DCM 622: RESEARCH METHODS

Contact hours: 30 hours

Introduction
The unit is intended to develop the learners’ research knowledge and skills. The learner should be
able to acquire competence that would enable them enhance their effectiveness and efficiency in
planning, conducting and presenting research findings.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to: -
1. Develop research skills and use them independently.
2. Develop interest and curiosity in research.
3. Carry out research and compile reports.
4. Recognize the need for relevance and importance of research in their field of study.

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION
TOPIC CONTENT
• Definition of research
• Importance of research
• Problems facing research
• Criteria for classification of research
• Types of research
• Basic terms in research

Definition of Research
The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go about
seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compound word
from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'. The earliest recorded use of the term was in
1577. The term ‘Research’ can be defined as follows:
1) Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge,
including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to
devise new applications." It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work,
solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
2) Research is also defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a
problem using scientific methods.
3) According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to
describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon.”
4) Research is a systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge
by discovering new facts. It is divided into two general categories:
• Basic research, which is inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, and
• Applied research, which is an effort aimed at using basic research for solving problems or
developing new processes, products, or techniques.
5) According to C. Francies Rummel, “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify
knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing
in purpose and form and always searching for truth.”
6) According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and
their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic and verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field
studied.” He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition:
 It is an honest and exhaustive process.
 The facts are studied with understanding.
 The facts are discovered in the light of a problem. Research is problem-centred.
 The findings are valid and verifiable.
 Research work should contribute new knowledge in a field of study.
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 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 The main importance is to produce knowledge that can be applied outside a research setting.
Research forms the foundation of program development and policies everywhere around the
universe. It also solves particular existing problems of concern. Research is important because we are
able to learn more about things, people, and events. In doing research, we are able to make smart
decisions.
 Research is an important part of any business because it allows consumers and producers to become
more familiar with the products, goods, and services around them. It is important to society
because it allows us to discover more and more that might make our lives easier, more comfortable
and safer.

Specifically, research has the following objectives:

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in
view are termed as exploratory research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with
this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
 To find out the truth about a phenomenon which is hidden and which has not been discovered so
far.
 To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social behaviour.
 To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in skills
of research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action.
 To discover new facts and verify and test old facts through testing and experimentation.
 Research helps in portraying accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group in the organization and leads to organization redesign, and design of strategies of
development.
 Research may be used to determine the frequency with which a certain thing occurs or with which
it is associated with something else.
 It helps in testing a hypothesis or a causal relationship between variables to determine the cause
and effect impacts.
 The primary goal of the research, immediate or distant, is to understand the organizational
culture, social life, social environment, decision-making processes etc and thereby gain a greater
measure of control over human behaviour in the organization and social context.
 Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to
prepare a budget.
 It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality
of products.
 Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
 Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek
solutions to social problems.

Classifications of Research
Business research methods can be defined as “a systematic and scientific procedure of data
collection, compilation, analysis, interpretation, and implication pertaining to any business
problem”. Types of research methods can be classified into several categories according to the
nature and purpose of the study and other attributes.

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I. Classification According to the Purpose of the Study
a. Fundamental or Basic Research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event
or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic researches
sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with solving any
practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a
systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical
explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic
research form the basis for many applied researches. Basic Research;
 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in technical language of the topic

b. Applied research
In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories
and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are
essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome
of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research is of practical
use to current activity. Applied research;
 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
 Reports in common language

Differences between applied and fundamental research

BASIS FOR
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Meaning Basic Research refers to the study Applied Research is the research that
that is aimed at expanding the is designed to solve specific practical
existing base of scientific problems or answer certain questions.
knowledge.

Nature Theoretical Practical

Utility Universal Limited

Concerned with Developing scientific knowledge Development of technology and

and predictions technique

Goal To add some knowledge to the To find out solution for the problem at
existing one. hand.
Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research
The points given below explain the differences between basic and applied research:

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 1. Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already existing scientific
knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean the scientific study that is helpful
in solving real-life problems.
2. While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical approach.
3. The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the sense that the former
is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to the specific problem, for which it
was carried out.
4. The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and predictions. On the
other hand, applied research stresses on the development of technology and technique with the help
of basic science.
5. The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the already existing one.
Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a solution to the problem under
consideration.

II. Classification According to Type of Data

Types of research can be divided into three; quantitative, qualitative and mixed research categories.
a. Quantitative Research “describes, infers, and resolves problems using numbers. Emphasis is placed
on the collection of numerical data, the summary of those data and the drawing of inferences from
the data.”
It is used to quantify a problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed
into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined
variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population. It uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-
textual forms.
 The researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

b. Qualitative Research, on the other hand, is based on words, feelings, emotions, sounds and other
non-numerical and unquantifiable elements. It has been noted that “information is considered
qualitative in nature if it cannot be analysed by means of mathematical techniques. This
characteristic may also mean that an incident does not take place often enough to allow reliable data
to be collected.”
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into a problem or helps to develop
ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
 Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision-making.

c. Mixed Research is a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analysing and
integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews)
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 research. This approach to research is used when this integration provides a better understanding of
the research problem than either of each alone.

In this case, quantitative data includes close-ended information such as used to measure attitudes
(e.g., rating scales), behaviours (e.g., observation checklists), and performance instruments. The
analysis of this type of data consists of statistically analysing scores collected on instruments (e.g.,
questionnaires) or checklists to answer research questions or to test hypotheses.
On the other hand, qualitative data would consist of open-ended information that the researcher
usually gathers through interviews, focus groups and observations. The analysis of the qualitative
data (words, text or behaviours) typically follows the path of aggregating it into categories of
information and presenting the diversity of ideas gathered during data collection.

By mixing both quantitative and qualitative research data, the researcher gains greater breadth and
depth of understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to using each
approach by itself. One of the advantages of conducting mixed research is the possibility of
triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the
same phenomenon. Triangulation allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon more accurately
by approaching it from different vantage points using different methods and techniques.

III. Classification According to Nature of the Study

Types of the research methods according to the nature of research can be divided into two
groups: descriptive and analytical.
a. Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon.
 It can answer what, when, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.
 To determine cause and effect, experimental research is required.
 Descriptive research can use a wide variety of quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate
one or more variables.
 Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables,
but only observes and measures them.
 Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
 It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why
something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.
b. Analytical research, on the other hand, is fundamentally different in a way that “the researcher has
to use facts or information already available and analyse these in order to make a critical evaluation
of the material”.
 It involves critical thinking skills and the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research
being conducted.
 Whereas descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is, analytical
research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.

IV. Classification According to Research Design

On the basis of research design the types of research methods can be divided into two groups –
exploratory and conclusive.

a. Exploratory research intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to offer
final and conclusive solutions to existing problems.
 This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet.
 The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods
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 to be used in a subsequent study.
 The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.
 When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction
as a result of revelation of new data and new insights.
 It has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more
conclusive research.
 It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology and data collection
method.
 Exploratory research tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research has been
done.
The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business studies:
 A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication channel.
 An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within hospitality
sector.
 An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in
pharmaceutical industry.

b. Conclusive research aims to provide final and conclusive answers to research questions. It is applied
to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching conclusions for decision-making.
 Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify findings of exploratory studies.
 Conclusive research design usually involves the application of quantitative methods of data
collection and analysis.
 Moreover, conclusive studies tend to be deductive in nature and research objectives in these types
of studies are achieved via testing hypotheses.
The table below illustrates the main differences between conclusive and exploratory research design:
Factor Conclusive Exploratory

Objectives To test hypothesis and relationships To get insights and understanding

Information needs a clearly defined Information needs are loosely defined

Research process is formal and Research process is unstructured and
structured flexible
Large representative sample Small, non-representative sample
Characteristics Data analysis is quantitative Primary data analysis is qualitative

Findings Conclusive Only tentative

Findings used as input to decision Generally followed by further

Outcome making exploratory conclusive research

V. Classification According to Time Dimension

Another dimension of research is the treatment of time. Some studies give a snapshot of a single,
fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail. Other studies provide a moving picture that lets
us to follow events, people, or sale of products over a period of time. In this way, research could be
divided into two broad types, cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

a. Cross-sectional research. A cross-sectional study involves looking at data from a population at one
specific point in time. The researcher measures the outcome and the exposures in the study
participants at the same time. It is a type of observational research that analyses data of variables
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 collected at one given point in time across a sample population or a pre-defined subset. It is also
known as cross-sectional analysis or transverse study.

b. Longitudinal research. A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is

gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal research projects can
extend over several months of years.

Differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Cross-sectional research Longitudinal research

 Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct  Longitudinal studies may vary from a few
as compared to longitudinal studies. years to even decades.
 A longitudinal study requires a researcher to
 A cross-sectional study is conducted at a
revisit participants of the study at proper
given point in time.
intervals.
 Cross-sectional study is conducted with  Longitudinal study is conducted with the
different samples. same sample over the years.
 Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down  Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-
cause-and-effect relationship. effect relationship.
 Multiple variables can be studied at a single  Only one variable is considered to conduct
point in time. the study.
 Cross-sectional study is comparatively  Since the study goes on for years
cheaper. longitudinal study tends to get expensive.

Other Classifications of Research

1. Experimental research. Experiments are usually used in causal studies. Specifically, experimental
research involve manipulation of an independent variable in order to assess its impacts on a
dependent variable.
 Changes in price levels on volume of sales can be mentioned as a basic example for experiment. In
this specific example, price would be the independent variable, whereas sales would be the
dependent variable.
 Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics,
chemistry, biology and medicine etc.
Experimental Research is often used where:
 There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)
 There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)
 The magnitude of the correlation is great.
2. Explanatory Research. When we encounter an issue that s already known and have a description of
it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why,” to explain,
is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on
to identify the reasons for something happening. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.
For example, a descriptive research may discover that 10% of parents abuse their children, whereas
the explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why parents abuse their children.
Explanatory research aims at:
 Explaining things not just reporting. Why? To elaborate and enrich a theory's explanation.
 Determining which of several explanations is best.
 Determining the accuracy of the theory; to test a theory's predictions or principle.
 Advance knowledge about an underlying process.
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 Building and elaborating a theory; to elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or principle.
 Extending a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, and new topics.
 Providing evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction

Types of Research
There are three main types of research;
i) Business Research. This is the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analyzing
data to investigate specific problems to aid in making business decisions.
ii) Marketing Research. This is a systematic and objective process of identification, collection, analysis
and dissemination of information to provide solutions to marketing problems.
iii) Scientific Research. It is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the presumed relations among such phenomena.
It can also be defined as the activity of investigating some phenomena through practices that are
consistent with methods of science.

BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH

 Population: This refers to the target group under investigation. The population is the entire set
under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
 Sample: This is the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select
a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will
be generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which
are designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical; generally, the larger the number in the
sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.
 Sampling: The process of selecting a subgroup of a population (i.e. sample) that will be used to
represent the entire population.
 Sampling unit: This refers to a singular value within a sample database. For example, if you
were conducting research using a sample of college students, a single college student would be a
sampling unit.
 Sample size: The number of subjects in a study. Larger samples are preferable to smaller samples,
all else being equal.
 Sampling design (Sample design): The part of the research plan that specifies the method of
selection and the number of individuals or organizations who will be selected and asked to
participate in the study. The sampling design (sample design) specifies the target population, the
frame or list from which cases from that population will be selected, the approach that will be
used to select the sample members (simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling,
or combinations of these), and the number of sample units to be selected to achieve the study
objectives.
 Sampling error: This is the error that occurs because all members of the population are not
sampled and measured. The value of a statistic (e.g., mean or percentage) that is calculated
from different samples that are drawn from the same population will not always be the same. For
example, if several different samples of 5 people are drawn at random from the U.S. population, the
average income of the 5 people in those samples will differ. It is not incorrect to have sampling
error, and in fact statistical techniques take into account that sampling error will occur.
 Sampling frame: A list of the entire population eligible to be included within the specific parameters
of a research study.
 A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. The dependent variable
is the variable a researcher is interested in. An independent variable is a variable believed to affect
the dependent variable.
 Data: This is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or created to validate
original research findings. "Research data is defined as recorded factual material commonly
retained by and accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings.
 Research objectives describe concisely what the research is trying to achieve. They summarize
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 the accomplishments a researcher wishes to achieve through the project and provides direction
to the study.
 A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is
a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. A hypothesis is a
specific, testable prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will happen in
a certain circumstance. Your hypothesis may have been, 'If not studying lowers test performance
and I do not study, then I will get a low grade on the test.'
 Theory: This is a general explanation about a specific behaviour or set of events that is based on
known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as
specific as a hypothesis. Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena
and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical
bounding assumptions.
 The Theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research
problem under study exists. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support
a theory of a research study.
 Statistical analysis: This is the application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation,
presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.
 Descriptive statistics: It refers to those statistics that describe, organize, and summarize
data (frequencies, percentages, descriptions of central tendency and descriptions of relative
position).
 Research methodology: The method of research design (paradigm as well as statistics and analysis)
as well as the approximate timeline for completion of the study.
 Case study: This is an intensive investigation of the current and past behaviours and experiences of
a single person, family, group, or organization.
 Confidentiality: The protection of research subjects from being identified. A common standard in
social science research is that records or information used for research should not allow
participants to be identified and that researchers should not take any action that would affect the
individual to whom the information pertains.
 Construct: A construct or a concept is a theoretical creation that cannot be directly observed, but
can be measured using one or more indicators or tests. Examples of constructs in early care and
education research include classroom quality, professional development, reading and math
achievement, and socioemotional development.
 Correlation: The degree to which two variables are associated. Variables are positively correlated if
they both tend to increase at the same time. For example, height and weight are positively
correlated because as height increases weight also tends to increases. Variables are negatively
correlated if as one increases the other decreases. For example, number of police officers in a
community and crime rates are negatively correlated because as the number of police officers
increases the crime rate tends to decrease.
 Dependent variable: The outcome variable. A dependent variable is something that depends on
other factors. Researchers often try to find out what causes changes in the dependent variable. For
example, in a study of factors associated with children's scores on standardized tests, children's
scores would be the dependent variable.
 Exploratory study: An exploratory study is conducted to begin to understand a research problem
or question when there are few or no earlier studies and/or limited theory to refer to or rely
upon to answer the question. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later
investigation. Many variables are often taken into account and compared, using a variety of
techniques in the search for patterns.
 External validity: The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the study
sample to a larger population.
 Extraneous variable: A variable that interferes with the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables and which therefore needs to be controlled for in some way.
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 Generalizability: The extent to which conclusions from analysis of data from a sample can be applied
to the population as a whole.
 Hawthorne effect: Refers to the process where research subjects change their behaviour in response
to being studied. That is, people behave differently because they are being observed. For
example, teachers in a classroom might change their discipline practices if they are part of a
study that uses classroom observations as a data collection approach.
 Independent variable: The variable that the researcher expects to be associated with an outcome
of interest. For example, if a researcher wants to examine the relationship between parental
education and children's language development, parent education (years of schooling or highest level
of education completed) is the independent variable. Sometimes this variable is referred to as the
treatment variable or the causal variable.
 Internal validity: The extent to which researchers provide compelling evidence that the causal
(independent) variable causes changes in the outcome (dependent) variable. To do this,
researchers must rule other potential explanations for the changes in the outcome variable.
 Intervening variable: An intervening variable or mediating variable is something that effects or helps
to explain the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. An intervening
variable is the link between an independent and a dependent variable. It is predicted by the
independent variable, and it predicts the dependent variable.
 Literature review: A comprehensive survey of the research literature on a topic. Generally,
the literature review is presented at the beginning of a research paper and explains how the
researcher arrived at his or her research questions.
 Methodology: The principles, procedures, and strategies of research used in a study for gathering
information, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. There are broad categories of methodology
such as qualitative methods or quantitative methods; and there are particular types of
methodologies such as survey research, case study, and participant observation, among many
others.
 Moderating variable: A moderating variable, also called a moderator variable, is a variable that
affects the strength or direction of the relationship between a dependent and independent
variable. It is represented by an interaction term in regression models. For example, a researcher
might examine whether maternal depression moderates the relationship between the quality
of mother-child interactions and children's development. The researcher might hypothesize that this
relationship will be weaker for children's whose mothers are depressed than for other children.
 Null hypothesis: This hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups. The
alternative hypothesis states that there is some real difference between two or more groups.
 Pilot study: A small scale research study that is conducted prior to the larger, final study. The pilot
study gives researchers a chance to identify any problems with their proposed sampling
scheme, methodology, or data collection process. These studies are very useful in accessing
strengths and weakness of a potential study. Findings from the pilot are used to find solutions to
these problems and to modify the approach that will be used in the larger study.
 Questionnaire: A survey document with questions that are used to gather information from
individuals to be used in research.
 Reliability: This is the degree to which an assessment or other measurement tool produces stable
and consistent results. Reliability indicates the degree to which a measure will provide the same
result for the same person, across similar groups, and irrespective of who administers the assessment
or collects the data. A reliable measure will always give the same result on different occasions,
assuming that what is being measured has not changed during the intervening period.
 Research question: A clear statement in the form of a question of the specific issue that a researcher
wishes to answer using data from one or more sources. Examples include: Do children who
attend centre-based early care and education programs have stronger academic and social skills than
children who are cared for in a home-based child care setting?
 Target population: The population to which the researcher would like to generalize her or his
results based on analysis of a sample. The sample is selected from a target population.
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 Validity: The degree to which data and results are accurate reflections of reality. Validity refers to
the concepts that are investigated, the people or objects that are studied; the methods by which
data are collected; and the findings that are produced.

Research Paradigms
A research paradigm is an approach or a research model to conducting a research that has been
verified by the research community and that has been in practice for hundreds of years. Every research
uses one of the research paradigms to use as a guideline for developing research methodology and to
take on the research venture in a manner that is most valid and appropriate.
Types of Research Paradigm
1. Positivist Paradigm
Positivism is a philosophical system recognizing only that which can be scientifically verified or which
is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and therefore rejecting metaphysics and theism. It is
the theory that laws and their operation derive validity from the fact of having been enacted by
authority or of deriving logically from existing decisions, rather than from any moral considerations
(e.g. that a rule is unjust).
 Most of the scientific or quantitative research use positivism as a conceptual framework for
research.
Positivists believe that the findings of one study can be generalized to another study of a similar
kind regardless of it being conducted in a different environment and situations. This is true of
scientific variables like volume, speed, density, strength, and weight. For example, if a scientific study
proves the hypothesis that if a certain finish is applied to a fine cotton tulle fabric it will lose some
of its natural strength, these results can be generalized to another similar fabric that gets the same
after-finish.
 When talking about social and behavioural sciences quantitative researchers believe that any
human behaviour can be studied and predicted quantitatively and they believe that behaviour can be
explained using a scientific approach to research. While using positivist paradigm in social sciences
the researcher controls all the other factors that can ruin his/her research by having their
impact. To achieve a controlled environment the researcher has to conduct the research in a
laboratory setting like a scientific experiment, though the human behaviour is difficult to study in a
controlled environment, this makes it difficult for the social science researcher to use a positivist
paradigm in the study of human behaviour. For example, if a researcher hypothesizes that
adolescents who drop out of high schools are also involved in criminal activities, he/she has to study
those students who dropped out in a natural setting rather than in a lab. As human behaviour
cannot be studied in lab settings it’s difficult to generalize human behaviour to a wide and varied
group of people regardless of if they have several similarities.
2. Interpretivist Paradigm
Most of the qualitative research in social sciences use interpretivism approach to research.
Interpretivists believe that human behaviour is multi-layered and it cannot be determined by pre-
defined probabilistic models. It depends on the situations and is determined by environmental
factors other than the genes. A human behaviour is quite unlike a scientific variable which is easy to
control. Human behaviours are affected by several factors and are mostly subjective in nature.
Therefore, interpretivist believe in studying human behaviour in the daily life rather than in the
controlled environment.
Distinction between Positivism and Interpretivism
 To summarize positivism and interpretivism we can say that positivism is governed by objectivity,
measurability, predictability, probability, controllability and control laws that can predict human
behaviour. On the other hand, anti-positivism or interpretivism is governed by subjectivity and
studying human behaviour in a real-life setting.
 Though, both of these paradigms are opposite of each other they represent the reality in two
different manners, both of them have their own value and significance in the growth and
development of knowledge.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 11
 TOPIC 2: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
TOPIC CONTENT
• Research process/steps
• The flow chart
• Research problem identification
• Formulating the problem statement
• Sources of a research problem
• Qualities of a good problem statement
• Aims and Objectives in research
• Objectives in research
• Qualities of effective objective
• Formulation of hypothesis/research questions
• When to use a hypothesis
• Purpose of a hypothesis
• Characteristics of a good hypothesis
• Types of Hypothesis
• Hypothesis or determination of answers to research questions
• Conceptual framework; Formulation, importance of a conceptual framework, Qualities of an
effective conceptual framework.

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

A typical research process comprises the following stages:
 Formulating the research problem;
 Extensive literature survey;
 Preparing the research design;
 Determining sample design;
 Collecting the data;
 Analysis of data;
 Interpretation, and conclusions
 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

1. Formulating the research problem: The researcher must single out the problem he wants to study,
i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to
inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a
general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, understanding
the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms. The choice between the
formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research
approach. It is critically important to get your research questions or hypotheses confirmed by your
supervisor before moving forward with the work.
2. Conducting the Literature Review: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research process.
The literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and objective; because you
have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed before. Nevertheless, the
main part of the literature review is conducted after the formulation of research aim and objectives.
You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines,
journals, online articles, etc., when developing your literature review.
3. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms,
the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the data
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 12
 collection methods to be used. Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the basis of
critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative data collection
methods. In studies involving primary data collection, in-depth discussions of advantages and
disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) need to be included in methodology.
4. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as
a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element
of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. A sample
design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample
from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 chemist shops in a certain way
constitutes a sample design.
5. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real-life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several always of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs,
time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data collection is not a
compulsory stage for all research projects and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-
based research.
6. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. The data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. Coding is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Data analysis methods
vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative
studies.
7. Interpretation and Conclusions: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible
for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. The real value of research lies
in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In this final part of
your dissertation you will have to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been
achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future research.
8. Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him. Following all of the stages described above, and organizing separate chapters into one file
leads to the completion of the research report.

Flowchart: Steps in Research Process

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 13

 RESEARCH PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Meaning of Research Problem
A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists
in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation (Alan Bryman). E.g., “To examine the effect of retail
service quality on customer loyalty.” The research problem is the heart of a study. It is a clear,
definite statement of the area of concern or investigation and is backed by evidence. It drives the
research questions and processes and provides the framework for understanding the research
findings.

Identification of a Research Problem

Ideas for a research problem tend to come from two sources: real life and the scholarly arena.
 First, identifying a research problem can be through observing the complications and issues in your
local workplace. You may encounter ongoing issues on a daily basis in your workplace or
observe your colleagues struggle with major issues or questions in your field. These ongoing
obstacles and issues in the workplace can be the catalyst for developing a research problem.
 Research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your
field. Major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or data-based facts that call for
additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed.
 Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.

How to Evaluate a Research Problem

Once you find your potential research problem, you will need to evaluate the problem and ensure
that it is appropriate for research. A research problem is deemed appropriate when it is supported
by the literature, and considered significant, timely, novel, specific, and researchable. Stronger
research problems are more likely to succeed in publication, presentation, and application.
a) Supported by Literature: Your research problem should be relevant to the field and supported
by a number of recent peer-reviewed studies in the field. Even if you identify the problem based
on the recommendation of one journal article or dissertation, you will still need to conduct a
literature search and ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for conducting
research to further address the problem.
b) Significant: Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field. The impact can
be practical, in the form of direct application of the results in the field, or conceptual, where the
work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap.
c) Timely: Your research problem should be related to the current needs in the field and well-suited
for the present status of the issues in your field. Explore what topics are being covered in current
journals in the field. Look at calls from relevant disciplinary organizations. Review your research
centre agenda and focused topics. Identifying a current question in the field and supporting the
problem with the recent literature can justify the problem timeliness.
d) Novel: Your research problem should be original and unique. It should seek to address a gap
in knowledge or application. An exhaustive review of literature can help you identify whether the
problem has already been addressed with your particular sample and/or context.
e) Specific and Clear: Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the
study, raise research question(s), and determine an appropriate research method and design. Vague
research problems may not be useful to specify the direction of the study or develop research
questions.
f) Researchable: Research problems are solved through the scientific method. This means research-
ability, or feasibility of the problem, is more important than all of the above characteristics.
You as the researcher should be able to solve the problem with your abilities and available
research methods, designs, research sites, resources, and timeframe.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 14

 Formulating the Problem Statement
An adequate statement of your research problem plays an important role in the success of your
academic paper and study. It’s possible to generate a number of researchable issues from the same
subject because there are many issues that may arise out of it. Your study should pursue only one in
detail.
The purpose of a problem statement is to:
1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the
significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.
2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates why it is necessary to conduct the
study and explain how the findings will present this information.

Characteristics of Research Problem

For your research problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic characteristics:
 Should reflect on important issues or needs;
 Should be manageable and relevant;
 Should suggest a testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers).

Formulating your research problem enables you to make a purpose of your study clear to yourself
and target readers. Focus your paper on providing relevant data to address it. A problem statement
is an effective and essential tool to keep you on track with research and evaluate it.

Research Problem Formulation

 Specify your research objectives;
 Review its context or environment;
 Explore its nature;
 Determine variable relationships;
 Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches.

1. Specific research objectives; a clear statement that defines all objectives can help you conduct and
develop effective and meaningful research. They should be manageable to bring you success. A few
goals will help you keep your study relevant.
2. Review the context of your research problem; it’s necessary to work hard to define and test all kinds
of environmental variables to make your project successful. Why do you need to do that? This step
can help you define if the important findings of your study will deliver enough data to be worth
considering. Identify specific environmental variables that may potentially affect your research and
start formulating effective methods to control all of them.
3. Explore the nature of your research problem; esearch problems may range from simple to complex,
and everything depends on a range of variables and their relationships. This knowledge enables you
to develop effective solutions.
4. Determine variable relationships; scientific, social, and other studies often focus on creating a
certain sequence of repeating behaviours over time. What does your project entail? Completing the
entire process involves:
 Identifying the variables that affect possible solutions to your research problem;
 Deciding on the degree to which you can use and control all of them for study purposes;
 Determining functional relationships between existing variables;
 Choose the most critical variables for a solution of your research problem.
During the formulation stage, it’s necessary to consider and generate as many potential approaches
and variable relationships as you can.
5. Determine consequences of alternative approaches; there are different consequences that each
course of action or approach can bring. You need to anticipate them.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 15

 Example of a Research Problem Statement of research titled “Effect of retail service quality on
customer loyalty”:

‘Previous studies on service quality are either based on pure service models or on models that have
not been adapted and validated in a retail environment, where it is necessary to look at service
quality from the point of view of service offered as well as goods purchased. Therefore, retail
service quality measurement should be done using a set of dimensions that have been validated to
accurately measure it. The Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) model has been developed to capture
dimensions important to retail customers. These are Physical Aspects, Reliability, Personal
Interaction, Problem Solving and General Policy. Therefore, the RSQS model was adopted for the
purpose of this study. In addition, although previous studies have found a positive relationship
between service quality and customer satisfaction, they only treated customer loyalty as an
outcome of customer satisfaction, failed to test if satisfied customers remained loyal to a service
provider and also failed to determine the factors that would lead to customer loyalty among
supermarket customers. Further, the studies were either conducted in markets outside of Kenya or
in industries other than the retail industry. Therefore, this study was aimed at closing the existing
gap by measuring service quality offered by supermarkets in Kisumu City, assessing the level of
customer loyalty, and examining the extent to which retail service quality contributes to customer
loyalty. An understanding of this may provide an avenue for supermarkets in Kisumu City to
improve their retail marketing strategies for their own competitiveness and to their customers’
benefit’.

Qualities of a Good Problem Statement

A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than enough for a good
statement of problem. A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
 It should address a gap in knowledge
 It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
 It should lead to further research
 The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
 It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
 The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

Research Aim and Objectives

Formulating research aim and objectives in an appropriate manner is one of the most important
aspects of your research. This is because research aim and objectives determine the scope, depth
and the overall direction of the research.

Research Aim
The research aim is the answer to the question: ‘what are you doing?’
 You need to clearly describe what your intentions are and what you hope to achieve.
 Your aim may be to test theory in a new empirical setting, replicate an existing study, question
existing theory, and so on. Whatever it is, it should be clearly articulated.
 Be very explicit. In the opening paragraphs, say, in simple terms, ’the aim of this research is to….’
 Think of your aim as a statement of intent. It is a promise to the reader that you are going to do
something.
Because it serves as the starting point of the study, there needs to be a flow from your aim through
your objectives to your research questions and contribution and then into the study itself.
Achievement of research aim provides answer to the research questions.

Research Objectives
Your aim answers the question ‘what are you doing’. The objectives are the answer to the question
‘how are you doing it’. Moreover, research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 16
 objectives comprise a number of steps that address HOW the research aim will be achieved. Research
objectives refer to the steps that you will take to achieve your aims. They divide research aim into
several parts and address each part separately. As a rule, there should be one research aim and
several research objectives to facilitate the achievement of this aim. When you write research
objectives, make sure they are SMART:

Characteristics of Research Objectives

 Specific: say in a precise and clear way about what you are going to do
 Measurable: how will you know when you have achieved your aim
 Achievable: make sure that you aren't overly ambitious.
 Realistic: recognise the time and resource constraints that come with doing a research and don't
attempt to do too much.
 Time constrained: determine when each objective needs to be completed.

Example:
Research title: Effect of retail service quality on customer loyalty
Research aim: To examine the effect of retail service quality on customer loyalty
The following research objectives would facilitate the achievement of this aim:
1. To measure the significance of individual retail service quality dimensions in predicting customer
loyalty among supermarkets in Kisumu City.
2. To assess the relationship between overall retail service quality and customer loyalty among
supermarkets in Kisumu City.

Formulation of Research Questions

 Research questions are refined statements of the specific components of the problem. Research
questions ask what specific information is required with respect to the problem components. The
research objectives are often converted into research questions that then give a specific direction of
the information sought by the researcher.
 A research question identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the methodology. It leads to
building up of an appropriate hypothesis (Hs).
 It is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue. It is the initial step in a research project.
The 'initial step' means after you have an idea of what you want to study, the research question is
the first active step in the research project.

Qualities of a Good Research Question

A good research question should have the following qualities:
 Clear and focused. The question should clearly state what the writer needs to do.
 Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an appropriate scope. If the question
is too broad it will not be possible to answer it. If it is too narrow you will not have enough to write
about and you will struggle to develop a strong argument.
 Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should require more than a simple yes or no
answer.
 Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the question thoroughly within the given
timeframe.
 Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research materials, such as
academic books and refereed journal articles.
 Analytical rather than descriptive. The research question should allow you to produce an analysis of
an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it.

Example of Research Questions:

Research title: Effect of retail service quality on customer loyalty.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 17

 Questions:
1. To what extent is the significance of individual retail service quality dimensions in predicting
customer loyalty among supermarkets in Kisumu City?
2. What is the relationship that exists between overall retail service quality and customer loyalty among
supermarkets in Kisumu City?

Research Hypothesis
 “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent
and dependent variable” (Creswell, 1994).
 It is a speculation or theory based on insufficient evidence that lends itself to further testing and
experimentation. With further testing, a hypothesis can usually be proven true or false.
 “A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form of a question.”
 “It is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables.”
 “A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome
of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome” (Sarantakos, 1993).

A hypothesis is used in an experiment or research to define the relationship between two variables.
The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. A formalized hypothesis will force
us to think about what results we should look for in an experiment.
It is appropriate to use a hypothesis when you are testing a theory. A theory is 'an idea about how
things relate to each other'. If you have an expectation of how your research question will be
answered (the outcome) then it is fair to say you have a theory in mind. If you ask of your research
question 'What is the expected outcome?' and have an answer, you can ask why? This is essentially
the theory that you will be testing.
Example of Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were tested “to examine the effect of retail service quality on customer
loyalty”:
 H1 Individual retail service quality dimensions have no statistically significant impact on customer
loyalty in selected supermarkets in Kisumu City.
 H2 There is no statistically significant relationship between retail service quality and customer loyalty
among supermarkets in Kisumu City.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
1. Precise: It must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the inferences drawn on its
basis would not be reliable.
2. Testability: A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research programmes
fail owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity. Therefore, some prior study may
be conducted by the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A hypothesis “is tested if
other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can be confirmed or disproved by observation”
(Kothari, 1988).
3. Relational: It must state the relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
4. Specific: It must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler hypothesis generally would
be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore, he/she must formulate such hypotheses.
5. Simplicity: As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as to make it
understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that the simplicity of a hypothesis is not
related to its significance.
6. Consistency: It must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In other words, it should
be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. That is, it must be in the form of a
statement which is most likely to occur.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 18

7. Testable Timeframe: It must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of
time.
8. No matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not use it if it cannot be tested within a
given period of time, as no one can afford to spend a lifetime on collecting data to test it.
9. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for an explanation. This
is to say that by using the hypothesis, and other known and accepted generalizations, a researcher
must be able to derive the original problem condition. Therefore, a hypothesis should explain what
it actually wants to explain, and for this, it should also have an empirical reference.

Research Questions versus Hypothesis

i) Research questions are interrogative while hypothesis are declarative and can be tested empirically.
ii) Hypotheses go beyond research questions because they are statements of relationships or
propositions rather than merely questions to which answers are sought.
iii) Hypotheses suggest variables to be included in a research while research question seek to establish
the relevance of such variables to research.
iv) A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question.

Types of Hypothesis
There are two major types of hypothesis; null and alternative hypothesis.
1. Null Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two
variables in the research. It is the proposition that there is no effect or no relationship between
phenomena or populations. It is the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to disprove.
 If the null hypothesis is true, any observed difference in phenomena or populations would be due to
sampling error (random chance) or experimental error. The null hypothesis is useful because it can
be tested and found to be false, which then implies that there is a relationship between the observed
data. The null hypothesis is generally denoted as H0
In the example,
 H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between retail service quality and customer loyalty
among supermarkets in Kisumu City.
A researcher is challenged by the null hypothesis and usually wants to disprove it, to demonstrate
that there is a statistically-significant relationship between the two variables in the hypothesis.

2. Alternative Hypothesis. This is simply the inverse, or opposite, of the null hypothesis.
 It makes a statement that suggests or advises a potential result or an outcome that an investigator
or the researcher may expect. It has been categorized into two categories: directional alternative
hypothesis and non-directional alternative hypothesis.
 The directional hypothesis is a kind that explains the direction of the expected findings. Sometimes
this type of alternative hypothesis is developed to examine the relationship among the variables
rather than a comparison between the groups.
 The non-directional hypothesis is a kind that has no definite direction of the expected findings being
specified.
 The alternative hypothesis is generally denoted as H1. An alternative hypothesis would be that there
IS a statistically significant relationship between retail service quality and customer loyalty among
supermarkets in Kisumu City.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework is the researcher’s understanding of how the particular variables in the
study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required in the research investigation.
 It is the researcher’s “map” in pursuing the investigation.
 As McGaghie et al. (2001) put it: The conceptual framework “sets the stage” for the presentation of
the particular research question that drives the investigation being reported based on the problem
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 19
 statement. The problem statement of a research project presents the context and the issues that
caused the researcher to conduct the study.
 A conceptual framework is used to illustrate what you expect to find through your research, including
how the variables you are considering might relate to each other.
 The basis of testing research – and thus the start of constructing a conceptual framework – is often
a cause-effect relationship.

Variables
The first step in scientifically demonstrating a cause-effect relationship is to map your expectations
using a conceptual framework. Before doing so, it’s important to identify the relevant variables.
Variables are simply the characteristics that the cause-effect relationship is describing. In our
example, the two variables are “hours of study” and “exam score.”
Independent and Dependent Variables
A cause-effect relationship always involves two types of variables: independent and dependent. In
our example, “hours of study” is the independent variable, while “exam score” is the dependent
variable. In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of study.”
Designing a Conceptual Framework
The basic design components of a conceptual framework are boxes, arrows, and lines:
Create a box for each variable. Use arrows to indicate cause-effect relationships. Each arrow should
start from the variable that has causal influence and point to the variable that is being affected. Use
a line when you expect a correlation between two variables, but no cause-effect relationship. Here
is a sample conceptual framework that represents the relationship between the independent
variable of “hours of study” and the dependent variable of “exam score:”

Sample conceptual framework using an independent variable and a dependent variable

Steps in Developing a Conceptual Framework

Before you prepare your conceptual framework, you need to do the following things:
1. Choose your topic. Decide on what will be your research topic. The topic should be within your field
of specialization.
2. Do a literature review. Review relevant and updated research on the theme that you decide to work
on after scrutiny of the issue at hand.
3. Isolate the important variables. Identify the specific variables described in the literature and figure
out how these are related.
4. Generate the conceptual framework. Build your conceptual framework using your mix of the
variables from the literature you have read. Your problem statement serves as a reference in
constructing the conceptual framework. In effect, your study will attempt to answer a question that
other researchers have not explained yet. Your research should address a knowledge gap.

Expanding the Conceptual Framework

Other types of variables can be incorporated in a research. Depending on the research, one may wish
to show additional facets of a cause-effect relationship by introducing one or more of the following:

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 20

i) Moderator Variables
The example we use is that of Ben, a student who put in many hours of studying (independent
variable) in order to get a higher score on his exam (dependent variable). Now we’ll expand the
original framework by adding a moderator variable.
A moderator variable alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable,
on the basis of the moderator’s value. The moderator thus changes the effect component of the
cause- effect relationship between the two variables. This moderation is also referred to as the
interaction effect.

In the example above, the number of hours Ben studies is related to the score he will get in the exam.
 It seems logical that the more he prepares, the higher his score will be.
 Now we add the moderator “IQ.” Ben’s IQ level changes the effect that the variable “hours of study”
has on his score: the higher his IQ, the fewer hours of study he must put in to do well in the exam.
 The “IQ” moderator changes the effect component of the cause-effect relationship; in other words,
it moderates the effect that the number of study hours has on the exam score.

ii) Mediator/Intervening Variables

A mediator or intervening variable comes between an independent variable and a dependent
variable in a cause-effect relationship and allows that relationship to be better explained. Mediator
variables can be very difficult to interpret and care must be taken when conclusions are being drawn
from them. It is therefore critical that mediator variables are always underpinned by statistical
analysis.
Going back to our example of Ben and his exam preparation, here’s how the conceptual framework
might look if a mediator variable were involved:

 In this example, the relationship between the independent variable (“hours of study”) and the
dependent variable (“exam score”) plays centre stage. As established previously, the cause-effect
relationship is that the more hours Ben studies, the better he will do in the exam.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 21

 However, now we have added the mediator variable of “number of practice problems completed.”
In the figure above, the mediator variable comes between the independent and dependent variables.
 The more hours Ben studies, the more practice problems he will complete. The more practice
problems he completes, the higher his exam score will be. By adding the mediator variable of
“number of practice problems completed,” we strengthen the cause-effect relationship between the
two main variables being explored.
 It’s important not to confuse a mediator with a moderator. The moderator of “IQ” is not a mediator
variable, because the number of hours Ben studies (the independent variable) does not affect his IQ,
i.e. no matter how many hours Ben studies, his IQ will not increase.

iii) Control Variables

In our example of Ben and his exam, a control variable could be “health.” It could be argued that if
Ben is feeling ill, he’ll get a lower score on his exam (i.e. health will influence the dependent variable).
The below figure illustrates how the revised conceptual framework would look in this case.

That is, if you wanted to conduct a survey among students to demonstrate statistically that there is
indeed a cause-effect relationship between “hours of study” and “exam score,” it would be wise to
ask about each student’s health.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 22

 TOPIC 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
TOPIC CONTENT
• Purpose/Importance of literature Review
• The scope of the literature review
• Steps in carrying out Literature review
• Sources of Literature

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) on a
particular topic. It gives an overview of key findings, concepts and developments in relation to a
research problem or question. A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other
sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a
description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored
while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within
a larger field of study.

Purpose of Literature Review

The purpose of literature review is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being
studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature.

Steps in Writing Literature Review

Step 1: Collect, evaluate and select literature
Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
Search for literature related to your research problem and questions. This is the first step in
understanding the state of knowledge on your topic before you begin your own research.
Evaluate and select sources
Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major
theories in your field of research. The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline:
in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities, you might take a long
historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).
Take notes and cite your sources
As you read, you should also begin the writing process—take notes that you can later incorporate
into the text of your literature review. It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to
avoid plagiarism.
Step 2: Find connections and themes
To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to identify
relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less
popular over time?
 Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
 Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the
field?
 Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 23
 This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and show how your own
research will contribute to existing knowledge.
Step 3: Plan your literature review’s structure
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length
of your literature review, you can combine several strategies.
Chronological: The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However,
be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns, turning
points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how
and why certain developments occurred.
Thematic: If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review
into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing
literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy,
language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.
Methodological: If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of
research methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from
different approaches. For example:
 Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
 Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
 Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
Theoretical: A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it
to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You might argue for the
relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a
framework for your research.
Step 4: Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body, and a
conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

Theoretical Framework
Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections and make
predictions.
They are based on existing knowledge, observations, and ideas.
In your research project, the theoretical framework is where you define, discuss and evaluate
theories relevant to your research problem. You explain the key concepts, models and assumptions
that guide your project, and show that your work is grounded in established ideas.
The main goals of a theoretical framework are to:
 Define key concepts
 Evaluate, select, and/or combine relevant theories
 Explain your assumptions and expectations
The theoretical framework shows that your research is not just coming ‘out of the blue,’ but that is
based on existing theory. The definitions and models you select give your project direction, and you
will build on these choices at later stages.
This part of your research project lays the foundations that will support your analysis, helping you
interpret your results and make broader generalizations.

Steps in developing a theoretical framework

The first step is to identify the key terms from your problem statement and research questions.
Concepts often have multiple definitions, so the theoretical framework involves clearly defining what
you mean by each term.
1. Select key concepts
Sample problem statement and research questions
Company X is struggling with the problem that many online customers do not return to make
subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty and believes that improved
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 24
 customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this goal. To investigate this problem, you
have identified and plan to focus on the following problem statement, objective, and research
questions:
Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.
Research question: How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order
to increase customer loyalty?
2. Define and evaluate relevant concepts, theories, and models
By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other researchers have defined
and drawn connections between these key concepts. As you write the theoretical framework, aim to
compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have proposed. In more
complex research projects, you might combine theories from different fields to build your own
unique framework. Make sure to mention the most important theories related to your key concepts.
3. Show what your research will contribute
Apart from discussing other people’s theories and ideas, the theoretical framework should aim to
show how your own project fits in.
 Will you test a theory or contribute new evidence by collecting original (qualitative or quantitative)
data?
 Will you use theory as a basis for interpreting and understanding your data?
 Will you analyse, critique or challenge established theory?
 Will you combine theoretical approaches in a new or unique way?
 If relevant, you can also use the theoretical framework to develop hypotheses for your research. A
hypothesis makes a testable prediction about the outcome of a specific study, while a theory is the
explanation for why and how certain outcomes happen in general.
 That means you can use the theory to determine what you expect to happen. When structuring your
theoretical framework, create a clear, logical structure.
 One way to do this is to draw on your research questions/hypotheses and some of your key terms.
For example, you could create a section or paragraph that looks at each question, hypothesis, or key
concept. Within each section, you would then explore the theories and models that are relevant to
that particular item.
 As in all other parts of your research project, make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid
plagiarism.

General Rules for Citation

i) Every paragraph must have a source.
ii) Use the American Psychological Association (APA) reference style.
iii) Cite only surname and year. When starting with author the year is bracketed e.g. “According to Kotler
(2013) a research design……” At the end of a sentence both surname and year is put in brackets e.g.
“………………descriptive research design is used” (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2013).
iv) When citing more than two authors use one surname and the Latin words et al, meaning and others.
v) Where authors have the same surname include the initials.
vi) For corporate authors, cite the name once and thereafter use abbreviations.

Sources of Literature Review

Your literature review should integrate a wide range of sources such as:
a) Books. Textbooks remain as the most important source to find models and theories related to your
research area. Research the most respected authorities in your selected research area and find the
latest editions of books authored by them. For example, in the area of marketing the most notable
authors includes Philip Kotler.
b) Magazines. Industry-specific magazines are usually rich in scholarly articles and they can be effective
sources to learn about the latest trends and developments in the research area. Reading industry

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 25

 magazines can be the most enjoyable part of the literature review, assuming that your selected
research area represents an area of your personal and professional interests.
c) Newspapers can be referred to as the main source of up-to-date news about the latest events related
to the research area. However, the proportion of the use of newspapers in literature review is
recommended to be less compared to alternative sources of secondary data such as books and
magazines due to the fact that newspaper articles mainly lack depth of analyses and discussions.
d) Online articles. You can find online versions of all of the above sources. However, note that the levels
of reliability of online articles can be highly compromised depending on the source due to the high
levels of ease with which articles can be published online.
e) Trade Publications. Trade publications or trade journals are periodicals directed to members of a
specific profession. They often have information about industry trends and practical information for
people working in the field.
Features of trade publications include:
• Authors are specialists in their fields
• Focused on members of a specific industry or profession
• Include photographs, illustrations, charts, and graphs.
• Technical vocabulary
f) Scholarly, Academic, and Scientific Publications. These are a collections of articles written by
scholars in an academic or professional field. Most journals are peer-reviewed or refereed, which
means a panel of scholars reviews articles to decide if they should be accepted into a specific
publication. Journal articles are the main source of information for researchers and for literature
reviews.
Features of journals
• written by scholars and subject experts
• author’ credentials and institution will be identified
• written for other scholars
• dedicated to a specific discipline that it covers in depth
• often report on original or innovative research
• long articles, often 5-15 pages or more
• articles almost always include a list of sources at the end (Works Cited, References, Sources, or
• Bibliography) that point back to where the information was derived
• published by organizations or associations to advance their specialized body of knowledge

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 26

 TOPIC 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
TOPIC CONTENTS
• Define research design
• Types of research design; descriptive, experimental, correlational, case study
• Selecting a research design
• Sampling techniques
• Sampling design; Probability designs & non probability designs
• Probability Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Systematic Random Sampling
(Include advantages & Disadvantages of each)
• Non Probability Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
• Bias and Error in sampling
• Research Instruments
 Questionnaires; formulation, advantages & disadvantages
 Interviews; unstructured, semi structured, structured
 Observation
 Validity & Reliability of research Instruments
 Data Collections and analysis
 Purpose of Data collection
 Sources of Data
 Factors to consider during data collection
 Ethical issues in Data collection
 Data analysis in qualitative and Quantitative research
 Testing of hypothesis
 Basic concept of hypothesis testing
 Steps in hypothesis testing
 Types of errors and level of significance
 ‘t’ and ‘f’ tests
 Chi-square method
 Computerized data analysis
 Presentation of data
 Data processing operations
 Graphical presentation
 Measures of Central tendency for discrete and grouped data
 Measures of dispersion
 Measures of relationship
 Formulation of conclusions
 Reporting and dissemination of finding

Definition of Research Design

 Research design is a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine
various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is
efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular
methodology.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 27

 A research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and analysing measures of
the variables specified in the problem research. It is a framework that has been created to find
answers to research questions.

Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which
type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly classified into
quantitative and qualitative research design.

A. Qualitative Research Design: This is a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data.
This type of research "refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors,
symbols, and description of things" and not to their "counts or measures". A qualitative research
design is concerned with establishing answers to the whys and hows of the phenomenon in question
(unlike quantitative).
The underlying reason for carrying out any qualitative research is to gain a richly detailed
understanding of a particular topic, issue, or meaning based on first-hand experience. This is achieved
by having a relatively small but focused sample base because collecting the data can be rather time
consuming; qualitative data is concerned with depth as opposed to quantity of findings.
B. Quantitative Research Design: This is the systematic empirical investigation of observable
phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of
quantitative relationships.
It results to the generation of quantitative data - any data that is in numerical form such as statistics,
percentages, etc. The researcher analyses the data with the help of statistics and hopes the numbers
will yield an unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger population.
Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under his research study. Descriptive research aims to accurately and
systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon.
It can answer what, when, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. To determine
cause and effect, experimental research is required. A descriptive research design can use a wide
variety of quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate one or more variables. The researcher
does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship
between the cause and effect relationship of a situation. It is a causal research design where the
effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, the
effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction
or brand loyalty is monitored. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it
has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behaviour by
analyzing two groups – effect of one group on the other.
3. Correlational Research Design: A correlational study is a type of research design where a researcher
seeks to understand what kind of relationships naturally occurring variables have with one another.
In simple terms, correlational research seeks to figure out if two or more variables are related and, if
so, in what way. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is
no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical analysis
techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them. Correlation between two variables
is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 28

 coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a
negative relationship between the two variables.
4. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts
are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation
about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related
to the research questions.
 Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.
 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics of individuals,
groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (how the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other).
 Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.
5. Case Study Research Design: A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather
than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow
down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples.
 The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually
applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue
or phenomenon.
 It is an empirical inquiry that: “Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context;
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”; and an
inquiry that “copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more
variables of interest than data points, and as one result, relies on multiple sources of evidence, with
data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another result, benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis.”
6. Cross-sectional Research Design: One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is
gathered once, during a period of days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are
exploratory or descriptive in purpose. They are designed to look at how things are now, without any
sense of whether there is a history or trend at work.
7. Empirical Versus non-Empirical: Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. It is a way
of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values
such research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or
experiences) can be analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. Quantifying the evidence or making
sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly
defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data). Research design varies by
field and by the question being investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative
forms of analysis to better answer questions which cannot be studied in laboratory settings,
particularly in the social sciences and in education. In a non-experimental or non-empirical design
the researcher may or may not formulate a hypothesis and it can be a descriptive research. The
researcher can use any data collection tool depending on whether the research is descriptive,
historical or a case study.
8. Cohort Analysis: A cohort analysis is a multiple cross sectional design that has a series of surveys
conducted at appropriate time intervals. Example opinion polls on the best presidential candidate
carried out fortnightly to show the trends overtime.
It is of special interest as it is an improved cross sectional design used to monitor system-change in
behaviour.
9. Longitudinal Research: This is an investigation involving a fixed sample (panel) of elements that is
measured repeatedly through a period of time. The sample remains the same overtime, thus
providing a series of picture which when viewed together portray a vivid illustration of the situation
and changes that are taking place overtime. True panels are members studied repeatedly to measure
the same variable. Omnibus panel are members studied repeatedly but along variables the change,

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 29

 SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN
 The Study Base: This is the group or population that you are researching. A study base can be quite
broad for some types of research, while other research questions will require a narrower group. For
example, if you are studying the effects of pollution in a city, the study base can include any individual
that resides there. However, if your scientific research is to determine the effects of pollution on
children with asthma in the city, this would require a more specific study base.
 The Study Timeline: Take into account what period of time you should collect data for your proposed
study. The timeline or temporal sequence of a research study can be historical -- retrospective -- or
prospective, which means it is happening in the foreseeable future. If your research study is looking
at causes of an illness, it will be designed to look at the medical history and past lifestyle choices of
individuals who have the illness. Alternatively, prospective studies that look forward are better suited
for short-term research, such as the effects of a mother's diet on birth weight.
 Quantitative and Qualitative: Quantitative research involves gathering and statistically analyzing
information that can be measured or counted. This type of research is objective because it provides
numbers as answers or results. In comparison, qualitative research typically looks at open-ended
questions on study topics that cannot be measured or counted. This research design fits the study of
experiences, cultures, social phenomena and trends, which are more subjective. For example, if you
are studying the effects of music, you might ask your study base how various types of music make
them feel.
 Reliability and Repetition: A research design is reliable and valid if it can be repeated with similar
results. A research design should be clear and easy to follow so that they can be carried out by a
separate group of researchers to produce the same results. To ensure your design is reliable, list all
the criteria that were used in selecting the study group, identify all the guidelines of the research
process, list all the equipment and supplies used, and record all results accurately.

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest
so that by studying the sample one may fairly generalize results of the sample to the entire population
from which they were chosen. When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely
possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is
the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

Terms Used in Sampling

1. Population: Population is the collection of the elements on which you are required to analyze and
draw a conclusion. The population includes all the items under consideration for the particular case
study and is usually very large.
2. Unit: Each component of the population being studied is known as a unit of the population. Some or
many of these units are chosen as samples for further analysis and deduction.
3. Strata: The section of the population chosen by taking more or less homogeneous units together is
called a stratum or strata. Items are classified into strata during Stratified Random Sampling.
For Example
 Group of Single Billionaires
 Group of Models who have married multiple times
4. Sample Frame: The collection of the elements from which you will be drawing samples is known as
Sample Frame. Sample Frame can be the same as Population or a part of the Population in some
cases. Sample Frame must be significantly larger than the Sample Size to obtain higher level of
accuracy in results. The Sample Frame must be representative of the whole population.
5. Sample: The items taken from the population for analysis (for deduction of hypothesis or arriving at
a conclusion) are samples.
6. Sample Size: The size of the total samples to be taken constitutes the sample size. This is the
collection of all the samples taken. Sample size can vary on the following factors:
 Size of the Population
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 30
 Variability on the Population
 Required Level of Accuracy
7. Generalizing: The process of making an opinion or overall view on a specific group by investigating
and analyzing some of the evidences is known as generalizing. Generalizing enables us to use the
results obtained from the study of a situation into other similar situations.
8. Validity: Validity means accuracy, truthfulness and authenticity. In the current context, the validity
of an information can be defined as the sufficiency of the information on the subject matter with
reasonable truthfulness and without any biasness on the representation of the overall characteristics
of the whole population.
9. Bias: Lack of justice to the items due to different reasons which affects the validity and efficiency of
the system is termed as bias. Biases restrict the conclusion or opinion drawn on the population to
represent the whole system. Biasness may occur due to different reasons. Some of the reasons for
biasness in the system are:
 Lack of knowledge of the persons carrying out the system on the subject matter.
 Collusion of interests of the person carrying on the system and that of the whole system.
 Inherent reasons like laziness, lack of enough resources, monotony etc.
10. Sampling Error: The error that occurs because the samples are not the true representatives of the
population is known as Sampling Error. In other words, the deviation of the conclusion or view on
any population from the actual status of the population due to the inappropriate samples or very tiny
size of the samples is called Sampling Error.
11. Systematic error: The errors due to wrong use of equipment or the data handling system used or due
to the inappropriate usage of the theories is called Systematic errors.
For Example
The inaccuracy in the recorded temperatures caused by poor thermal contact between the
thermometer and the system of which the temperature is to be recorded.
12. Random Error: The errors due to unpredictable reasons like interpreter's wrong interpretations of
the reading of the device or other similar reasons.
Oversampling: The repetition in taking a sample multiple times is known as oversampling.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
To draw valid conclusions from your research results, you have to carefully decide how you will select
a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. There are two types of sampling methods:
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make statistical inferences about
the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect initial data.
You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your paper
or thesis.

Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Simple random sampling
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an
equal chance, (probability), of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each
individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which
individuals to include. For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to
999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first
three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so
on.
Simple random sampling allows the sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A
disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your
characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to
define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 31
 contact are required (email, phone, post) and if your sample units are scattered over a wide
geographical area.
2. Systematic sampling
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen to
ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should
select every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a
population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.
Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to
administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the
order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the
periodicity of the underlying pattern. For example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain
their opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students
was arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even
interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all females.
3. Stratified sampling
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar
characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For
example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by gender, to ensure equal
representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes
from each stratum. Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results
by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the
sampling frame and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.
4. Clustered sampling
In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than
individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected
to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual towns could
be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then
included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is
then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis.
Cluster sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling, especially where a study takes
place over a wide geographical area. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen
clusters are not representative of the population, resulting in an increased sampling error.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are selected
based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the results are
prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who
choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics,
such as age or sex. Volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.
2. Quota sampling
This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of
subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to go out
and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could
interview them about their television viewing. Whilst this has the advantage of being straightforward
and potentially representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other characteristics
that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling).
3. Judgement (or Purposive) sampling
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of the
researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a
“representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 32
 characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and
in qualitative research.
Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform whilst resulting
in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer
bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being
potentially broad, will not necessarily be representative.
4. Snowball sampling
This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing
subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like
a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous
drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.
Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify. However, by
selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a significant risk of
selection bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial
individual identified).
5. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey). Voluntary response samples are always at
least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.
Example
You send out the survey to all students at your college and a lot of students decide to complete it.
This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely
to be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that
their opinions are representative of all students.

Other Sampling Techniques

1. Census
This means using the entire population as the sample. It is very attractive for small populations but
very costly for large populations. A census eliminates sampling error and provides data on all the
individuals in the population.
2. Using a Sample of a Similar Study
Another approach is to use the same sample size as those of studies similar to the one you plan to
do. There is a risk though of repeating errors that were made in determining the sample size for the
other researches.
3. Using Published Tables
Published tables are another way of determining the sample size as they provide the sample size for
a given set of criteria.
4. Using Formulas to Calculate Sample Size
Sometimes it is useful to calculate the necessary sample size for a different combination of levels of
precision, confidence and variability. It may also be necessary to calculate the precise minimum
sample size you require. A good example is Cochran’s Sample Size Formula.

Cochran’s Sample Size Formula

The Cochran formula allows you to calculate an ideal sample size given a desired level of precision,
desired confidence level, and the estimated proportion of the attribute present in the population.
Cochran’s formula is considered especially appropriate in situations with large populations. A sample
of any given size provides more information about a smaller population than a larger one, so there’s
a ‘correction’ through which the number given by Cochran’s formula can be reduced if the whole
population is relatively small.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 33

 The Cochran formula is:

Where:
 e is the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error),
 p is the (estimated) proportion of the population which has the attribute in question,
 q is 1 – p.
The z-value is found in a Z table.
Cochran’s Formula Example
Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want to find out how many
households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on the subject to begin
with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us maximum
variability. So p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% confidence, and at least 5 percent—plus or minus—
precision. A 95 % confidence level gives us Z values of 1.96, per the normal tables, so we get
((1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)) / (0.05)2 = 385.
So a random sample of 385 households in our target population should be enough to give us the
confidence levels we need.

SAMPLING BIAS
In statistics, sampling bias is a bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members
of the intended population have a lower sampling probability than others. It results in a biased
sample, a non-random sample of a population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals, or
instances, were not equally likely to have been selected. If this is not accounted for, results can be
erroneously attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to the method of sampling.

In the world of market research and surveys, sampling bias is an error related to the way the survey
respondents are selected. It happens when a survey sample is not completely random. In other
words, if certain types of survey takers are more or less likely to be selected as a sample for your
research, chances are high you’re dealing with sampling bias.

Types of Sampling Bias

 Selection from a specific real area. For example, a survey of high school students to measure teenage
use of illegal drugs will be a biased sample because it does not include home-schooled students or
dropouts. A sample is also biased if certain members are underrepresented or overrepresented
relative to others in the population. For example, a "man on the street" interview which selects
people who walk by a certain location is going to have an overrepresentation of healthy individuals
who are more likely to be out of the home than individuals with a chronic illness. This may be an
extreme form of biased sampling, because certain members of the population are totally excluded
from the sample (that is, they have zero probability of being selected).
 Self-selection bias, which is possible whenever the group of people being studied has any form of
control over whether to participate. Participants' decision to participate may be correlated with traits
that affect the study, making the participants a non-representative sample. For example, people who
have strong opinions or substantial knowledge may be more willing to spend time answering a survey
than those who do not.
 Exclusion bias results from exclusion of particular groups from the sample, e.g. exclusion of subjects
who have recently migrated into the study area (this may occur when newcomers are not available
in a register used to identify the source population).
 Under-coverage. This occurs when some members of the population are inadequately represented
in the sample. A survey relying on a convenience sample, drawn from car registration lists would
mean that those who don’t own cars are not captured.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 34
  Nonresponse bias. Sometimes, individuals chosen for the sample are unwilling or unable to
participate in the survey. Nonresponse bias is the bias that results when respondents differ in
meaningful ways from non-respondents. In a presidential election survey, those who respondent may
tend to be supporters of one candidate and those who fail to respond may be the supporters of the
other candidate.
 Voluntary response bias. Voluntary response bias occurs when sample members are self-selected
volunteers, as in voluntary samples. An example would be call-in radio shows that solicit audience
participation in surveys on controversial topics (abortion, gun control, etc.). The resulting sample
tends to over-represent individuals who have strong opinions.

SAMPLING ERROR
Sampling error is the error caused by observing a sample instead of the whole population. It is a
statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire
population of data and the results found in the sample do not represent the results that would be
obtained from the entire population.

Types of Sampling Errors

 Population Specification Error: This error occurs when the researcher does not understand who they
should survey. For example, imagine a survey about breakfast cereal consumption. Whom should
one survey? It might be the entire family, the mother, or the children. The mother might make the
purchase decision, but the children influence her choice.
 Sample Frame Error: A frame error occurs when the wrong sub-population is used to select a sample.
A classic frame error occurred in the 1936 presidential election between the Republican and
Democrat candidates. The sample frame was from car registrations and telephone directories. In
1936, many Americans did not own cars or telephones, and those who did own them were largely
Republicans. The results wrongly predicted a Republican victory.
 Selection Error: This occurs when respondents self-select their participation in the study – only those
that are interested respond. Selection error can be controlled by going extra lengths to get
participation. A typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact requesting cooperation,
actual surveying, and post-survey follow-up. If a response is not received, a second survey request
follows, and perhaps interviews using alternate modes such as telephone or person-to-person.
 Non-Response: Non-response errors occur when intended respondents are different from those who
actually respond. This may occur because either the potential respondent was not contacted or they
refused to respond. The extent of this non-response error can be checked through follow-up surveys
using alternate modes.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
a) QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents. Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of
written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, computer or post.

i. Closed-ended Questions: Closed questions structure the answer by only allowing responses which
fit into pre-decided categories. Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal data. The
category can be restricted to as few as two options, i.e., dichotomous (e.g., 'yes' or 'no,' 'male' or
'female'), or include quite complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose (e.g.,
polytomous). Closed questions can also provide ordinal data (which can be ranked). This often
involves using a continuous rating scale to measure the strength of attitudes or emotions. For
example, strongly agree / agree / neutral / disagree / strongly disagree / unable to answer.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 35

 Advantages
 They can be economical. This means they can provide large amounts of research data for relatively
low costs; a large sample size can be obtained which should be representative of the population,
which a researcher can then generalize from.
 The respondent provides information which can be easily converted into quantitative data (e.g.,
count the number of 'yes' or 'no' answers), allowing statistical analysis of the responses.
 The questions are standardized. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same
order. This means a questionnaire can be replicated easily to check for reliability. Therefore, a second
researcher can use the questionnaire to check that the results are consistent.
Limitations
 They lack detail. Because the responses are fixed, there is less scope for respondents to supply
answers which reflect their true feelings on a topic.

ii. Open-ended Questions

Open-ended questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they like in their own
words. For example: “can you tell me how happy you feel right now?”
These questions give no pre-set answer options and instead allow the respondents to put down
exactly what they like in their own words. Open questions are often used for complex questions that
cannot be answered in a few simple categories but require more detail and discussion.
Advantages
 Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their
answer. This means the research can find out why a person holds a certain attitude.
Limitations
 Time-consuming to collect the data. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions.
Time-consuming to analyze the data. It takes longer for the researcher to analyze qualitative data as
they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective
and difficult.
 Not suitable for less educated respondents as open questions require superior writing skills and a
better ability to express one's feelings verbally.

Factors to Consider in Designing a Questionnaire

There are a number of important factors in questionnaire design.
a. Aims: Make sure that all questions asked address the aims of the research.
b. Length: The longer the questionnaire, the less likely people will complete it. Questions should be
short, clear, and to the point.
c. Pilot Study: Run a small scale practice study to ensure people understand the questions. People will
also be able to give detailed honest feedback on the questionnaire design.
d. Question Order: Questions should progress logically from the least sensitive to the most sensitive,
and from the more general to the more specific. The researcher should ensure that the answer to a
question is not influenced by previous questions.
e. Terminology: There should be a minimum of technical jargon. Questions should be simple, to the
point and easy to understand. The language of a questionnaire should be appropriate to the
vocabulary of the group of people being studied, i.e., the researcher must use the language of
questions that match the social background of respondents' age / educational level / social class /
ethnicity etc.
f. Presentation: Make sure it looks professional, include clear and concise instructions.

Ethical Issues
The researcher must ensure that the information provided by the respondent is kept confidential,
e.g., name, address, etc. Questionnaires are good for researching sensitive topics as respondents will

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 36

 be more honest when they cannot be identified. Keeping the questionnaire confidential should also
reduce the likelihood of any psychological harm, such as embarrassment.
Participants must provide informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire, and must be
aware that they have the right to withdraw their information at any time during the survey/ study.

Advantages of Questionnaires
 They are relatively easy to analyse
 A large sample of the given population can be contacted at relatively low cost
 They are simple to administer; the format is familiar to most respondents
 Information is collected in a standardised way
 They can be used for sensitive topics which users may feel uncomfortable speaking to an interviewer
about
 Respondents have time to think about their answers; they are not usually required to reply
immediately.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires
 It is sometimes difficult to obtain a sufficient number of responses, especially from postal
questionnaires
 Those who have an interest in the subject may be more likely to respond, skewing the sample
 Respondents may ignore certain questions
 Questionnaires may appear impersonal
 Questions may be incorrectly completed
 Respondents may misunderstand questions because of poor design and ambiguous language
 Questionnaires are unsuitable for some kinds of respondents, e.g. the visually impaired
 There is the danger of questionnaire fatigue if surveys are carried out too frequently

Benefits of a Pilot Study

A pilot study is a practice/small-scale study conducted before the main study. It allows the researcher
to try out the study with a few participants so that adjustments can be made before the main study.
It is important to conduct a questionnaire pilot study for the following reasons:
 Check that respondents understand the terminology used in the questionnaire.
 Check that emotive questions have not been used as they make people defensive and could
invalidate their answers.
 Check that leading questions have not been used as they could bias the respondent's answer.
 Ensure the questionnaire can be completed in an appropriate time frame (i.e., it's not too long).

b) INTERVIEWS
Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study. Interviewing
has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group
interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the telephone or other
electronic devices (e.g. computers).
Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves “conducting intensive
individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular
idea, program or situation. “An interview in research is a conversation where questions are asked to
elicit information. The interviewer is usually a professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained,
who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating series of usually brief questions and
answers.
Interviews can be structured, semi-structure or unstructured.
A structured interview is a quantitative research method commonly used in survey research where
each interview is offered with exactly the same questions in the same order. This guarantees that
answers can be reliably collected and that comparisons can be made with confidence between
sample subgroups or between different survey periods.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 37
 Characteristics of Structured Interview
 The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.
 The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set of response categories.
 There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended questions
included in the interview guide.
 Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept consistent from
interview to interview.
 The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not insert his or her opinion
in the interview.
 Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview.

An unstructured interview is an interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined

questions, although the interviewer usually has certain topics in mind that he wishes to cover during
the interview. Unstructured interviews flow like an everyday conversation and tend to be more
informal and open-ended

Characteristics of Unstructured Interview

 The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a scheduled time to
sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to be an interview.
 The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of the interview. This guides
the discussion.
 There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds rapport with respondents,
getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way.
 Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants' responses.

A semi-structured interview is a meeting in which the interviewer does not strictly follow a
formalized list of questions. They will ask more open-ended questions, allowing for a discussion with
the interviewee rather than a straightforward question and answer format.
Characteristics of Semi-Structured Interview
 The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.
 The interviewer develops and uses an 'interview guide.' This is a list of questions and topics that need
to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.
 The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the conversation that
may stray from the guide when he or she feels this is appropriate.

Advantages of Interviews
 Advantages include you get more information and in greater depth.
 It can also be applied to record verbal answers to various questions.
 Sample can be controlled.
 Can be used with young children and illiterates
 Allows the interviewer to clarify questions
 The language of the interviewer can be adapted to the nature of the respondent
 The interviewer can collect supplementary information
Disadvantages
 It is expensive
 Gaining access to interviewers may be very difficult especially if they are high profile people
 It is time consuming

c) OBSERVATION
Observational research (or field research) is a type of non-experimental research in which a
researcher observes ongoing behaviour. Observation is a way of collecting data through observing.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 38

 Observation data collection method is classified as a participatory study, because the researcher
has to immerse himself in the setting where respondents are, while taking notes and/or recording.
Observation as a data collection method can be structured or unstructured. In structured or
systematic observation, data collection is conducted using specific variables and according to a pre-
defined schedule. Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an open and free
manner in a sense that there would be no pre-determined variables or objectives.

There are two types of observation;

Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves observing people’s behaviour in
the environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research
(as opposed to a type of laboratory research).
Participant observation is a method where the researcher becomes an active participant in the group
or situation he is studying. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can include
interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions, documents,
photographs, and other artefacts. The difference between naturalistic observation and participant
observation is that the researcher engaged in participant observation becomes an active member of
the group or situations they are studying.

Advantages of Observation
The advantages of observation include:
 The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour.
 It is done in a natural behaviour thus bias is reduced.
 Observation is not expensive.
 It allows collection of a wide range of information
 It is ideal in studying non-verbal communication.
Disadvantages
 Observation lacks control of variables in its natural set up.
 There is difficulty in quantification because it is mostly descriptive.
 It lacks privacy and has limited study.
 Observation studies use a smaller sample than survey studies.

d) CONFERENCE: The conference technique is a face to face discussion of a topic of interest. Experts are
brought together at a common site. The group brainstorms to generate as many ideas on the problem
as possible. The experts then evaluate and rate the suggestions. The most popular responses are
determined. Finally the group discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the top suggestions and
ranks the final choices
e) CASE STUDY: It involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit be it a family, institution
or cultural group. It normally places emphasis on depth rather than breadth.
A case study concentrates on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
inter-relations.
f) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION: A focused group is an organized discussion session. A panel of people
meets for a short duration to exchange ideas, feelings, and experiences on a specific topic. A trained
facilitator, using group dynamics and principles guides participants through the meeting. Focus group
meetings enable a researcher to gain much information in a relatively short period of time
g) SURVEYS
 Telephone surveys: This is a direct talk with the interviewees over the phone
 Mail surveys: This is the sending of questionnaires through the post office
 Computer direct surveys: These are interviews in which the interviewees enter their own answers
directly into a computer
 Email surveys: Similar to computer direct surveys email survey can be done by sending the
questionnaire through the email

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 39

 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Validity refers to the extent that an instrument measures what it was designed to measure.
Types of Validity
In research, there are three types of validity; content validity, construct validity, and criterion-related
validity.

1. Construct validity
A construct refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly observed, but can be measured
by observing other indicators that are associated with it. Constructs can be characteristics of
individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job satisfaction, or depression; they can also be broader
concepts applied to organizations or social groups, such as gender equality, corporate social
responsibility, or freedom of speech. Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really
represents the thing we are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of
a method. Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches the
construct you want to measure.
Example
There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure directly. But based
on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure depression based on a collection of
symptoms and indicators, such as low self-confidence and low energy levels. If you develop a
questionnaire to diagnose depression, you need to know: does the questionnaire really measure the
construct of depression? Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or some
other construct? The questionnaire must include only relevant questions that measure known
indicators of depression.

2. Content validity
Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct. To produce
valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all relevant parts of
the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant
aspects are included), the validity is threatened.
Example
A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class. The test should cover
every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types of algebra are left out, then the
results may not be an accurate indication of students’ understanding of the subject. Similarly, if the
teacher includes questions that are not related to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure
of algebra knowledge.

3. Face validity
Face validity, also called logical validity, is a simple form of validity where you apply a superficial and
subjective assessment of whether or not your study or test measures what it is supposed to measure.
You can think of it as being similar to “face value”, where you just skim the surface in order to form
an opinion. It is the easiest form of validity to apply to research. However, it is often criticized as the
weakest form of validity.
Example
You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You review the survey items,
which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks eaten in between for every day of the
week. On its surface, the survey seems like a good representation of what you want to test, so you
consider it to have high face validity.

4. Criterion validity
Criterion validity (or criterion-related validity) measures how well one measure predicts an outcome
for another measure. A test has this type of validity if it is useful for predicting performance or
behaviour in another situation (past, present, or future). For example:
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 40
 A job applicant takes a performance test during the interview process. If this test accurately predicts
how well the employee will perform on the job, the test is said to have criterion validity.
 A college student takes a test that has been shown as an effective tool (i.e. it has criterion validity)
for predicting how well a student will perform in graduate studies.

RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the extent that an instrument yields the same results over multiple trials.

Research reliability can be divided into three categories:

1. Test-retest reliability relates to the measure of reliability that has been obtained by conducting the
same test more than one time over period of time with the participation of the same sample group.
Example:
Employees of ABC Company may be asked to complete the same questionnaire about employee job
satisfaction two times with an interval of one week, so that test results can be compared to assess
stability of scores.
 Internal consistency reliability is applied to assess the extent to which items within an instrument
measure various aspects of the same characteristic or construct. Average inter-item correlation is a
specific form of internal consistency that is obtained by applying the same construct on each item of
the test.
 Split-half reliability is another type of internal consistency reliability that involves all items of a test
to be split in half. In split-half reliability, a test for a single knowledge area is split into two parts and
then both parts given to one group of respondents at the same time. The scores from both parts of
the test are then correlated.
The coefficient alpha (or Cronbach’s alpha) is used to assess the internal consistency of the item. If
the alpha value is .70 or higher, the instrument is considered reliable.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Purpose of Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Sources of Data
a) Primary Sources
Primary data is information collected directly from the first-hand experience. This is the information
that you gather for the purpose of a particular research project. A primary data source is an original
data source, that is, one in which the data are collected first-hand by the researcher for a specific
research purpose or project. Primary data can be collected in a number of ways. However, the most
common techniques are self-administered surveys, interviews, field observation, and experiments.
Primary data collection is quite expensive and time consuming compared to secondary data
collection. Notwithstanding, primary data collection may be the only suitable method for some types
of research.
Most popular examples of primary data sources are:
 Interview (personal interview, telephone, e-mail)
 Self-administered surveys and questionnaires
 Field observation
 Experiments
 Life histories
 Action research
 Case studies
 Diary entries, letters, and other correspondence
 Eyewitness accounts
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 41
 Ethnographic research
 Personal narratives, memoirs
Advantages of Primary Data:
 Resolve specific research issues: Performing your own research allows you to address and resolve
issues specific to your own situation. The collected information is the exact information that the
researcher wants to know and he reports it in a way that benefits the specific situation in an
organization.
 Better accuracy: Primary data is much more accurate because it is directly collected from a given
population.
 Higher level of control: The researcher can control easily the research design and method. In
addition, you have a higher level of control over how the information is gathered.
 Up-to-date information: The primary research is a great source of latest and up-to-date information
as you collect it directly from the field in real time. Usually, secondary data is not so up-to-date and
recent.
 You are the owner of the information: Information collected by the researcher is their own and is
typically not shared with others. Thus, the information can remain hidden from other current and
potential competitors.
Disadvantages
 More expensive: It could be very expensive to obtain primary data collection because the researcher
has to start from the beginning.
 Time consuming: It is a matter of a lot of time to conduct the research from the beginning to the end.
Often it is much longer in comparison with the time needed to collect secondary data.
 Can have a lot of limits: Primary data is limited to the specific time, place or number of participants,
etc. To compare, secondary data can come from a variety of sources to give more details.
 Not always possible: For example, many researches can be just too large to be performed by your
company.

Secondary Sources
Secondary data is data that has already been collected for another purpose but has some relevance
to your research needs. In addition, the data is collected by someone else instead of the researcher
himself. Secondary data is a second-hand information. It is not used for the first time. That is why it
is called secondary.
Secondary data sources provide valuable interpretations and analysis based on primary sources. They
may explain in details primary sources and often uses them to support a specific theory or point of
view.
Most common examples of secondary data sources are:
 Previous research
 Mass media products
 Government reports
 Official statistics
 Letters
 Diaries
 Web information
 Historical data
 Encyclopaedias
 Monographs
 Journal articles
 Biography
 Dissertations
 Financial sources such as profit and loss statements balance sheets, inventory records, sales records
and etc.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 42

 Advantages of Secondary Data
 Ease of Access: The secondary data sources are very easy to access. The internet world changed how
the secondary research is done. Nowadays, you have so many information available just by click of a
computer mouse.
 Low Cost or Free: The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at very low costs.
It saves not only your money but your efforts.
 Time-saving: As the above advantage suggests, you can perform a secondary research in no time. It
is just a matter of a few Google searches to find a credible source of information.
 Generating new insights and understandings from previous analysis: Reanalysing old data can bring
unexpected new understandings and point of views or even new relevant conclusions.
 Larger sample size: Big datasets often use a larger sample than those that can be gathered by primary
data collection. Larger samples mean that final inference becomes much more authentic.
 Longitudinal analysis: Secondary data allows you to perform a longitudinal analysis which means the
studies are performed spanning over a large period of time. This can help you to determine different
trends. In addition, you can find secondary data from many years back up to a couple of hours ago.
It allows you to compare data over time.
 Anyone can collect the data: Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t
familiar with the different types of research methods. Anyone can collect secondary data.
Disadvantages
 Not specific to your needs: Secondary data is not specific to the researcher’s need due to the fact
that it was collected in the past for another reason.
 Lack of control over data quality: You have no control of the data quality at all. In comparison, with
primary methods which are largely controlled by the researcher, secondary data might lack quality. It
means the quality of secondary data should be examined in detail since the source of the information
may be questionable. As you rely on secondary data for your decision-making process, you must
evaluate the reliability of the information by finding out how the information was collected and
analyzed.
 Biasness: As the secondary data is collected by someone else, typically the data is biased in favour of
the person who gathered it. This might not cover your requirements as a researcher.
 Not timely: Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out-of-date.
 Not proprietary Information: Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically for your
company. Instead, it is available to many companies and people either for free or for a little fee. So
this is not exactly an “information advantage” for you and your competitors also have access to the
data.

Qualities of Good Data

1) It should be relevant i.e. it should fit and serve research problem needs.
2) Should be accurate i.e. should be reliably collected and reported.
3) Should be current i.e. up to date enough for current decisions.
4) Should be impartial i.e. objectively collected and reported without any bias.
5) The research data must be efficient in cost in relation to the quality of information to be obtained
i.e. the cost should be expensive only when the decision is important and the research information
will be helpful and profitable.
6) Timely research; data is needed promptly to make decisions and the failure to take corrective action
or pursue an opportunity as quickly as possible may result in loss of opportunity.
7) Ethical research; ethical conduct in research concerns the rights and responsibilities of four parties;
society, research client, researcher, and the respondent.

Ethical Issues in Data Collection

Research ethics is important for a number of reasons:
 It promotes the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 43

 It supports values such as mutual respect and fairness. This is essential because scientific research
depends on collaboration between researchers and groups.
 It means that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many researchers are supported
by public money, and regulations on conflicts of interest, misconduct, and researchers should ensure
that money is spent appropriately.
 It ensures that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund research, they have to
be confident in it.

Ethical codes cover the following areas:

 Honesty and Integrity: This means that you need to report your research honestly. This applies to
your methods (what you did), your data, your results, and whether you have previously published
any of it. You should not make up any data, including extrapolating unreasonably from some of your
results, or do anything which could be construed as trying to mislead anyone.
When working with others, you should always keep to any agreements, and act sincerely.
 Objectivity: You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of your research, including design, data
analysis, interpretation, and peer review. This also means that you need to disclose any personal or
financial interests that may affect your research.
 Carefulness: Take care in carrying out your research to avoid careless mistakes.
 Openness: You should always be prepared to share your data and results, along with any new tools
that you have developed, when you publish your findings, as this helps to further knowledge and
advance science.
 Respect for Intellectual Property: You should never plagiarise, or copy, other people’s work and try
to pass it off as your own. You should always ask for permission before using other people’s tools or
methods, unpublished data or results.
 Confidentiality: You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence, e.g., protection
of sensitive information such as patient’s records.
 Responsible Publication: You should publish to advance research and knowledge, and not just to
advance your career. This means, in essence, that you should not publish anything that is not new,
or that duplicates someone else’s work.
 Legality: You should always be aware of laws and regulations that govern your work, and be sure that
you conform to them.

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. Researchers generally analyse for
patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data is defined as the value of data in the form of counts or numbers where each data-
set has an unique numerical value associated with it. Quantitative data is usually collected
for statistical analysis using surveys, polls or questionnaires sent across to a specific section of a
population.
Quantitative data analysis may include the calculation of frequencies of variables and differences
between variables. A quantitative approach is usually associated with finding evidence to either
support or reject hypotheses you have formulated at the earlier stages of your research process.

Analyzing Quantitative Data

Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert raw data into
something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:
Step 1: Data Validation
The purpose of data validation is to find out whether the data collection was done as per the pre-set
standards and without any bias. It is a four-step process, which includes…
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 44
 Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.
 Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria.
 Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
 Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the questions, rather than
just a few required ones.
To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed surveys and validate the
collected data. The researcher can pick a sample of 20 random respondents from each city. After this,
the researcher can reach out to them through email or phone and check their responses to a certain
set of questions.
Step 2: Data Editing
Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill spaces incorrectly or skip
them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the researcher should conduct basic
data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research data to identify and clear out any data
points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.
Step 3: Data Coding
This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and assigning values
to responses from the survey.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the average age of
the respondents, the researcher will create age brackets and categorize the age of each of the
respondent as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years old would have their
age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.). Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with
simplified age brackets, rather than a massive range of individual ages.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used quantitative data
analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics
Typically descriptive statistics help researchers summarize the data and find patterns. A few
commonly used descriptive statistics are:
 Mean: numerical average of a set of values.
 Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
 Mode: most common value among a set of values.
 Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents within the data relates to a larger
group of respondents.
 Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
 Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.
Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the rationale or
reasoning behind those numbers. For example, a percentage is a good way to show the gender
distribution of respondents. Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing single variable, it
is often called univariate analysis.

Analyzing Qualitative Data

Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from quantitative data, primarily because
qualitative data is made up of words, observations, images, and even symbols. Deriving absolute
meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for exploratory research.
Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis
Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the following steps:
1. Getting familiar with the data: Since most qualitative data is just words, the researcher should start
by reading the data several times to get familiar with it and start looking for basic observations or
patterns. This also includes transcribing the data.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 45

2. Revisiting research objectives: Here, the researcher revisits the research objective and identifies the
questions that can be answered through the collected data.
3. Developing a framework: Also known as coding or indexing, here the researcher identifies broad
ideas, concepts, behaviours, or phrases and assigns codes to them. For example, coding age, gender,
socio-economic status, and even concepts such as the positive or negative response to a question.
Coding is helpful in structuring and labelling the data.
4. Identifying patterns and connections: Once the data is coded, the research can start identifying
themes, looking for the most common responses to questions, identifying data or patterns that can
answer research questions, and finding areas that can be explored further.
Qualitative Data Analysis Methods
Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used data analysis
methods are:
 Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative data. It is used to
analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical items. When to use
this method depends on the research questions. Content analysis is usually used to analyze responses
from interviewees.
 Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as interviews
of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys. It focuses on using the stories and
experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.
 Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions with
people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in which the communication between the
researcher and the respondent occurred. Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s day-to-
day environment and uses that information during analysis.
 Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon
happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different settings and using the data
to derive causal explanations. Researchers may alter the explanations or create new ones as they
study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 46

 What Is Hypothesis Testing
A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.
It is a speculation or theory, based on insufficient evidence that lends itself to further testing and
experimentation. With further testing, a hypothesis can usually be proven to be true or false.
Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an assumption regarding a
population parameter. The methodology employed by the analyst depends on the nature of the data
used and the reason for the analysis.

 Hypothesis testing is used to assess the credibility of a hypothesis by using sample data.
 The test provides evidence concerning the plausibility of the hypothesis, given the data.
 Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and examining a random sample of the population
being analyzed

Key terms and concepts:

 Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis that assumes that the observation is due
to a chance factor. Null hypothesis is denoted by; H0: μ1 = μ2, which shows that there is no difference
between the two population’s means (averages). The null hypothesis, H0 is the commonly accepted
fact. Researchers work to reject, nullify or disprove the null hypothesis.
 Alternative hypothesis: Contrary to the null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis shows that
observations are the result of a real effect. It states that there is statistical significance between two
variables.
 Level of significance: The significance level (also called Type I error rate or the level of statistical
significance) refers to the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is in fact true. This quantity
ranges from zero (0.0) to one (1.0) and is typically denoted by the Greek letter alpha (a). The
significance level is sometimes referred to as the probability of obtaining a result by chance alone. As
this quantity represents an "error rate," lower values are generally preferred. In the literature,
nominal values of a generally range from 0.05 to 0.10. The significance level is also referred to as the
"size of the test" in that the magnitude of the significance level determines the end points of the
critical or rejection region for hypothesis tests.
 Confidence level: Confidence level refers to the possibility of a parameter that lies within a specified
range of values, which is denoted as c. Moreover, the confidence level is connected with the level of
significance. The relationship between level of significance and the confidence level is c=1−α.
The common level of significance and the corresponding confidence level are given below:

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 47

  The level of significance 0.10 is related to the 90% confidence level.
 The level of significance 0.05 is related to the 95% confidence level.
 The level of significance 0.01 is related to the 99% confidence level.

Rejection region: The rejection region is the values of test statistic for which the null hypothesis is
rejected.
Non rejection region: The set of all possible values for which the null hypothesis is not rejected is
called the rejection region. The rejection region for two-tailed test is shown below:

 In the left-tailed test, the rejection region is shaded in left side.

 In the right-tailed test, the rejection region is shaded in right side.

 Type I error: When we reject the null hypothesis, although that hypothesis was true. Type I error is
denoted by alpha α. In hypothesis testing, the normal curve that shows the critical region is called
the alpha region.
 Type II error: When we accept the null hypothesis but it is false. Type II errors are denoted by beta
β. In Hypothesis testing, the normal curve that shows the acceptance region is called the beta region.
 Power: Usually known as the probability of correctly accepting the null hypothesis. 1-beta is called
power of the analysis.
 One-tailed test: When the given statistical hypothesis is one value like H0: μ1 = μ2, it is called the
one-tailed test.
 Two-tailed test: When the given statistics hypothesis assumes a less than or greater than value, it is
called the two-tailed test.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

Step 1: Specify the null hypothesis. For a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis is typically that a parameter
equals zero although there are exceptions. A typical null hypothesis is μ1 - μ2 = 0 which is equivalent
to μ1 = μ2. For a one-tailed test, the null hypothesis is either that a parameter is greater than or equal
to zero or that a parameter is less than or equal to zero. If the prediction is that μ1 is larger than μ2,
then the null hypothesis (the reverse of the prediction) is μ2 - μ1 ≥ 0. This is equivalent to μ1 ≤ μ2.
Step 2: Specify the α (alpha) level which is also known as the significance level. Typical values are 0.05 and
0.01.
Step 3: Compute the probability value (also known as the p value). This is the probability of obtaining a
sample statistic as different or more different from the parameter specified in the null hypothesis
given that the null hypothesis is true.
Step 4: Finally, compare the probability value with the α (alpha) level. If the probability value is lower, then
you reject the null hypothesis. Keep in mind that rejecting the null hypothesis is not an all-or-none
decision. The lower the probability value, the more confidence you can have that the null hypothesis
is false. However, if your probability value is higher than the conventional α level of 0.05, most
scientists will consider your findings inconclusive. Failure to reject the null hypothesis does not
constitute support for the null hypothesis. It just means you do not have sufficiently strong data to
reject it.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 48
 T-test Vs F-test
Hypothesis testing starts with setting up the premises, which is followed by selecting a significance
level. Next, we have to choose the test statistic, i.e. t-test or f-test. While t-test is used to compare
two related samples, f-test is used to test the equality of two populations.

A hypothesis is a simple proposition that can be proved or disproved through various scientific
techniques and establishes the relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It is
capable of being tested and verified to ascertain its validity, by an unbiased examination. Testing of
a hypothesis attempts to make clear, whether or not the supposition is valid.
For a researcher, it is imperative to choose the right test for his/her hypothesis as the entire decision
of validating or refusing the null hypothesis is based on it.

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
T-TEST F-TEST
COMPARISON

Meaning T-test is a univariate hypothesis test, F-test is a statistical test that

that is applied when the standard determines the equality of the
deviation is not known and the sample variances of the two normal
size is small. populations.

Test statistic T-statistic follows Student t- F-statistic follows Snedecor f-

distribution, under null hypothesis. distribution, under null hypothesis.

Application Comparing the means of two Comparing two population

populations. variances.

Definition of T-test
A t-test is a form of the statistical hypothesis test, based on Student’s t-statistic and t-distribution to
find out the p-value (probability) which can be used to accept or reject a null hypothesis.
T-test analyses if the means of two data sets are greatly different from each other, i.e. whether the
population mean is equal to or different from the standard mean. It can also be used to ascertain
whether the regression line has a slope different from zero. The test relies on a number of
assumptions, which are:
 The population is infinite and normal.
 Population variance is unknown and estimated from the sample.
 The mean is known.
 Sample observations are random and independent.
 The sample size is small.
 H0 may be one sided or two sided.
Mean and standard deviation of the two samples are used to make comparison between them, such
that:

Where,
x̄1 = Mean of the first dataset
x̄2 = Mean of the second dataset
S1 = Standard deviation of the first dataset
S2 = Standard deviation of the second dataset
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 49
 n1 = Size of first dataset
n2 = Size of second dataset

Definition of F-test
F-test is described as a type of hypothesis test that is based on Snedecor f-distribution, under the null
hypothesis. The test is performed when it is not known whether the two populations have the same
variance.
F-test can also be used to check if the data conforms to a regression model, which is acquired through
least square analysis. When there is multiple linear regression analysis, it examines the overall validity
of the model or determines whether any of the independent variables is having a linear relationship
with the dependent variable. A number of predictions can be made through, the comparison of the
two datasets. The expression of the f-test value is in the ratio of variances of the two observations,
which is shown as under:

Where, σ2 = variance

The assumptions on which f-test relies are:

 The population is normally distributed.
 Samples have been drawn randomly.
 Observations are independent.
 H0 may be one sided or two sided.

Key Differences Between T-test and F-test

The difference between t-test and f-test can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
1. A univariate hypothesis test that is applied when the standard deviation is not known and the sample
size is small is t-test. On the other hand, a statistical test, which determines the equality of the
variances of the two normal datasets, is known as f-test.
2. The t-test is based on T-statistic that follows Student t-distribution, under the null hypothesis.
Conversely, the basis of the f-test is F-statistic that follows Snedecor f-distribution, under the null
hypothesis.
3. The t-test is used to compare the means of two populations. In contrast, f-test is used to compare
two population variances.
T-test and f-test are the two of a number of different types of statistical tests used for hypothesis
testing to decide whether we are going to accept the null hypothesis or reject it. The hypothesis test
does not take decisions itself, rather it assists the researcher in decision making.

Chi-Square Method
What Is a Chi-Square Statistic?
A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a test that measures how expectations compare to actual observed data
(or model results). The data used in calculating a chi-square statistic must be random, raw, mutually
exclusive, drawn from independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample. For example,
the results of tossing a coin 100 times meet these criteria.
Chi-square tests are often used in hypothesis testing.

The Formula for Chi-Square is:

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 50

 Where:
c=degrees of freedom
O=observed value(s)
E=expected value(s)

There are two main kinds of chi-square tests: the test of independence, which asks a question of
relationship, such as, "Is there a relationship between gender and SAT scores?"; and the goodness-
of-fit test, which asks something like "If a coin is tossed 100 times, will it come up heads 50 times
and tails 50 times?"
For these tests, degrees of freedom are utilized to determine if a certain null hypothesis can be
rejected based on the total number of variables and samples within the experiment.
For example, when considering students and course choice, a sample size of 30 or 40 students is likely
not large enough to generate significant data. Getting the same or similar results from a study using
a sample size of 400 or 500 students is more valid.
In another example, consider tossing a coin 100 times. The expected result of tossing a fair coin 100
times is that heads will come up 50 times and tails will come up 50 times. The actual result might be
that heads comes up 45 times and tails comes up 55 times. The chi-square statistic shows any
discrepancies between the expected results and the actual results.
Example:
Imagine a random poll was taken across 2,000 different voters, both male and female. The people
who responded were classified by their gender and whether they were Jubilee, ODM, or Ford-K.
Imagine a grid with the columns labelled Jubilee, ODM, and Ford-K, and two rows labelled male and
female. Assume the data from the 2,000 respondents is as follows:
The first step to calculate the chi squared statistic is to find the expected frequencies. These are
calculated for each "cell" in the grid. Since there are two categories of gender and three categories
of political view, there are six total expected frequencies. The formula for the expected frequency is:
E(r,c)=n(r)×c(r)n
Where:
r=row in question
c=column in question
n=corresponding total
In this example, the expected frequencies are:
 E(1,1) = (900 x 800) / 2,000 = 360
 E(1,2) = (900 x 800) / 2,000 = 360
 E(1,3) = (200 x 800) / 2,000 = 80
 E(2,1) = (900 x 1,200) / 2,000 = 540
 E(2,2) = (900 x 1,200) / 2,000 = 540
 E(2,3) = (200 x 1,200) / 2,000 = 120
Next, these are used values to calculate the chi squared statistic using the following formula:
Chi-squared=∑[O(r,c)−E(r,c)]2E(r,c)
Where:
O(r,c)=observed data for the given row and column
In this example, the expression for each observed value is:
 O(1,1) = (400 - 360)2 / 360 = 4.44
 O(1,2) = (300 - 360)2 / 360 = 10
 O(1,3) = (100 - 80)2 / 80 =5
 O(2,1) = (500 - 540)2 / 540 = 2.96
 O(2,2) = (600 - 540)2 / 540 = 6.67
 O(2,3) = (100 - 120)2 / 120 = 3.33
The chi-squared statistic then equals the sum of these value, or 32.41. We can then look at a chi-
squared statistic table to see, given the degrees of freedom in our set-up, if the result is statistically
significant or not.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 51
 The Chi-Square Distribution

The chi-square distribution (also called the chi-squared distribution) is a special case of the gamma
distribution; A chi square distribution with n degrees of freedom is equal to a gamma distribution
with a = n / 2 and b = 0.5 (or β = 2).
Let’s say you have a random sample taken from a normal distribution. The chi square distribution is
the distribution of the sum of these random samples squared. The degrees of freedom (k) are equal
to the number of samples being summed. For example, if you have taken 10 samples from the normal
distribution, then df = 10. The degrees of freedom in a chi square distribution is also its mean. In this
example, the mean of this particular distribution will be 10. Chi square distributions are always right
skewed. However, the greater the degrees of freedom, the more the chi square distribution looks
like a normal distribution.
Uses
 The chi-squared distribution has many uses in statistics, including:
 Confidence interval estimation for a population standard deviation of a normal distribution from a
sample standard deviation.
 Independence of two criteria of classification of qualitative variables.
 Relationships between categorical variables (contingency tables).
 Sample variance study when the underlying distribution is normal.
 Tests of deviations of differences between expected and observed frequencies (one-way tables).
 The chi-square test (a goodness of fit test).

Chi Distribution
A similar distribution is the chi distribution. This distribution describes the square root of a variable
distributed according to a chi-square distribution with df = n > 0 degrees of freedom has a probability
density function of:

f(x) = 2(1-n/2) x(n-1) e(-(x2)/2) / Γ(n/2)

For values where x is positive:

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 52

 The cdf for this function does not have a closed form, but it can be approximated with a series of
integrals, using calculus.

DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modelling data to discover useful
information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful
information from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

Computerized Data Analysis

Software packages are available for the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Each package
has different features and the researcher needs to choose carefully. The aim of all of the packages is
to assist in the categorisation and matching of data.
1. Qualitative Data Analysis Software (QDA Software)
Qualitative data analysis (QDA) relies on various methods for systematizing, organizing, and analyzing
non-numeric data, such as those used in Grounded Theory, qualitative content analysis, mixed
methods analysis, group discussions, discourse analysis, case and field studies. Whatever approach a
researcher chooses, the computer assisted data analysis package should support and facilitate the
process of sorting, structuring, and analyzing data material.
Sophisticated computer assisted data analysis software allows for importing and transcribing these
recordings directly in the program. In addition, QDA software, such as MAXQDA, supports the entire
analytic process by visualizing relationships and providing overviews. It also permits the addition of
notes, which help other researchers understand the various analytical steps. By using automatic
processes to visualize data material, QDA software supports the researcher’s steps towards gaining
critical insight.
2. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)
SPSS is the most popular quantitative analysis software program used by social scientists.
Made and sold by IBM, it is comprehensive, flexible, and can be used with almost any type of data
file. However, it is especially useful for analyzing large-scale survey data. It can be used to generate
tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions and trends, as well as generate descriptive
statistics such as means, medians, modes and frequencies in addition to more complex statistical
analyses like regression models.
SPSS provides a user interface that makes it easy and intuitive for all levels of users. It is also simple
and easy to enter and edit data directly into the program. There are a few drawbacks, however, which
might not make it the best program for some researchers. For example, there is a limit on the number
of cases you can analyze. It is also difficult to account for weights, strata and group effects with SPSS.
3. STATA
STATA is an interactive data analysis program that runs on a variety of platforms. It can be used for
both simple and complex statistical analyses. STATA uses a point-and-click interface as well as
command syntax, which makes it easy to use. STATA also makes it simple to generate graphs and
plots of data and results.
Analysis in STATA is centred on four windows:
 command window
 review window
 result window
 variable window
 Analysis commands are entered into the command window and the review window records those
commands. The variables window lists the variables that are available in the current data set along
with the variable labels, and the results appear in the results window.
4. SAS
SAS, short for Statistical Analysis System, is also used by many businesses.
In addition to statistical analysis, it also allows programmers to perform report writing, graphics,
business planning, forecasting, quality improvement, project management and more.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 53
 SAS is a great program for the intermediate and advanced user because it is very powerful; it can be
used with extremely large datasets and can perform complex and advanced analyses. SAS is good for
analyses that require you to take into account weights, strata, or groups.
Unlike SPSS and STATA, SAS is run largely by programming syntax rather than point-and-click menus,
so some knowledge of the programming language is required.

PRESENTATION OF DATA
The main aim of statistics is simplify the complexity of the quantitative data and to make them easily
intelligible. Diagrams and graphs help to understand the information easily and in a comprehensive
way. Business data like sales, production, and price are frequently presented in the forms of diagrams
or graphs.

a) Diagrams
Diagram representation is best suited to spatial services and split into different categories. Whenever
a comparison of the same type of data at different places is to be made, diagrams will be the best
way to do that.
Advantages of Diagrams
 They save time and labour
 They facilitate comparison
 They give an effective impression
 Easy to memorize
 It makes information contained in the data readily intelligent
 It’s an attractive way of presenting data.
Limitations of Diagrams
 They don't give accurate results but just a rough idea
 One needs some technical knowledge to construct a diagram
 One cannot compare diagrams especially when the units used are different
 Diagrams can be misused easily
Construction of a Diagram
Any diagram drawn should be neat and clean so that it can attract the mind of the reader. A good
diagram should have a brief heading on the top and the scale should be indicated clearly. All symbols
to be used should be explained clearly so that it does not cause confusion.
Types of Diagrams
 One-dimensional diagram — bar graphs
 Two-dimensional of diagrams - example rectangle, square, and circles
 Pictograms and maps.
Analysis of Data
Analysis of data means the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the grouped data. Analysis particularly in case of survey or
experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameter of a population and testing
of hypothesis for a drawing inferences.

Data Processing Operations

The data, after collection has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down
for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and
for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis.
Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationships that exist among data groups.
Editing
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys) to detect errors
and omissions and to correct these when possible. Editing involves a careful scrutiny of the complete
questionnaires and or schedules. It is done to ensure that the data are accurate, consistent with other
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 54
 facts gathered, uniformly entered, as complete as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.
Editing should take place when all form or schedules have been completed and returned to the office
and all these forms should get thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of
editors in case of a large inquiry.
Coding
This refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that responses can
be put into a limited number of categories or classes. These classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration. They must also possess the characteristics of exhaustiveness
and also that of mutual exclusivity which means that specific answers can be placed in one and only
one cell in a given category set.
It is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a small
number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions
should be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire.
Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous
groups to get meaningful relationships. This necessitates classification of data which is the process
of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having common
characteristics are placed in one class and in this way the entire data gets divided into a number of
groups or classes.
Two Types of Classification
 Classification according to attributes: Data classified on the basis of common characteristics which
can be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income
etc.). Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes.
 Classification according to class intervals: Data which can be measured through some statistical units
like income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. They are classified on the basis
of class-intervals. For instance, persons whose income, say, are within KES 10,000 to KES l5, 000 can
form one group.

b) Tabulation
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the
same in some kind of concise and logical order. Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data
and displaying the same in compact form (in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis.
Importance of Tabulation
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and detection of errors and omissions
 It provides a basis for various statistical compositions.
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices depending on the size and
type of study, cost, time pressure and availability of tabulating machines or computers.

c) Graphical Presentation
A graph is a pictorial presentation of the relationship between variables. The relationship between
two quantities can be shown by the help of a graph, which is a better form of presentation especially
when working on large numbers of items. The data are plotted on a graph as a series of points and
these points are joined by the help of a line or curve.
Characteristics of a Graph
 Must give a correct impression
 The graphs must be clear and comprehensive
 It must have a title
 A good graph must not be overcrowded with curves.
 The curve must be distinct
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 55
 The scale on y and x axis must be suitable according to given data.
 A good graph must be neat and clean.

Types of Graphs
Important types of graphs are:
 Time series graphs or Histogram
 Z-charts
 Scatter graphs
 Semi-logarithmic graph or ratio scale graphs
 Lorenz curve
 Graphs of frequency distribution
Time Series Graphs
In a time series, values of variable are given at a different period of time. When such graph is drawn,
it would give changes in the value of a variable with the passage of time. The graphical presentation
of such a series is called histogram. The main aim of drawing such graphs is to have comparison to
study their;
 Changes in one variable over a period of time
 Changes of two or more variables over a period of time.
Example of time series include:
 Population of a country over a specific period of time
 Sales of a business enterprise over a period of time
 Price of some specific commodities over a period of time.
 Temperature over a period of time

Z Charts
A Z chart is simply a time series chart incorporating three curves for:
 Individual monthly figures
 Monthly cumulative figure for the year
 A moving annual total
Z chart takes its name from the fact that the three curves tend to look like the letter Z.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 56

 Scatter Graph
Scatter graphs are usually drawn to indicate the relationship between two variables. For this purpose,
a line of best fit is established from the scatter graphs, this line indicating the relationship or
association between two variables.
This line may have a rising or falling trend which would indicate a positive or negative relationship
between the two variables respectively. Example, the sales and advertising expenditure of a
company, whereby the y-axis represents sales and x axis represent advertising expenditure.

Semi-Logarithmic Graphs
A semi-logarithmic graph is that graph on which the vertical scale is logarithmic. It is also known as
scale graph. These graphs are important in studying the relative movements, instead of absolute
movements.
Semi-Logarithmic Graphs are generally used when:
 Visual comparisons are to be made between a series of greatly different magnitude
 The series are equated in non-comparable units
 The data are to be examined to see whether they are characterized by a constant rate of change.

Lorenz Curve
This Lorenz curve measures dispersion. It was devised by Dr Lorenz to measure inequalities of health
distribution. It is used to measure the extent to which income is unevenly distributed between
various income groups. The disparity of proportion is a common economic phenomenon. This
disparity can be demonstrated by the help of the Lorenz curve.
A Lorenz curve is constructed as follows:
 Write down the values of the two variables being plotted
 Express the variables as percentages of the total
 Compute the cumulative percentage of each variable
 Draw a horizontal and vertical axis and plot 0% to 100% on each axis
 Mark the cumulative percentage on the graph and join the points
 Draw the line of equal distribution by joining 0% to the 100% point by a straight line.

Graphs of Frequency Distribution

The graphs of frequency distribution of continuous type are:
 0-give curve
 Histogram
 Frequency polygon
 Frequency curve

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 57

 O-give Curve
It is obtained when the cumulative frequencies of a distribution are graphed. It is also called
cumulative frequency curve.
Histogram
It is a graph that represents the class frequencies in a frequency distribution by vertical rectangles. It
consists of a series of rectangles having a base measured along the x axis proportional to the class
interval and an area proportional to the frequency. Example:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measure of central tendency (or statistical average) tell us the point about which items have a
tendency to cluster together.
Such a measure is considered as the most representative figure for the entire mass of data.
Measuring of central tendency is known as statistical average. Mean, media and mode are the most
popular averages. Mean, also known as arithmetic average, is the most common measure of central
tendency and may be defined as the value which we get by dividing the total of values of given items
in a series by the total of items.

Qualities of a Good Average

 It should be rigidly defined
 It should be based on all values
 It should be easily understood and calculated
 It should be least affected by the fluctuations of sampling
 It should be capable of further algebraic or statistical treatment
 It should be least affected by extreme values.
Mean
(or x) = £X n
Where
x = the symbol for mean
£X = Summation of observation value
n = number of observations or total number of items
The Median
This is the value of the middle item of the data set when it is arranged in ascending or descending
order of magnitude. It divides the series into two halves. The median is the middle score for a set of
data that has been arranged in the order of magnitude. The median is less affected by skewed data.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 58

 Mode
The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the highest bar in
a bar chart or histogram. It is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series. The mode
in a distribution is that item around which there is maximum concentration hence it is the size of the
item which has the highest frequency.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
It is the extent of the scatteredness of items around a measure of central tendency. The degree to
which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the variation or dispersion of
the data. A measure of dispersion indicates the extent to which the individual observations differ on
average from the mean or from any other measurer of central tendency.

Significance of Measuring Dispersion

 To determine the reliability of an average
 To serve as a basis for the centre of the variability
 To compare two or more series with regard to their variability
 To facilitate the use of statistical measures.

Properties of a Good Measurer of Dispersion

 It should be simple to understand
 It should be rigidly defined
 It should be easy to compute
 It should be based on each and every item of the distribution
The main methods of measuring dispersion are:
 Range
 Quartile deviation or inter-quartile range
 Mean Deviation or average Deviation
 Standard Derivation
 Lorenz curve
i. Range: The range is simple a measure of dispersion i.e. between the highest or biggest value of a
variable and the lowest or smallest one respectively. When dealing with a continuous variable its
value can only be estimated from a grouped frequency distribution. Because of its simplicity, it is
used in quality control work.
ii. The Quartile Deviation: Quartiles are values of the variable that make up 25%, 50% or 75% of the
population all the way through the distribution. There are three quartiles, first as Q1, second as Q2
and the thud is Q3. The second quartile is the median i.e., the variable that belongs to the item half-
way through the distribution.
iii. Mean Deviation: Mean deviation measurers how far an average the readings are from the arithmetic
mean. The median is very occasionally used instead of the arithmetic mean. If the data have a small
spread about the mean, the mean deviation has a lower value than for data which show large
variations about the mean.
To Calculate the Mean Deviation:
 Find the arithmetic mean X of the data
 Find the deviation of each reading from X
 Find the arithmetic mean of the deviations, ignoring their signs i.e. the visits made to the local
dispensary by members is as follows: 8, 6, 5, 5, 7, 4, 5, 9, 7, 4. Arithmetic mean = 60/6=10
iv. Standard Deviation: Standard deviation is the most important measure of dispersion. It takes values
of every observation into account but does not suffer from the same arithmetical deficiencies as the
mean deviation.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 59

 To calculate standard deviation for ungrouped data we use the formula:-
 Find the arithmetic mean X of the data
 Find the deviation of each reading from X
 Square each of the variations
 Total the squared deviation
 Divide this sum by the total number of reading to obtain the variance.
 Find the square root of the variance to obtain the standard deviation.

MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP
In statistics, dependence refers to any statistical relationship between two random variables or two
sets of data.

Regression
Regression is a statistical measurement that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship
between one dependent variable (usually denoted by Y) and a series of other changing variables
(known as independent variables). Regression analysis is a term that refers to the use of
observations/values of variables to calculate a curve of best fit so that we can make estimates and
predictions about the behaviour of variables. The calculated line of best fit is called the regression
line.

The general form of each type of regression is:

 Simple linear regression: Y = a + bX + u
 Multiple linear regression: Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + ... + btXt + u
Where:
 Y = the variable that you are trying to predict (dependent variable).
 X = the variable that you are using to predict Y (independent variable).
 a = the intercept.
 b = the slope.
 u = the regression residual.
Example:

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 60

Least Squares Method
A better and more exact method of finding the line of best fit is to use the “least squares” method.
This method is a form of mathematical regression analysis used to determine the line of best fit for a
set of data, providing a visual demonstration of the relationship between the data points. Each point
of data represents the relationship between a known independent variable and an unknown
dependent variable.
This gives an algebraic equation connecting x and y. The type of equation that gives a straight line
relationship between x and y is in this form:
Y = a + bx, where: Y is the value of the dependent variable, X is the value of the independent variable
(a) and (b) are constants.

Correlation
It is the linear relationship between two or more variables. The main interest is to find the degree
and direction of this relationship. Correlation can be positive or negative depending on how the
degree of correlation is calculated. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is denoted by the symbol
"v". It is one of the very few symbols that are used universally for describing the degree' of correlation
between two series.

DATA PROCESSING
Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or
automatically. Most of the processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically. The
output or “processed” data can be obtained in different forms like image, graph, table, vector file,
audio, charts or any other desired format depending on the software or method of data processing
used.
Elements of Data Processing
In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first be converted into a machine readable
format. Once data are in digital format, various procedures can be applied on the data to get useful
information. Processing of data requires advance planning at the stage of planning the research
design. This advance planning may cover such aspects as categorization of variables and preparation
of dummy tables. This should be done with reference to the requirements of testing
hypotheses/investigative questions. This type of preplanning ensures better identification of data
needs and their adequate coverage in the tools for collection of data. Data processing consists of a
number of closely related operations, viz.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 61

 Editing
 Classification and coding
 Transcription
 Tabulation.

a) Editing
The first step in processing of data is editing of complete schedules/questionnaires.
Editing is a process of checking to detect and or correct errors and omissions. Editing is done at two
stages:
 Field Editing
 Office Editing
All completed schedules/questionnaires should be thoroughly checked in the office for
completeness, accuracy and uniformity.

b) Classification and Coding

 Coding
Data coding is the process of assigning codes to the observed data. The purpose of data coding is to
bring out the essence and meaning of the data that respondents have provided. The data coder
extracts preliminary codes from the observed data, the preliminary codes are further filtered and
refined to obtain more accurate precise and concise codes. Later, in the evaluation of data the
researcher assigns values, percentages or other numerical quantities to these codes to draw
inferences. The purpose of data coding is not to just to eliminate excessive data but to summarize it
meaningfully. The data coder should ascertain that none of the important points of the data have
been lost in data coding.
 Categorization and Classification
The edited data are classified and coded. The responses are classified into meaningful categories so
as to bring out essential patterns. By this method, several hundred responses are reduced to five or
six appropriate categories containing critical information needed for analysis.
 Editing and Classification
Classification can be done at any phase prior to the tabulation. Certain items like sex, age, type of
house, and the like are structured and pre-classified in the data collection form itself. The responses
to open-ended questions are classified at the processing stage.
 Categorization Rules
A classification system should meet certain requirements or be guided by certain rules. First,
classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the particular study.
Second, the scheme should be exhaustive. That is, there must be a category for every response. Third,
the categories must also be mutually exclusive, so that each case is classified only once.
 Categorization and coding
How many categories should a scheme include? It is preferable to include many categories rather
than a few, since reducing the number later is easier than splitting an already classified group of
responses. However, the number of categories is-limited by the number of cases and the anticipated
statistical analysis.

c) Transcription
When only a few schedules are processed and hand-tabulated, tabulation can directly be made from
the schedules. On the other hand, direct tabulation from the edited schedules/ questionnaires is
difficult if the number of the schedules and the number of responses in them are large. Suppose an
interview schedule contains 180 responses requiring tabulation and 210 simple and cross tables are
to be constructed, each schedule has to be handled at least 210 for tabulation. This will result in
mutilation of the schedule, and omissions and commissions may easily occur in tabulation. In order
to avoid these drawbacks, data contained in schedules/questionnaires are transferred to another
material for the purpose of tabulation. This intermediary process is called 'transcription.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 62
d) Data Tabulation
Tabulation is a systematic and logical presentation of numeric data in rows and columns, to facilitate
comparison and statistical analysis. It facilitates comparison by bringing related information close to
each other and helps in further statistical analysis and interpretation.
To put it in other words, the method of placing organised data into a tabular form is called tabulation.
It may be complex, double or simple depending upon the nature of categorisation.

Objectives of Tabulation
1) To Simplify the Complex Data
 It reduces the bulk of information i.e. it puts raw data in a simplified and meaningful form so that it
is easily understandable.
2) To Bring Out Essential Features of the Data
 It brings out the main characteristics of data.
 It presents facts clearly and precisely without textual explanation.
3) To Facilitate Comparison
 Presentation of data in rows and columns is helpful in simultaneous detailed comparison.
4) To Facilitate Statistical Analysis
 Tables serve as the best source of organised data for further statistical analysis.
 The task of computing average, dispersion, correlation, etc. becomes much easier if data is presented
in the form of a table.
5) Saving of Space
 A table presents facts in a better way than the textual form.
 It saves space without sacrificing the quality and quantity of data.

Importance of Computerised Data

 Information empower
 Accessibility to information
 Edify, coding/tabulation.
 Information presentation
 Storage elective storage
Advantages of Electronic Storage
 It is extensible
 It is easy to distribute
 It has low volume.

Computers Assist Researchers in the Following Areas

 Knowledge Identification
 Access to Comprehensive Data
 Knowledge Generation
 Knowledge Evaluation
 Knowledge Representation
 Knowledge Maintenance
 Data Storage:

Data Processing Operations

 Recording - refers to the transfer of data into some form or document. It relates to the
documentation of intermediate figures and facts resulting from calculations.
 Verifying - refers to the careful checking of the recorded data for any errors.
 Duplicating - refers to the reproduction of the data into many forms or documents.
 Classifying - refers to identifying and arranging items with like characteristics into groups or classes.
 Sorting - refers to arranging or rearranging data in a predetermined sequence to facilitate processing.
Sorting is done in alphabetic or a numeric order.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 63
 Calculating - refers to arithmetic manipulation of the data.
 Summarizing and Reporting - it is here where a collection of data is condensed and certain
conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format that is clear, concise and effective.
 Merging - this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by the same key,
and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data.
 Storing - refers to placing similar data into files for future reference
 Retrieving - refers to recovering stored data and/or information when needed.
 Feedback - refers to the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set in advance, any discrepancy is
analyzed, corrected, and fed back to proper stage in the processing operation.

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 64

 TOPIC 5: WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND REPORT
TOPIC CONTENT
 Meaning and importance of a research proposal
 Types of proposals
 Format of research proposal:
 Preliminaries
 Chapter One – Introduction
 Chapter Two – Review of literature
 Chapter Three – Design and methodology
 Chapter four – Data analysis and presentation
 Chapter five – Summary of findings and recommendations
 Bibliography/references
 Appendices

Definition of a Proposal
A research proposal is also known as a work plan, an outline, a draft plan, statement of intent or a
prospectus. A proposal tells us what, why, how, where, and whom the study will be done. It must
also show the benefits of the research/study. A research proposal is essentially a road work showing
clearly the location from which the journey begins, the destination to be reached and the methods
to be used to reach there. Every research must have a sponsor and thus the sponsor must understand
the research/project. The sponsor may be the lecturer for the students, firms, universities,
Government, etc.

Significance of a Research Proposal

 It serves as a summary of major decisions in a research process
 Serves as a written agreement between the researcher and the sponsor e.g. on geographical scope
and time scope
 It is used to solicit for funds
 It helps in thinking through the project
 Resolves any future misunderstandings

Characteristics of a Good Proposal

a. Clear/neat
b. Convincing
c. Detailed
d. Reliable
e. Data based
f. Realistic
g. Systematic in focus
h. Time bound

Types of Proposals
 Academic proposal – This type of proposal is found in academic institutions
 Funding proposal – This is commonly used by NGO’s to solicit for funds
 Business bidding proposal – This is used by business people to bid for tenders
 Business proposal – This type of proposal is also known as a business plan. It is used by potential
investors or public institutions to get approval

Contents of a Proposal
I. Preliminary Pages
1. Title page

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 65

 2. Declaration
3. Dedication
4. Acknowledgement
5. Abstract
6. Table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of Figures
9. List of Abbreviations/Acronyms
10. Operational Definition of Terms
II. Main Text
1. Chapter One – This contains the Introduction to the Study and should have: Introduction, Background
of the Study, Statement of the Problem, Objectives of the Study (General and Specific), Research
Questions, Significance/Importance of the Study, Limitations of the Study and Scope of the Study
2. Chapter Two – This deals with Literature Review and should have: Introduction, Review of Theoretical
Literature, Critical Review, Summary and Conceptual/Theoretical Framework of the Study.
3. Chapter Three – This captures the Research Design and Methodology and should give the
Introduction, Research Design, Target Population, Sampling Technique, Data Collection Methods and
Data Analysis/Presentation Methods
4. References – All the authors and books used in the text should appear in the references. Use the
recommended style of referencing but usually it is the APA style of referencing
III. Appendices
1. Letter of Introduction
2. Questionnaire
3. Budget Plan
4. Time Plan

RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT

The research format may differ slightly among institutions but there is a high degree of consensus on
the format. In some institutions the conceptual framework is in chapter one while in others it is in
chapter two. Other institutions have references as chapter six while other don’t have chapter six. A
typical research report format will have the following;

PRELIMINARY PAGES
The preliminary pages are usually numbered in roman numbers but the title page is not given any
number
1. Cover Page/Title Page – contains the title/topic of research, name of student, sponsor and year
2. Declaration – This is the declaration by the student, supervisor and sponsor
3. Dedication - Dedication should be brief and usually limited to the family
4. Acknowledgement – Acknowledge all those that made your research possible in one or two
paragraphs
5. Abstract – This is a summary of your report and it should include:
a) General objective
b) Specific objectives
c) Research design
d) Target population
e) Sampling technique
f) Sample size
g) Data collection methods
h) Data analysis methods
i) Findings
j) Recommendations

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 66

6. Table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of Figures
9. List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
10. Operational Definition of Terms

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.2 Introduction
This section introduces to the reader of what to expect in that chapter and should be very brief. This
chapter deals with background of the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research
questions, significance of the study, limitations of the study and scope of the study
1.2 Background of the Study
This section introduces us to the study in relation to the title. Introduction to background should give
an insight of the global trend and the narrowing/cascading down to the local trend. This should be
about two pages. In the background we include the profile of the study as 1.2.1
1.3 Statement of the Problem
A problem is a felt need, a question thrown forward for a solution, a deviation from what is known
and what is desired to be known. . A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles the
researcher. It is a concern that may result in the formulation of research questions. A research
problem can also be viewed as an opportunity
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.4.1 General Objective
This is usually the same as the title e.g. the main objective of this study was to determine the factors
influencing the supply of Oil in Kenya with reference National oil Cooperation of Kenya.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
These are based on variables chosen from the problem. The specific objectives must be SMART e.g.,
i) To ascertain the effects of infrastructure on the supply of oil in Kenya.
ii) To determine the effects of foreign exchange on the supply of oil in Kenya
iii) To establish the effects of governance on the supply of oil in Kenya
iv) To identify the extent to which refinery capacity affects the supply of oil in Kenya
1.5 Research Questions
Research questions are questions that the researcher asks such that if answered then the research
problem will be answered. They are usually open questions e.g.
i) To what extent does infrastructure affect the supply of oil in Kenya?
ii) What is the effect of foreign exchange on the supply of oil in Kenya?
iii) How does governance affect the supply of oil in Kenya?
iv) To what extent does refinery capacity affect the supply of oil in Kenya?
1.6 Significance of the Study
Here we need to know who is going to benefit from your study e.g. the organization, other
researchers, the Government of Kenya etc.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
State the factors that hindered you from achieving your goals and how you overcame them e.g. Non
Cooperation, Bureaucracy, Confidentiality, etc.
1.8 Scope of the Study
This is the scope in terms of content scope, geographical scope and time scope.
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Explain to the readers what to expect in the chapter
2.2 Review of Theoretical Literature
This covers literature by other authors based on your variables. Only the variable in the title and
objectives should be discussed. Each variable should be discussed in about 3 – 4 pages from different

Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 67

authors. Literature review should be done in continuous prose and every paragraph must have a
source
2.3 Critical Review
Tell us what other authors have said, what you think they have not said and how you will fill the gap
left by the authors. Do not criticize but only critique. Depending on the research topic, the report can
be limited to a paragraph for each variable e.g. According to Agbola (2001) use of ICT has influenced
the content and quality of banking operations. He argues that, ICT presents great potential for
business process reengineering of Banks. Investment in information and communication technology
should form an important component in the overall strategy of banking operators to ensure effective
performance. It is imperative for bank management to intensify investment in ICT products to
facilitate speed, convenience, and accurate services, or otherwise lose out to their competitors.
Whereas this is true, the author does not tell us how competition affects the use of ICT in the banking
sector. This study therefore intends to find out how competition affects the use of ICT in the banking
sector in Kenya.
2.4 Summary
Here we can have summary of any literature that you feel is important from the 3-4 pages of your
literature review. Cover all the variable in precisely in a paragraph for each variable
2.5 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is defined as “a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields
of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation” (Reichel and Ramney, 1987). It explains
either graphically or in narrative form the main dimensions being studied, or the presumed
relationships among them. It is a framework showing the relationship between the independent
variables and the dependant variable e.g.;

Since this is own conceptualization the relationship between the independent variables and the
dependant variable must be interpreted.

CHAPTER THREE – RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
Introduce to the readers what to expect in the chapter
3.2 Research Design
Indicate the research design to be used and support it with a relevant authority who has justified the
use of that design. The design must be suitable for your study.
3.3 Target Population
Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) define target population as “the entire group or objects to which the
researcher wishes to generalise the study’s findings.” Babbie (1975) defines population as the
theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements. Target population is the complete unit in
which the study is interest. It is better understood by the use of a table e.g.
Mr Gerald Were Research Methods KIM Kisumu 68
3.4 Sampling Technique
Sampling technique is the process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a population
such that the selected group contains elements representative of the characteristics found in the
entire group (Orotho, 2002). Sometimes when the population is too large a sample can be used. If
the population is small a census can be used. The technique of sampling should be based on your
research and support it with a relevant authority who justifies its use. A table can be used e.g.

3.5 Data Collection Methods

Here indicate the methods/instruments used for data collection, justifying the use of each method.
Support the use by citing relevant authorities
3.6 Data Analysis Methods
Indicate the methods used to analyse your data. This will largely depend on the instrument/s used
for data collection. Also indicate how data will be presented and justify your choice of both analysis
and presentation methods.

CHAPTER FOUR – DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
Introduce what the chapter contains
4.2 Presentation of Findings
Quantitative data is analysed in form of tables and presented in figures (pie charts, graphs, etc.) and
the interpretation is done. All questions asked in the questionnaire must be analysed.
4.3 Summary of Data Analysis
The qualitative data is analysed in narrative form

CHAPTER FIVE - SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
Introduce the reader what is to be expected in the chapter

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 5.2 Answers to Research Questions
State the research questions as they are in chapter one (1.5) and answer them according to your
research findings.
5.3 Conclusions
Conclude as per the research questions preferably a paragraph for each.
5.4 Recommendations
Recommend on each variable based on your findings
5.5 Suggestion for Further Studies
It is assumed that your research is not conclusive. Even from your limitations and scope it may show
that you did not cover all the areas necessary to make your research conclusive. This necessitates
that you suggest areas where other researchers can do research to supplement your research.

Reference List
 In research the term “reference” applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted in the
study.
 The reference list is usually at the end of the project report. The reference list provides the
information necessary to identify and retrieve each source. Researchers should choose references
judiciously and must include only the sources that were used in the preparation of the research
project
 References cited in the text must appear in the reference list. Conversely, each entry in the reference
list must be cited in the text.
 The author must make sure that each source referenced appears in both places and that the text
citation and reference list entry are identical.

Reference List Format and Order

i) The reference list format should provide the surname, initials, year of publication (in bracket), title,
edition, publisher and place of publish.
ii) The list should be in alphabetical order.
iii) Indent 2nd line.
iv) Begin with books then journals and magazines

Examples
Ateka, C. (2013), Research Methodology and Design, 1st Edition, Mount Kenya
Publishers, Thika – Kenya.
Kamau, J. & Onyango, T. (2007), Referencing in Research, 2nd Edition, Longonot
Publishers, Nairobi-Kenya.
Mutiso, O.K. & Kiptoo S.C. (2002), Understanding Basics of Research, 3rd Edition,
Konza Publishers, Machakos-Kenya.
Oresi, S.N., Onchoke S.N. & Ombuna, G.N. (2004), Research Made Easy, 1st Edition,
Onchoke Publishers, Nairobi-Kenya.
Vicky, O.K, Nyabuku, N.M. & Matundra, P.B. (2006), The History of Research, 5th
Edition, Sakawa Publishers, Kisii-Kenya.
Zaituni, X.M., (2012), Choosing a Resaerch Design, 1st Edition, Mshenangu
Publishers and Printers, Mombasa-Kenya.
Dissemination of Research Findings
The length, style and content is very important is dissemination of a report. The target group has to
be considered when preparing a report. All the interested parties should get the report. The cost of
dissemination must also be considered. Ensure that there is free access of information both on the
research being conducted and on the findings of the research

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 TOPIC 6: ISSUES IN RESEARCH
TOPIC CONTENT
 Ethical considerations in research
 Problems encountered in implementation of research recommendations

Ethical Considerations in Research

Research involves the voluntary participation and trust of your participants. It is your ethical
responsibility as a researcher to treat your subjects with dignity and avoid violating this trust.

1. Privacy
Protect the privacy of the respondents who agree to provide you with data for your research. Do not
disclose this information to any members of your staff who do not need to know it, and don't ever
sell information gathered through research to other companies without the express permission of
your participants. If you need to reveal the identity of your research participants for any reason, let
them know beforehand so they can provide informed consent.

2. Clear Objectives
When conducting ethically sound business research, your subjects should have a clear idea of your
research intentions.

3. Consent
Customers who participate in your research should know that they are doing so. It is unethical to film
customers making purchasing choices and then review these films for clues about purchasing
behaviour unless your customers know that you are filming them, and consent to the process.
Although gathering this type of consent may change the data you receive because subjects may
behave differently if they know they are being observed, failure to do so is a violation of their rights.

4. Third-party Obligations
If you are conducting marketing research as a third party, such as an independent consultant, it is
your ethical obligation to provide honest, objective data based on carefully crafted questions. Phrase
your survey in order to provide honest, accurate answers rather than trying to extract information as
easily as possible. Choose a subject group that will provide the most useful, relevant information for
the company that hired you, rather than simply working with a group because they are easy to
interview.
5. It is unethical to interview children without their parents’ permission
6. It is unethical to intelligently collect data for another company
7. It is unethical to make recommendations beyond your study
8. It is also unethical to publish the report if the source of the data says you shouldn’t publish it

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else’s ideas or words as your own. Whether deliberate or
accidental plagiarism is a serious and punishable offence in research. Students found guilty of
plagiarism fail in research project and may be disqualified from pursuing their career. Deliberate or
accidental plagiarism occurs when a writer draws words, phrases or passages from other people’s
work and presents them verbatim as their own work without providing complete documentation or
source citation.

Deliberate Plagiarism
i. Copying or downloading someone else’s work and passing it off as your own without proper source
citation
ii. Handing in as your work, a paper you have bought, had a friend write or copied from another student
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iii. Summarising or paraphrasing someone else’s ideas without acknowledgement in a source citation.
Accidental Plagiarism
i. Forgetting to put quotation marks around another writer’s words
ii. Omitting a source citation for someone else’s ideas without acknowledgement in a source citation
To avoid plagiarism the researcher should always acknowledge other people’s ideas that are not
common knowledge

Problems Encountered In Implementation of Research

 Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research.
 Lack of competent researchers
 Copying of data - Some researchers merely copy other international studies or studies which have
been done by researchers/students of other universities. This is a crime and should not be promoted.
 Manipulation of data - Every researcher tries or does one or the other kinds of manipulation of data.
This never reveals the reality
 Lack of availability or access to literature needed - This is a major problem faced during the literature
review. The lack of availability of access to Internet, ignorance of the way to search needed articles
from journals and other databases are other problems.
 Lack of confidence to take up a new study especially exploration study.
 Unavailability of permission to do research
 Some business establishments usually don’t allow third parties to conduct research. This may be due
to security reasons or may be due to lack of confidence in keeping the confidentiality of the data or
names.
 Publishing research may be expensive. Study once it is completed, the further step will be the
publishing of the same.
 Printing and binding may also be expensive.

Recommendations
i. Informed consent - This means that prospective research participants must be fully informed about
the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate.
ii. Guarantee confidentiality - They are assured that identifying information will not be made available
to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
iii. Training - Researchers should be trained in order to carry research in a more competent way
iv. Provide with literature
v. Provide with funds

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 Revision Questions
1. Define research and explain its importance (8 Marks)
2. Distinguish between “quantitative” and “qualitative” methods of data analysis (4 Marks)
3. Explain the factors considered when formulating research objectives (8 Marks)
4. Asses any five (5) methods of data collection (10 Marks)
5. Discuss the components of a research proposal (8 Marks)
6. Asses the various types of researches (12 Marks)
7. Explain the methods used in sampling (12 Marks)
8. Differentiate between the “F” test and “T” test (8 Marks)
9. Explain how the SPSS is used as a data analysis tool (12 Marks)
10. Distinguish between validity and reliability (8Marks)
11. Highlight any four (4) methods of data presentation (12 Marks)
12. Explain what you understand by plagiarism (8 Marks)
13. Define research and explaining the problems facing research (10 Marks}
14. Explain what you understand by plagiarism (8Marks)
15. Asses the quantitative and qualitative methods used in data analysis (8 marks)
16. Analyse the “census” technique of sampling (4 marks)
17. Assess the components of a proposal (12 marks)
18. Discuss the ethical issues in research (8 marks)
19. Assess the research process format (12 marks)
20. Explain the importance of research (8 marks)
21. Discuss any six ways of testing hypotheses (12 marks)
22. Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling (8 marks)
23. Discuss any six methods of data collection (12 marks)
24. Asses any four research designs (8 marks)

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