(combination of polypropylene, microcrystalline wax and stearic acid) was used for
feedstock production. Feedstock contained 10.5% of binder (9% wax, 1% wax with lower
melting temperature, 1% of stabilizer) and 68% of Mn-Zn ceramic ferrite powder.
Photograph of Mn-Zn ferrite feedstock is shown in Fig. 3(b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Mn-Zn ferrite: powder (a) and feedstock (b).

Injection molding was performed using molds in shapes required to form ring and disc
shaped specimens. The injection molding process was carried out in Battenfeld HM 250/60-
B4 machine and main injection molding parametres are given in Table 2. Debinding of green
parts after injection molding was performed in two steps: solvent and thermal debinding.
Thermal debinding was performed during initial priod of sintering (150-800ºC heating
period) and the green ferrite samples were sintered at 1280-1320ºC/1-4h in nitrogen
atmosphere.

Parameter Setup
Injection temperature (ºC) 120-160
Mold temperature (ºC) 30-45
Injection speed (ccm/s) 3-20
Injection pressure (bar) 300-800
Cooling time (s) 10
Sample ejection pressure (bar) 20-40
Table 2. Main injection molding parameters.

Photographs and dimensions of injection molded ring and disc shaped CIM Mn-Zn specimens
are given in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. The main properties of injection molded sintered Mn-Zn ferrite
ring shaped specimens are given in Table 3 and the comparative properties of injection
molded sintered Mn- Zn ferrite ring and disc shaped specimens are given in Table 4.

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Ceramic Injection Molding 135

Fig. 4. Disc shaped CIM Mn-Zn ferrite samples (diameter d=16mm, thickness t=5mm).

Fig. 5. Ring shaped CIM Mn-Zn ferrite samples (outer diameter do=15mm, inner diameter
di=6mm, thickness t=5mm).

Tsint/t Grain size Relative density Loss factor

Initial relative permeability
[°C/h] [μm] [% TD] [10-6]
1320/2 5.83 89.2 1518 1305 13.21 13.9
1320/2 4.80 - 1238 1360 17.43 11.71
1320/4 7.71 - 1463 1463 23.52 21.60
1280/2 4.20 87.1 922.5 922.5 24.15 23.33
1250/4 4.50 90.4 717.7 - 37.18 -
1320/2 4.33 90.1 1609 1456 9.0 9.18
1320/2 n.a. 85.1 733.4 716.3 50.94 42.06
Table 3. The main properties of injection molded sintered ring shaped Mn-Zn ferrite specimens.

Ring shaped specimens Disc shaped specimens

Initial relative permeability 750±25% 900±25%
Operating frequency range [MHz] 0.1-1 0,01-0,5
Relative loss factor 8·10-6-30·10-6 5·10-6-25·10-6
Magnetic Induction [mT] 390 390
Table 4. Comparative properties of injection molded sintered Mn-Zn ferrite ring and disc
shaped specimens.

Experimental work demonstrated that Mn-Zn ferrite ceramics can be prepared using
injection molding technique but the process is not trivial. For example, a special attention
must be paid to initial filling of the mold. Due to uneven shrinkage rate during

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136 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

solidification, creation of stresses within the body of the sample may occur resulting in
nucleation of voids or cracks. Also, if air pockets remain within the body of the specimen
this may lead to poor properties of the realized component.
Problems may also occur during the burn out of the binder. Burn-out can be performed in
air but this may cause excessive specimen shrinkage and surface layer exfoliation due to
oxidative reaction. For that reason, nitrogen atmosphere was used. Sintering and
densification of the specimen during sintering is a key factor that determines magnetic
properties of the sample. Highest temperature used (1320 ºC) yielded the highest sample
densities and as illustration SEM microstructure of CIM Mn-Zn ring shaped ferrite specimen
sintered at 1320ºC/2h is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. SEM microstructure of CIM Mn-Zn ring shaped ferrite specimen sintered at 1320ºC/2h.

The grain sizes of injection molded specimens are usually smaller than grain sizes of
conventionally produced Mn-Zn ferrites. Injection molding process leads to similar
specimen densities when compared to conventional methods but grain sizes are up to 50%
smaller. Increase of the sintering time from 2h to 4h results in grain growth normally
expected for Mn-Zn samples. Smaller grain sizes lead to more grain boundaries and
therefore more pinning centers resulting in lower permeability. Grain growth during
prolonged sintering cycle leads to greater densities and increased permeability but at
temperatures higher than 1180ºC (Pigram & Freer, 1994) zinc volatilization occurs leading to
zinc loss. For that reason, temperature of 1150ºC (Pigram & Freer, 1994) is recommended for
adequate grain growth without zinc volatilization. Therefore, further work to optimize the
processing conditions is desirable. The goal is to increase the grain size and initial
permeability of realized specimens.
Experimental work on Mn-Zn ferrite has shown that ferrite ceramics can be prepared using
injection molding technique although the process is not trivial and optimization of both
tools and processing conditions is essential. Mn-Zn sintering obtained by CIM technology is
sensitive process compared to the conventional pressing technology, but the obtained
results are satisfactory. Realized Mn-Zn ferrite specimens have high green-state strength,
ideal for production of delicate and complex shapes. Also, specimens exhibit satisfactory
structural integrity and magnetic properties, as well as densities similar to conventionally
produced material.

3. Piezoelectric ceramics for CIM

Piezoelectric ceramics is one of the functional materials which have unique electrical
properties with broadening range of applications. Lead zirconate titanate (PbZrTiO3) and

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Ceramic Injection Molding 137

barium titanate (BaTiO3) are ceramic materials that have found widespread use – especially
lead zirconate titanate that is being widely used in sensors, transducers, microactuators,
multilayer capacitors and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). These materials are
known for their superior piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties. When a mechanical force
is applied, piezoelectric materials generate electrical voltage. Conversely, when an electric
field is applied, these materials induce mechanical stress or strains. These effects are known
as direct piezoelectric effect and converse piezoelectric effect, respectively.
Conventional powder metallurgy method is a commonly used method to produce
piezoelectric materials. It starts with powder preparation. The powder is pressed to required
shapes and size, and green shapes are processed into mechanically strong and dense
ceramics. Machining process is being used for achieving desired shapes of the components.
Elecroding and poling are the final sterps of the process. When complex shapes are in
question, cutting and machining of piezoelectric ceramics are time consuming. There are
also cost considerations because of the cost of the die and the waste material.
The most of the published papers have dealt with fabrication and electrical properties of
piezoelectric ceramics produced using conventional powder metallurgy method (Fig. 7).
However, a little work has been carried out on the fabrication and characterisation of
piezoelectric ceramics prepared by ceramic powder injection molding method (CIM) (Luo et
al., 2006; Wang et al., 1999, Zlatkov et al., 2008). In order to synthesise piezoelectric ceramics

Fig. 7. Piezoelectric ceramics production: conventional powder metallurgy method vs. CIM
method (I. Stanimirović & Z. Stanimirović, 2010).

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138 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

using CIM process, four basic steps should be performed: feedstock preparation, ceramic
injection molding, debinding and sintering. Components produced by CIM are expected to
have more complex shapes and more homogeneous microstructure than components
produced by conventional metallurgy method. Also, reduced machining and recycling use
of feedstock are significantly reducing fabrication costs.
In order to explore the feasibility to synthesise piezoelectric ceramics by CIM, two series of
test samples were realized (I. Stanimirović & Z. Stanimirović, 2010). Commercially available
BaTiO3 and PbZrTiO3 powders were used. Basic properties of used powders are given in
Table 5. Also, photographs of BaTiO3 and PbZrTiO3 powders are given in Fig. 8, as well as
the micrograph of PbZrTiO3 powder particles Fig. 9(a).

Ceramic powder: BaTiO3 PbZrTiO3

Density [g/cm3] 6,2 7,8
Dielectric constant 33/0 1700 2200
Isolation resistance [m] 1011 1011
Electromechanical coupling
0,50 0,69
coefficient k33
Piezoelectric
120·10-12 450·10-12
coefficient d33 [C/N]
Curie temperature TC [○С] 118 350
Specific surface area [m2/g] 2,6 2,7
Table 5. Basic properties of BaTiO3 and PbZrTiO3 powders.

(a) (b)
Fig. 8. BaTiO3 powder (a) and PbZrTiO3 powder (b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Scanning electron micrograph of PbZrTiO3 powder particles (a) and PbZrTiO3
feedstock (b).

These starting materials in combination with binder were used for feedstock production.
Each feedstock contained 10.5% of binder (9% wax, 1% wax with lower melting
temperature, 1% of stabilizer). Photograph of PbZrTiO3 feedstock is shown in Fig. 9(b).

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Ceramic Injection Molding 139

The feedstock was then heated to a sufficient temperature - such that it melted and injected
into a mold cavity where it cooled and formed desired shape. The injection molding process
was carried out in Battenfeld HM 250/60-B4 machine and the main parameters of injection
molding corresponded to ones listed in Table 2. Dimensions of green bodies were
20mm×10mm×2mm. In accordance with the binder system, debinding procedure was
performed. A two-stage debinding technique was applied. The solvent debinding stage was
followed by thermal debinding stage. The main debinding parameters are given in Table 6.
The slow heating rate prevented defects such as micro-cracks, slumping and blistering of the
parts to be induced during debinding process.

In a water bath: 24h in a destilled water

4h at 80ºC
80ºC - 145ºC, rising degree [20ºC/h]
145ºC - 155ºC, rising degree [0.5ºC/h]
155ºC - 160ºC, rising degree [0.2ºC/h]
In chamber drying
At 160 ºC holding time 4h
device with fan:
160ºC - 170ºC, rising degree [2-5ºC/h]
170ºC - 220ºC, rising degree [10ºC/h]
220ºC - 300ºC, rising degree [20ºC/h]
At 300 ºC holding time 2h
Table 6. Two-stage debinding procedure.

After the debinding process, the debinded parts were sintered in an air atmosphere. In order
to minimize lead loss from PbZrTiO3 bodies that occur at about 800ºC, these samples were
sintered in presence of a lead source. Basic information about the sintering process is given
in Table 7.

Butch kiln ELEKTRON 1500

Sagger Alumina 98%
Sagger cover Alumina 98%
Bottom plates ZrO2
Setting and
ZrO2 and Pb3O4
safety powder
Manual filling 20 psc. green bodies/sagger
Sintering Air atmosphere
conditions 21ºC -600ºC, rising degree [100ºC/h]
PbZrTiO3: 600ºC-1250ºC,
BaTiO3: 600ºC-1260ºC,
rising degree [150ºC/h]
PbZrTiO3: 1250 ºC, BaTiO3: 1260 ºC,
holding time 2h
Cooling 1250ºC /1260ºC–21ºC: Natural
Table 7. Sintering process.

Dimensions of sintered samples were 16.67mm×8.43mm×1.52mm (PbZrTiO3 samples) and

16.6mm×8.42mm×1.5mm (BaTiO3 samples). After the sintering process, PbZrTiO3 samples

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140 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

were silver plated using screen printing process and fired in an air atmosphere at
750ºC/10min. All samples were then polarized and functional and electrical measurements
were performed (Table 8). Photographs of CIM PbZrTiO3 and BaTiO3 samples are given in
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10. CIM PbZrTiO3 samples: green (a) and sintered and silver plated (b).

Fig. 11. CIM BaTiO3 samples.

BaTiO3 PbZrTiO3
Dielectric constant 33/0 2000±30 1700±30
Loss tangent tgδmax 0.02 0.02
Electromechanical coupling 0.65 0.50
coefficient k33
Piezoelectric 550±50·10-12 120±50·10-12
coefficient d33 [C/N]
Table 8. Basic properties of BaTiO3 and PbZrTiO3 samples.

In order to evaluate feasibility of producing piezoelectric ceramics by conventional

metallurgy method and CIM, we compared results for CIM PbZrTiO3 samples obtained
from our study (Table 9) with those found in literature (Gu et al., 2008). Table 9 lists
dielectric constants, loss tangents, electromechanical coupling coefficients and piezoelectric
coefficients for samples obtained by those two methods.
The dielectric constant is a measure of charge stored on an electrode material brought to a
given voltage. It strongly depends on sintering temperature for both CIM and conventional
metallurgy method. When conventional method is concerned, dielectric constant increases
with sintering temperature due to the increase in PbZrTiO3 grains. For CIM samples, dielectric
constant increases with sintering temperature to 1250ºC and then decreases with sintering
temperature because of the deceased density due to lead loss. Therefore observed difference in

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Ceramic Injection Molding 141

dielectric constants obtained by two methods can be attributed to microstructure development

and change in grain size with variation of sintering temperature.

CIM method Conventional powder

metallurgy method
(Gu et al., 2008)
Dielectric constant 33/0 1700±30 1210
Loss tangent tgδmax 0.02 1.0
Electromechanical 0.50 0.27
coupling coefficient k33
Piezoelectric 120±50 97
coefficient
d33 [10-12C/N]
Table 9. Comparative properties of PbZrTiO3 samples.

Electromechanical coupling coefficient and piezoelectric coefficient are slightly lower than
those from reference, while the loss tangent is higher for samples realized using CIM
method than for samples obtained by conventional metallurgy method. They strongly
depend on processing parameters, especially sintering temperatures, and by further
adjustment of various processing parameters, CIM technology can provide PbZrTiO3
components with application-specific properties similar to those provided by conventionally
produced components.
Obtained results have shown that piezoelectric ceramics can be successfully produced by
CIM method. Sintering temperature was found to play important role in physical,
mechanical and electrical properties since it affects sample density and porosity. The
obtained sample properties were comparable to those found in literature. It is important to
note that in comparison with conventional powder metallurgy, CIM samples have more
homogenous microstructure and production costs are reduced by reducing machining and
recycling use of feedstock. Further research should be focused on processing conditions and
their influence on the properties of final sintered parts, assuring satisfactory low-cost
alternative for the production of piezoelectric ceramics with application specific properties.

4. Alumina for CIM

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is ceramics with high mechanical hardness, high electrical
resistivity and thermal conductivity. It has good strength and stiffness, good wear and
corrosion resistance, good thermal stability, low dielectric constant and loss tangent, low
thermal expansion, low weight, etc. It is suitable for technical ceramic, electronic and
medical products, etc. CIM alumina exhibits properties close to pressed and sintered
samples (Hwang & Hsieh, 2005; Hausnerova et al., 2011; Krauss et al., 2005). The most
common material that is being used for feedstock preparation is Al2O3 powder with 99.7%
purity (Wei et al., 2000). Properties and scanning electron micrograph of 99.7% alumina
powder are given in Table 10 and Fig. 12.
Multicomponent binder commonly used in feedstock preparation is 30wt% polypropilene,
65wt% paraffin wax and 5wt% stearic acid. After injection molding procedure, samples are
being subjected to a debinding process (Table 11). After the debinding procedure, all

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142 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

samples should be inspected to ensure that all surfaces are free from visual defect. CIM
alumina samples are then sintered in air at temperatures >1550ºC.

Material Al2O3 99.7%

Typical composition
Na2O (0.05%) SiO2 (0.05%) CaO (0.02%) Fe2O3 (0.02%)
Typical properties of sintered parts
Particle size, d50 0.4-0.6 μm
Theoretical density 3.85 g/cm3
Density 96.7 %
Purity 99.7 %
Specific surface area 9.0 m2/g
Table 10. Properties of Al2O3 powder.

Fig. 12. Scanning electron micrograph of alumina powder.

Immersion: heptane, 3h at 60ºC

Thermal debinding:
Ramping rate (ºC/min) Isothermal temperature (ºC) holding time (h)
2 200 0.3
2 250 2.0
5 450 0
10 1000 0.5
Cooling - -
Table 11. Typical debinding procedure for CIM alumina samples.

CIM alumina is the most widely used injection molded ceramic material. CIM alumina
components (Fig. 13) have high surface finish quality even with extremely complex
geometries. They have high hardness end mechanical strength, high wear and corrosion
stability and good electrical insulation. CIM alumina components are also dimensionally
stable and able to withstand high working temperatures. Since they combine good
mechanical properties with low specific weight, CIM alumina components are being used in
engineering (sensor covers, sensor tubes, micro electrodes for ultrasonic welding, etc.),
textile industry (textile thread guides, wire guides, etc.), medical and dental applications
(orthodontic brackets, dental implants, prosthetic replacements, etc.), watches (precision
watch gears), metallurgy (ceramic casting cores), automotive components (valve
components), electrical components (microwave dielectric components), office equipment
(inkjet printheads), etc. Recent research activities proved that CIM alumina has a great
potential because nowadays it is a commonly used material in both micro-CIM and 2C-CIM
technology – advanced CIM technologies.

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Ceramic Injection Molding 143

Fig. 13. CIM Al2O3 sample.

5. Advanced CIM technologies

Mass produced micro-parts are mainly being produced from ceramic materials which are
readily available in submicron sizes because fine ceramic powders are easier to handle in
comparison with metallic materials which are often pyrophoric in submicron sizes and for
that reason difficult to handle. Micro-CIM, as an expanding technology for mass-production
of micro-parts, emerged as a combination of plastic micro-injection molding technology and
ceramic injection molding technology. It shares the same basic steps as the conventional
CIM-technology, but it also exhibits special characteristics due to micro-size of the
components (Liu et al., 2011; Piotter et al., 2003, 2010; Zauner, 2006). Micro-CIM parts can be
formed using variety of ceramic materials such as ZrO2, Al2O3, Si3N4, AlN and PZT and
their main application fields are microsystem technology, microfluidics, biosensors, MEMS,
medical technology, etc. (Fig. 14).

Micro-CIM

Microsystem Microfluidics Biosensors MEMS Medical

technology technology

Fig. 14. Micro-CIM applications.

The increasing expansion of microsystem technology (MST) induced a great demand for the
production of high-quality low-cost 3D micro-sized components such as micro-sensors,
micro-reactors and micro-parts. The current microsystem production technologies (micro-
cutting, laser ablation, LIGA, etc.) due to their high cost, low efficiency and limited materials
are being replaced by micro-CIM technology that, as a miniaturized variant of CIM-
technology, offers greater shape complexities, applicability to a wide range of materials and
good mechanical properties. Micromechanical components made by micro-CIM are used to

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144 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

replace plastic parts and they especially benefit from ceramic material properties like
corrosion resistance and high-temperature performance. Microfluidics and microreaction
technology, biomedical industry and other growing markets give excellent opportunities for
microparts. For some applications, such as reactions of highly corrosive media or high
temperature gas phase reactions, micro-CIM components are of greatest interest due to their
hardness and high chemical and thermal resistance. Also, there is a strong request for
biocompatible materials such as ceramics and reliable technologies to produce complex
shaped medical components.
The raw materials for micro-CIM technology are fine ceramic powders that allow
production of micro-components with feature sizes down to 5μm. The powder has to be
homogeneous and in order to obtain a fairly isotropic behavior the grain size of the sintered
part should be at least one order of magnitude smaller than the minimum internal
dimensions of the micro-part. From the aspect of surface quality, the best results can be
achieved by using ceramic powders with mean particle diameter of 0.5μm or smaller. The
viscosity of the melt should be sufficiently low to fill even the smallest structural details
down to submicron range. For that reason, the molding tool should be heated near the
melting point of the feedstock prior to injection into the tool. Because of the micro-part
fragility highly precise tool movements are required. In order to control acceleration
or slowing down of the injection molding process, ramps are being used. Micro injection
molding machines use position regulated screws for that purpose. Also, micro components
are considerably more difficult to handle from macroscopic components. They tend to
stick to handling systems instead of dropping when electrostatic forces exceed gravitation
force.
As an example of micro-CIM component, schematic presentation of zirconia (ZrO2) micro
gearwheel is shown in Fig. 15. It is a typical example of micro component for micromechanical
applications. Micro gearwheels are demanding microstructures. Successful replication of
structural details requires establishment of critical dimensions and determination of various
physical properties such as densities, surface qualities, etc. However, geometry of the part is
not a key factor when performances of the component are in question. The key factor is the
surface quality of micro-CIM component. For production of ZrO2 micro gearwheels high
quality mold inserts are required. Cavities have to be scaled up by the certain percentage
because of the shrinkage and have to be micro milled employing smallest mill cutters.
Minimum edge radius within the mold and cutting depth affect the tooth shape. Besides
restrictions related to manufacturing adequate mold inserts for micro gearwheel realization,
there are also restrictions of molding as well as restrictions of sintering. Beside typical limits
for ejection molding (aspect ratio), there are limitations related to design of the gate system.
Demolding is also a challenge because the ejector pins have to be arranged very accurately
due to the lack of space. When sintering process is in question, the shrinking, temperature
and other process variables must be particularly taken into account. There are different
temperatures in different places in the oven resulting in variable shrinking factors and
therefore different sizes of micro gearwheels. Required tolerances for these components are
in the same range as measurement accuracy (~1μm). This is of special interest when
production of micro planetary gears is in question because it requires highly accurate micro
assembly and micro measurements.

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Ceramic Injection Molding 145

Fig. 15. Schematic of a ZrO2 micro gearwheel (outer diameter 1200 μm).

Besides small dimensions, micro-components are often required to have several functions at
the same time. For that reason two-component CIM technology (2C-CIM) can be
successfully applied in production of advanced ceramic micro-components (Piotter et al.,
2008; Yin et al., 2008). This technology uses different combinations of ceramic materials thus
providing the major advantage of the 2C-CIM process: any assembly of micro-CIM parts
after sintering is not necessary. The sintering rate control is crucial part of 2C-CIM process.
Both components must sinter at similar rates and similar positions in the sintering
temperature to avoid delaminating. The sintering behavior can be adjusted by lowering the
powder content in one mix thus affecting its green density and risking high porosity of the
component. Also, a non-sintering composite phase can be added. When 2C-CIM process is
in question, chosen materials must have compatible sintering characteristics. The feedstock
components can be injected sequentially or simultaneously depending on the design and
size of the contact area of both ceramic materials. In order to secure high compound
strength, it is essential that injection processes are performed in a quick succession.
Feedstocks that are being used must have comparable shrinkage rates during co-debinding
and co-sintering. The shrinking behavior depends on the type of ceramic powder used and
its particle size distribution as well as on the solid content of the feedstock. If the onsets of
shrinkage of both components are comparable and thermal expansion coefficients are
almost the same, then the defect-free material compounds can be achieved and high cooling
stresses can be avoided.
As an illustration of 2C-CIM process, a schematic presentation of two-component shaft-gear
wheel combination with fixed shaft-to-collar connection is given in Fig. 16. As a suitable
material for gear wheel, zirconia is selected because of its sufficiently high toughness. The
shaft is composed of alumina because of its hardness. Each of two chosen materials has a
characteristic behavior during processing. Zirconia has a thermal expansion coefficient of
10-11×10-6/K and therefore will show greater thermal expansion than alumina with a
thermal expansion coefficient 7-8×10-6/K. The shrinkage behavior of the two components

Fig. 16. Schematic of a 2C-CIM shaft-gear wheel combination (shaft: Al2O3; gear wheel: ZrO2).

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146 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

strongly depends on properties of selected zirconia and alumina powders. Since their
sintering properties are affected by particle size, specific surface and additives, the
shrinkage of both components should be adapted in such a way that dynamics of
densification provide a shrink fit without cracking or destruction of the assembly. A
different adaptation of parameters may lead to loosening of both components resulting in a
formation of movable joint. Movable connections open new possibilities for 2C-CIM with a
great reduction in mounting and assembly efforts and costs.
At the moment major growth areas in CIM are micro-CIM and 2C-CIM technologies (Fig. 17).
Combination of the physical properties of the various materials is the key research activity
when 2C-CIM technology is in question. Micro-CIM technology faces the challenge of
developing suitable feedstock and high precision miniaturized mold cavities. Also, both
technologies require computer modeling of molding, debinding and sintering in order to
predict shape, size and reliability issues. Additionally, there are research activities ongoing to
include higher functionality into micro-CIM components e.g. by the use of nano-sized
powders.

Fig. 17. Ceramic injection molding technology development.

6. Conclusion
In the recent years CIM technology has been accepted as one of the fundamental
manufacturing techniques for mass production of ceramic components with complex
geometries. Most commonly used CIM components are based on ferrite, piezoelectric and
alumina ceramic powders. CIM components are widely used in automotive industry
(mechanical parts), chemical applications (valves, membranes), medical applications
(artificial bones), aerospace (mechanical parts, sensors and actuators), communications, oil
and gas exploration (sensors, valves), etc. Advanced CIM technology, micro-CIM, offers
microparts with structures in sub-millimetre range where materials like silicon and
polymers rapidly reach their limits. Next step in micro-CIM technology is two-component
micro-CIM that allows the production of multi-functional ceramic parts in just one
processing step without any additional joining of the compound partners. Two-component
injection molding allows one to combine materials with different properties, such as
electrical conductivity/electrical insulation, high thermal conductivity/thermal insulation,
or magnetic/non-magnetic properties. This opens new prospects for CIM technology and
leads the way to new prospective market segments.

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Ceramic Injection Molding 147

7. Acknowledgment
Authors are grateful for the partial support of the Ministry of Education and Science of
Republic of Serbia (contracts III45007 and III44003).

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 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding
Edited by Dr. Jian Wang

ISBN 978-953-51-0297-7
Hard cover, 270 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 23, March, 2012
Published in print edition March, 2012

This book is composed of different chapters which are related to the subject of injection molding and written by
leading international academic experts in the field. It contains introduction on polymer PVT measurements and
two main application areas of polymer PVT data in injection molding, optimization for injection molding
process, Powder Injection Molding which comprises Ceramic Injection Molding and Metal Injection Molding,
ans some special techniques or applications in injection molding. It provides some clear presentation of
injection molding process and equipment to direct people in plastics manufacturing to solve problems and
avoid costly errors. With useful, fundamental information for knowing and optimizing the injection molding
operation, the readers could gain some working knowledge of the injection molding.

How to reference
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Injection Molding, Dr. Jian Wang (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0297-7, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/some-critical-issues-for-injection-molding/ceramic-injection-molding

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