Climate Classification

Climatic classification is a device by which the multiplicity of atmospheric conditions

upon the earth is meaningfully organised. It is also a method of comprehending the
variation and distribution of the fundamental elements of the climate on our earth,
as well as their relations to other phenomena. By identifying climatic types, one is
able to predict various associated visible aspects of the environment. It may also
enable a geographer to predict the climate of a region through his observation of
the vegetation, animal life, soils or landforms. Description and mapping of climatic
region being the chief interest of the science of climatology, a climatologist tries to
identify and classify the types of climate.

Definition

A climatic region has been defined as an area on the earth’s surface over which an
approximately homogeneous set of climatic conditions is produced by the combined
effects of a number of climatic controls. The set of climatic conditions defined can
be called a particular climatic type. The two most popular types of climatic
classification are empirical and generic. Empirical classifications are based on
statistics, experiments or physical characteristics relating to climate and are entirely
based on observations. Genetic classifications on the other hand are based on the
causes or genesis of climate variation. However, such variations keep changing and
are thus not stable.

Koeppen’s Classification

Of the several schemes of climatic classification, the one devised by Wladimir

Koeppen, a German botanist and climatologist, still remains the most widely known
descriptive system. It is a quantitative as well as empirical classification of world
climates. Koeppen proposed his first classification in 1900, using world vegetation
map of de Candolle, a French plant physiologist. The classification scheme uses
certain critical values of temperature of the warmest and coldest months and
precipitation of the wettest and driest months. It uses numerical values for
delimiting the boundaries of different climatic regions and types. Koeppen’s climatic
regions in many cases coincided with distinct vegetation regions.

The plant classification proposed by A. de Candolle in 1874 was accepted by

Koeppen. The following are the five principal biological groups that are largely
controlled by temperature and moisture:

(A) Megatherms – This group includes plants which require uniformly high
temperature and abundant supply of moisture. The season is winterless, the
average temperature of the coldest months being above 18oC. There is atleast one
month of heavy precipitation. The characteristic vegetation is tropical rain forests.

(B) Xerophytes – Plants that prefer aridity and need high temperatures, even
though for a short season are classed as xerophytes. This class of vegetation is
found in semi-arid steppes and hot deserts and in warmer parts of mid-latitude
zones.

(C) Mesotherms – This group of vegetation consists of plants that are adapted to
moderate heat and a moderate amount of moisture. The average values of
temperatures are usually below 18oC for the coldest month and 22oC for the
warmest month. These plants are found in regions lying between latitudes 22o and
45o N and S.

(D) Microtherms – Plants that need lower mean values of annual temperature,
summer cool and short, and winters colder are called microtherms. The monthly
mean temperature for the warmest month is at least 10oC and less than 22oC. The
mean temperature for the coldest month is below 6oC. Occasional snow in winter
and adequate precipitation during the warmer months suit the climatic
requirements of these plants. Evergreen deciduous forests and steppes have this
type of vegetation.

(E) Hekistotherms – This group of vegetation comprises of plants of the snow-

bound Arctic region beyond polar limits of tree growth. Mosses, lichens etc. fall
under this category.

Koeppen used letter symbols to denote characteristics:

Major Divisions – There were six in all denoted by capital letters:

A – humid tropical climates

B – dry climates

C – humid mesothermal or warm temperate rainy climates

D – humid microthermal or cold forest climates

E – polar climates

H – highland climates

Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall – For this, four sub-divisions, denoted by small

letters:

f – wet all seasons

m – monsoon type, short dry season

w – dry winter

s – dry summer (rare)

Latitudinal Distribution – Koeppen divided into low and high latitudes

h – low latitude

k – high latitude

A: Humid Tropical:
Winter less climates; warm throughout—all months have mean temperature above
18°C.

Af.-Tropical Rainforest or Equatorial Climate:

This type of climate is experienced over the Amazon basin, Zaire basin and south-
east Asia. Mean annual temperature exceeds 27°C. It remains warm throughout.
Rainfall is abundant— annual average being 250 cm. These factors support a
luxuriant vegetation.
Aw: Tropical Savanna:
This type of climate is experienced over the Llanos of Guyana highlands, Campos of
Brazil, over Sudan, Veld plateau and the tropical grasslands of Australia. Mean
annual temperature is 23°C and rainfall is 160 cm. Wet summers (due to
convectional rainfall) alternate with dry winters (due to influence of trade winds).
Floods and droughts are common. Vegetation is called savanna which is actually
tropical grassland with scattered deciduous trees.

Am: Monsoon type:

This type of climate is experienced over the Pacific coast of Colombia, Guinea coast
of west Africa, south-east Africa, south and south-east Asia and northern Australia.
This type of climate is characterised by a seasonal reversal of winds, associated
with alternate periods of rainfall and drought. There is a short dry season also.

As: Dry Summer:

This is a rare climatic type. Certain areas along eastern coast of southern India in
Tamil Nadu and Orissa remain dry during summer monsoon because they lie in a
rain- shadow area and receive winter rainfall from retreating monsoons.

B: Dry Climates:
Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation and constant water deficiency is
experienced.

Bwh: Desert (Low Latitude) Climate:

This type of climate is experienced over southwest USA, north Africa (Sahara), west
Asia, Thar desert, and central Australia. Mean annual temperature is 38°C and
rainfall scanty and erratic. Vegetation varies with the soil type. These regions are
dry because of sub-tropical high pressure conditions and marked stability of sub-
tropical anticyclones. In the southern hemisphere, sub-tropical deserts experience
the influence of cold currents on western coasts. Peru current corresponds to the
Atacama desert (Chile) and the Benguela current to the Namib desert (Africa).
These currents chill and stabilise the air mass thus inhibiting precipitation.
Bwk: Mid-Latitude Deserts:
These climatic conditions prevail over Takla Makan (China) and Gobi desert
(Mongolia) and are similar to the low- latitude desert conditions.

Bsh and Bsk: Semi-arid and Steppe:

These climatic conditions are experienced in the deep interiors of landmasses, such
as Eurasia and North America. Mean annual temperature is around 21°C and
rainfall a meager 30 cm. These regions are dry due to an interior location and
absence of mountain barriers across the path of prevailing winds.

C: Humid Mesothermal/Warm Temperate Rainy:

Mild winters; mean temperature of coldest month is below 18°C but above -3°C
and that of the warmest month is above 10°C. Both seasons, summer and winter,
are found.

Cfa: Humid Sub-tropical or China type climate:

This type of climate is experienced within 25° latitude and 45° latitude on east
coast in both hemispheres. These areas are south-east USA, southern Brazil,
Uruguay, Argentina, and south-eastern Africa, eastern coastal belt of Australia,
eastern China and Japan. Average annual temperature is 20°C and rainfall 100 cm,
which is well distributed. Summers are hot and humid and winters are mild.
Hurricanes and typhoons are common.

Cfb: Marine West European climate:

These climatic conditions are experienced between 45° latitude and 65° latitude on
west coast in both hemispheres. These areas are Western Europe, narrow coastal
belt in North and South America, -south-eastern Australia and New Zealand.
Average annual temperature is around 10°C and rainfall is 140 cm. The climate is
characterised by onshore oceanic influences, short cool summers, mild winters and
a variable, unpredictable weather. This is due to low pressure cyclonic influences.

Cs: Mediterranean Climate:

This type of climate is experienced within 25° and 45° latitudes on west coasts in
both hemispheres—over central California, central Chile, Mediterranean region,
southern South Africa,. Southeastern and southwestern Australia. Mean
temperature during summers is 20°C-27°C. Summers are warm and dry due to
sub-tropical high pressure conditions. During winters, the temperature is 4°C to
10°C. Winters are mild and experience rainfall from low pressure cyclones. Rainfall
is 40 cm- 60 cm annually.

D: Humid Microthermal or Cold Forest Climates:

Severe winters; mean temperature of the coldest month is below -3°C and that of
the warmest month, above 10°C.

Df: Cool East Coast Climate:

This type of climate is experienced between 45° and 65° latitude on east coasts,
over north-eastern USA, lower Danube plains, Korea, Japan, northern China. In
these regions, summers are hot and humid under the influence of tropical maritime
air masses with a mean temperature of 25°C. Winters are cold with mean
temperature between -4°C and 0°C. Precipitation is variable—rainfall is of
convectional type during summers and snowfall is experienced in winters.

Ds: Taiga Climate:

‘Taiga’ actually refers to the softwood coniferous forest cover. This type of climate
is experienced over the belts from Alaska to Newfoundland and from Norway to
Kamchetka peninsula sub-Arctic region. The climate in these regions is influenced
by continental polar air masses. Summers are short with mean temperature
between- 10°C and 15°C, and winters are long and cold. Temperatures go very low
during summers (upto -50°C in Verkhoyansk in January). Precipitation is low but,
sufficient for plant growth.

Dw: Continental Type Climate:

This type of climate is experienced in deep interiors of the continents between Taiga
and the mid-latitude deserts over the belts running from Poland and the Baltic
states, Russian plains, northern states of USA and the southern states of Canada.
Summers are short and cool with mean temperatures ranging from 10° to 21°C.
Winters are long and cold with mean temperatures below 0°C. Rainfall is variable,
occurring mostly during summers. Snowfall occurs during winter.

E: Polar Climates:
Temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C. There is no warm season.

ET: Tundra Climate:

This type of climate is experienced over coastal fringes of the Arctic Ocean. This
climate type is found exclusively in the northern hemisphere. The 10°C isotherm
marks the equator-ward limit of Tundra as well as the poleward limit of vegetation.
Short, cool summers occur with long, cold winters. Precipitation is meager.

Ef: Ice Cap:

These are the areas permanently covered with snow. Average temperature of the
warmest month is below 0°C. Permanent snow cover inhibits any plant growth.
These conditions occur over the poles and the interiors of Greenland.
H: Highlands Climate:
This type of climate is found over the Rockies, Andes, Alps and the Himalayas. In
these mountainous regions, aspect and altitude “play an important role. Change in
altitude has similar effects as latitudinal change, as expressed in vegetational
zoning from foothills upwards. At higher altitudes we’ find high insolation, low
temperature, low pressure, high precipitation and larger diurnal ranges.

Koeppen Scheme of Climate Classification

Letter Symbol

1st 2nd 3rd Criterion

A temperature of coolest month 18 °C or higher

f precipitation in driest month at least 60 mm

m precipitation in driest month less than 60 mm but equal to or greater

than 100 – (r/25)1

w precipitation in driest month less than 60 mm and less than 100 –

 (r/25)

s Well-defined summer dry season (rare)

B 70% or more of annual precipitation falls in the summer half of the

year and r less than 20t + 280, or 70% or more of annual
precipitation falls in the winter half of the year and r less than 20t, or
neither half of the year has 70% or more of annual precipitation
and r less than 20t + 140

W r is less than one-half of the upper limit for classification as a B type

(see above)

S r is less than the upper limit for classification as a B type but is more
than one-half of that amount

H t equal to or greater than 18 °C

K t less than 18 °C

C temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10 °C, and

temperature of coldest month less than 18 °C but greater than –3 °C

s precipitation in driest month of summer half of the year is less than 30

mm and less than one-third of the wettest month of the winter half

w precipitation in driest month of the winter half of the year less than
one-tenth of the amount in the wettest month of the summer half

f precipitation more evenly distributed throughout year; criteria for

neither s nor w satisfied

A temperature of warmest month 22 °C or above

B temperature of each of four warmest months 10 °C or above but

warmest month less than 22 °C

C temperature of one to three months 10 °C or above but warmest

month less than 22 °C

D temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10 °C, and

 temperature of coldest month –3 °C or lower

s same as for type C

w same as for type C

f same as for type C

A same as for type C

B same as for type C

C same as for type C

D temperature of coldest month less than –38 °C (d designation then

used instead of a, b, or c)

E temperature of warmest month less than 10 °C

T temperature of warmest month greater than 0 °C but less than 10 °C

F temperature of warmest month 0 °C or below

H temperature and precipitation characteristics highly dependent on

traits of adjacent zones and overall elevation—highland climates may
occur at any latitude

Note: 1In the formulas above, r is average annual precipitation total (mm), and t is
average annual temperature (°C). All other temperatures are monthly means (°C),
and all other precipitation amounts are mean monthly totals (mm).

World Map Based on Koeppen Climatic Classification

 Source: Britannica.com

Critical Evaluation of Koeppen’s Classification

Advantages

1. Koeppen’s scheme of climatic regionalisation uses temperature and precipitation

as the basis of classification. These are not only measurable physical quantities but
are also the most visible, sensible and influential elements in the atmospheric
dynamics.

2. Due recognition has been given to the interaction of temperature and

precipitation and also to their combined interaction with vegetation. Thus his
climatic divisions coincide with vegetational divisions.

3. It is possible to assign climatic characteristics to any of the sub-divisions on the

basis of temperature and precipitation only.

4. Koeppen scheme uses letter symbols to denote various characteristics, which is

practical and convenient.
5. Koeppen scheme can be adapted and taught at any level (the map shows
Koeppen’s climatic classification in case of India)

Koeppen Classification in India

Source: Britannica.com

Disadvantages

1. Koeppen uses mean monthly values. Thus the most potent factor of precipitation
can only be estimated and comparisons between regions cannot be made.

2. Koeppen’s scheme ignores other factors, such as cloudiness, wind, rainfall

intensity, currents and above all, the air masses which form the basis of modern
climatology.
3. Going by Koeppen’s classification, it is difficult to explain the existence of
different vegetation types within the same climatic division and existence of similar
vegetation types in different climatic divisions.

Thornthwaite’s Classification:
C.W. Thornthwaite, an American climatologist introduced two climatic
classifications, one in 1931 and the other in 1948.

1931 Classification:
Thornthwaite, like Koeppen, used

(i) Physical quantities to delimit boundaries

(ii) Recognised association of vegetation

(iii) Letter symbols

And based his classification on

(i) Effective precipitation

(ii) Thermal efficiency

(iii) Seasonal distribution of rainfall.

He considered evaporation to be an important element and proposed five Humidity

Provinces based on Precipitation Effectiveness (P/E index), six Temperature
Provinces based on Thermal Efficiency (T/E) index, which is expressed as the
positive departure of mean monthly temperature from the freezing point.

Thornthwaite’s Humidity Provinces:

The annual precipitation index is given as

P/ E total rainfall index (annual) = total rainfall/ total evaporation

In the absence of instrument for measuring evaporation, the sum of twelve
individual monthly

P/E index ratios are used as P/E index. Monthly index ratio is given as

P/E index ratio (monthly)

= 11.5 (r x( – 10)10/9
Where, r = mean monthly rainfall in inches

t = mean monthly temperature in degree Fahrenheit.

The five Humidity Provinces are given in the Table.

Humidity Vegetation P/E index

Provinces associated
A – Wet Tropical Rainforest 128+

B – Humid Forest 64-127

C – Semi-humid Tropical Grassland 32-63

D – Semi-arid Steppe 16-31

E – Arid Desert below 16

Thornthwaite’s Temperature Provinces:

Again, the annual T/E index is taken as the sum of twelve individual monthly T/E
index ratios. And, T/E the monthly index ratio is given as

T/E index ratio (monthly) = (t-32)/ 4

where, t = mean monthly temperature in degree Fahrenheit.

Thus, the six Temperature Provinces are as follows:

 Temperature Provinces T/E Index
A’ – Tropical 128 and above

B’ – Mesothermal 64 – 127

C’ – Microthermal 32 – 63

D’ – Taiga 16 – 31

E’ – Tundra 0 – 15

F – Frost 0

Further sub-divisions are also possible based on seasonal distribution of rainfall

1. r – rainfall in all seasons

2. s – summer deficient in rainfall

3. w – winter deficient in rainfall

4. d – dry in all seasons. Theoretically, there can be 120 divisions but

Thornthwaite used only 32 of them.

Critical Evaluation of 1931 Classification:

1. The concepts of Precipitation Effectiveness and Thermal Efficiency were used for
the first time by Thornthwaite, but they make the delimitation of boundaries
difficult.

2. The climatic types are more in number but a lesser number of symbols are used,
which are easy to remember.

3. The lack of climatic data, especially on evaporation, is a serious handicap. This

makes the comparison between localities not possible, since effective precipitation
cannot be precisely ascertained.
4. Like Koeppen’s scheme, Thornthwaite’s scheme is appealing to the geographers,
botanists and zoologists, but not to the climatologists and meteorologists, because
the interplay of climatic factors and weather elements is not considered.

1948 Classification:
Thornthwaite’s second classification is based on two variables:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration (PE)

2. Precipitation

The Potential Evapotranspiration is expressed as the amount of moisture that will

be transferred to atmosphere by evaporation of solid and liquid water and by
transpiration from living tissues, principally plants.

Potential Evapotranspiration, expressed in centimetres, is given as:’

PE = 1.6 (10t/I)a
Where, t = mean monthly temperature (°C)

I = sum of twelve months of (t/5) 1.514.

a = a further complex function of I.

Also,

s – Monthly water surplus

d – Monthly water deficit

These two are calculated from moisture budget assessment including stored soil
moisture. And,

Moisture Index Im = (100s – 60d) PE

Based on this, we have:
Humidity Thermal Province
Moisture Province
Index
100 and above Per humid Megathermal

20—1 00 Humid Mesothermal

0—20 Moist sub-humid Microthermal

-33 — 0 Dry sub-humid Tundra

-67— 34 Semi-arid Dry Frost

-100– 68 Arid

Further sub-divisions are possible on the basis of seasonal distribution of Effective

Moisture.

Thus, the climate of a place can be found out on the basis of:
(i) Potential evapotranspiration

(ii) Seasonal variation of effective moisture

(iii) Average annual thermal efficiency.

Critical Evaluation of 1948 Classification

1. Because of inherent problems, mapping of Thornthwaite’s divisions is not
possible.

2. His scheme does not have a vegetational basis. Thus, it is different from
Koeppen’s scheme.
3. Thornthwaite’s scheme is more suitable for North America where the
vegetational boundaries coincide with climatic divisions, but it is not suitable for
tropics.

4. This scheme is empirical as well as quantitative but does not consider causative
factors.

5. Thornthwaite’s scheme involves a lot of calculations, therefore it is difficult to

apply.

6. Thornthwaite introduced the concept of soil- moisture balance which implies that
the amount of moisture available depends not only on precipitation, but also on
potential evapotranspiration. Thus, if a comparison is made between water
available from precipitation and the actual amount required, it is possible to
determine monthly water surpluses and deficits and whether a season is wet or dry.

7. The greatest contribution of Thornthwaite’s scheme is with regard to practical

studies regarding use of water.