What is Python?

Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and released in
1991.
 Python can be used to create web applications.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
Why Python?
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some
other programming languages.
Python Comments
Comments can be used to explain Python code, Comments can be used to make the code more
readable.
 Comments starts with a  #, and Python will ignore them
Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")
Output:
Hello, World!
 Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of the line
Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment
Output:
Hello, World!
 A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, but it can also be used to
prevent Python from executing code
Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")
Output:
Cheers, Mate!
Multi Line Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multi-line comments.
 To add a multiline comment, you could insert a # for each line
Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")
Output:
Hello, World!
 Since Python will ignore strings that are not assigned to a variable, you can add a multiline
string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment inside it
Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
Output:
Hello, World!
As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but then ignore it, and
you have made a multiline comment.
Python Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.
Python has no command for declaring a variable.
 A variable is created; the moment you first assign a value to it.
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Output:
5
John
 Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even change type
after they have been set.
Example
x=4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)
Output:
Sally
Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.
Example
x = str(3)    # x will be '3'
y = int(3)    # y will be 3
z = float(3)  # z will be 3.0
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Output:
3
3
3.0
Get the Type
You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
Output:
<class 'int'>
<class 'str'>
Single or Double Quotes?
String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes.
Example
x = "John"
print(x)
#double quotes are the same as single quotes:
x = 'John'
print(x)
Output:
John
John
Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.
Example
This will create two variables:
a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
print(a)
print(A)
Output:
4
Sally
Python - Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume).
Rules for Python variables:
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and
_)
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
Example: (Legal variable names)
myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

print(myvar)
print(my_var)
print(_my_var)
print(myVar)
print(MYVAR)
print(myvar2)
Output:
John
John
John
John
John
John

Example (Illegal variable names)

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
Multi Words Variable Names
Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.
There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:
Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:
myVariableName = "John"
Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:
MyVariableName = "John"
Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:
my_variable_name = "John"
Python Variables - Assign Multiple Values
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line.
Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or else you will get an
error.
One Value to Multiple Variables
And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line.
Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you extract the values into
variables. This is called unpacking.
Example Unpack a list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Python - Output Variables
Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.
 To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:
Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)
 You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z =  x + y
print(z)
 For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:
Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)
 If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
Python Data Types
Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.
Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence list, tuple, range
Types:

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x = 5
print(type(x))
Setting the Data Type
In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
Setting the Specific Data Type
If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor functions:

Example Data Type

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:
1. int
2. float
3. complex

 Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1    # int
y = 2.8  # float
z = 1j   # complex

 To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.
Example Integers:
x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more decimals.
Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
  Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.
Example Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(), and complex() methods:
Example Convert from one type to another:
x = 1    # int
y = 2.8  # float
z = 1j   # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but Python has a built-in
module called random that can be used to make random numbers:
Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:
import random
print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Python Casting (Specify a Variable Type)

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can be done with casting.
Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it uses classes to define data types, including its
primitive types.
Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:
 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal (by removing all
decimals), or a string literal (providing the string represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or a string literal
(providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including strings, integer literals
and float literals
Example Integers:
x = int(1)   # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Example Floats:
x = float(1)     # x will be 1.0
y = float(2.8)   # y will be 2.8
z = float("3")   # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = str(2)    # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0)  # z will be '3.0'
Python Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.
'hello' is the same as "hello".
You can display a string literal with the print() function:
Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and the
string:
Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:
Example
You can use three double quotes:
a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)
Or three single quotes:
Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)
Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in the code.
Looping Through a String
Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with a for loop.
Example Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
  print(x)

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.
Example The len() function returns the length of a string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the keyword in.
Example Check if "free" is present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("free" in txt)

Use it in an if statement:
Example Print only if "free" is present:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt:
  print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use the keyword not in.
ExampleCheck if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("expensive" not in txt)

Use it in an if statement:
Example print only if "expensive" is NOT present:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "expensive" not in txt:
  print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")
Python - Slicing Strings
Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.
Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the string.
Example Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])
Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:
Example Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end  index, the range will go to the end:
Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example Get the characters:
From: "o" in "World!" (position -5), but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
Python - Modify Strings
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to remove this
space.
Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:
a = " Hello, World! "
print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes the list
items.
Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Python - String Concatenation

String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.
Example Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+b
print(c)
Example to add a space between them, add a " ":
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)
Python - Format - Strings
String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and numbers like this:
Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!

The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and places them in the string
where the placeholders {} are:
Example
Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))

The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are placed into the respective
placeholders:
Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the correct placeholders:
Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
Python - Escape Characters
Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.
An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.
An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is surrounded by double
quotes:
Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded by double quotes:
txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would not be allowed:
txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result

\' Single Quote

\\ Backslash

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

Python - String Methods
String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it
was found

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it
was found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
was found

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
was found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning
Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.
Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.
You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two answers, True or False.
When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns the Boolean answer:
Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)
When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:
Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
  print("b is greater than a")
else:
  print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give you True or False in return,
Example
Evaluate a string and a number:
print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Example
Evaluate two variables:
x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))
Most Values Are True
Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.
Any string is True, except empty strings.
Any number is True, except 0.
Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.
Example
The following will return True:
bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values, such as (), [], {}, "",
the number 0, and the value None. And of course the value False evaluates to False.
Example
The following will return False:
bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})

 One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you have an object
that is made from a class with a __len__ function that returns 0 or False:
Example
class myclass():
   def __len__(self):
     return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))
Functions can Return a Boolean
You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:
Example
Print the answer of a function:
def myFunction() :
  return True

print(myFunction())

 You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":
def myFunction() :
  return True

if myFunction():
  print("YES!")
else:
  print("NO!")

 Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a certain data
type:
Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))
Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example
print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y
Python Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and  Returns True if both statements are x < 5 and  x < 10

true

or Returns True if one of the statements is x < 5 or x < 4

true

not Reverse the result, returns False if the not(x < 5 and x < 10)
result is true
Python Identity Operators
Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are actually the
same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is  Returns True if both variables are the x is y

same object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the x is not y

same object

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 Lists are created using square brackets:
Example Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order will
not change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the items
will not change.
Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it has been
created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

 A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]
type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>
Example What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
Python - Access List Items
Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example Print the last item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.
Example Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
 Remember that the first item has index 0. By leaving out the start value, the range will start
at the first item:
Example This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])
 By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1):
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example Check if "apple" is present in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
  print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
Python - Change List Items
Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example Change the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Change a Range of Item Values
To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values, and refer to
the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
 If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not match the
number of items replaced.
 If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you specified,
and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use
the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.
Python - Add List Items
Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example Using the append() method to append an item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example Insert an item as the second position:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
The elements will be added to the end of the list.
Example Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
Add Any Iterable
The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object (tuples, sets,
dictionaries etc.).
Example Add elements of a tuple to a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Python - Remove List Items
Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.
Example Remove "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
Remove Specified Index
The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example Remove the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
 If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example Remove the last item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
 The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example Remove the first item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
 The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example Delete the entire list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.
The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example Clear the list content:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
Python - Loop Lists
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
  print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example Print all items by referring to their index number:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for i in range(len(thislist)):
  print(thislist[i])
The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop your way through
the list items by refering to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
  print(thislist[i])
  i = i + 1

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[print(x) for x in thislist]
List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on the values
of an existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the letter "a" in the
name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a conditional test inside:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
  if "a" in x:
    newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)
 With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.
Example Only accept items that are not "apple":
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]
The condition if x != "apple"  will return True for all elements other than "apple", making the new list
contain all fruits except "apple".
The condition is optional and can be omitted:
Example With no if statement:
newlist = [x for x in fruits]
Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.
Example You can use the range() function to create an iterable:
newlist = [x for x in range(10)]
 Same example, but with a condition:
Example Accept only numbers lower than 5:
newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]
Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which you can
manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
Example Set the values in the new list to upper case:
newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]
 You can set the outcome to whatever you like:
Example Set all values in the new list to 'hello':
newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]
 The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to manipulate the
outcome:
Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":
newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

Note: The expression in the example above says, "Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana
return orange".
Python - Sort Lists
Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by default:
Example Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Example Sort the list numerically:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Example Sort the list descending:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Customize Sort Function
You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key =  function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number first):
Example Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
  return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)
Case Insensitive Sort
By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being sorted before lower
case letters:
Example Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:
Example Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example Reverse the order of the list items:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Python - Copy Lists
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and
changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
 Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Python - Join Lists
Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Example Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
 Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by one:
Example Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
  list1.append(x)

print(list1)
 Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one list to
another list:
Example Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
Tuple
 Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
 Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
 Tuples are written with round brackets.
Example Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)
Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order
will not change.
Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple has
been created.
Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:
Example Tuples allow duplicate values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example Print the number of items in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(len(thistuple))
Create Tuple With One Item
To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item, otherwise Python will
not recognize it as a tuple.
Example One item tuple, remember the comma:
thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example String, int and boolean data types:
tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)
 A tuple can contain different data types:
Example A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:
tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':
<class 'tuple'>
Example What is the data type of a tuple?
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(type(mytuple))
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)
Python - Access Tuple Items
Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:
Example Print the second item in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example Print the last item of the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.
Example Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
Note: 
 The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
 Remember that the first item has index 0.

 By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])
 By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:
Example This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
if "apple" in thistuple:
  print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Python - Update Tuples
Change Tuple Values
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable as it
also is called.
But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the list
back into a tuple.
Example Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but there are other ways
to add items to a tuple.
1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for  changing  a tuple, you can convert it into a list,
add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add one item, (or
many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:
Example Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma after the item,
otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the same
workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

 Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
Python - Unpack Tuples
Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:
Example Packing a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

 But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This is called
"unpacking":
Example Unpacking a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you must use
an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a list.

Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to the variable name
and the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
 If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will assign values to
the variable until the number of values left matches the number of variables left.
Example Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:
fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
Python - Loop Tuples
Loop Through a Tuple
You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example Iterate through the items and print the values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in thistuple:
  print(x)
 Loop Through the Index Numbers
 You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.
 Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example Print all items by referring to their index number:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for i in range(len(thistuple)):
  print(thistuple[i])
Using a While Loop
 You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
 Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and loop your way
through the tuple items by refering to their indexes.
 Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
i = 0
while i < len(thistuple):
  print(thistuple[i])
  i = i + 1
Join Two Tuples
To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:
Example Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")
tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2
print(tuple3)
Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use the * operator:
Example Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
mytuple = fruits * 2
print(mytuple)
Python - Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
found
Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
Set
 Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
 Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.
Sets are written with curly brackets.
Example Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred to by
index or key.

Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has been
created.
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
Example Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)
Get the Length of a Set
To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.
Example Get the number of items in a set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:
Example String, int and boolean data types:
set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}
A set can contain different data types:
Example A set with strings, integers and boolean values:
set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':
<class 'set'>
Example What is the data type of a set?
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(type(myset))

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example Using the set() constructor to make a set:
thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thisset)
Python - Access Set Items
Access Items
 You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
 But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is present
in a set, by using the in keyword.
Example Loop through the set, and print the values:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
  print(x)
Example Check if "banana" is present in the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)
Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
Python - Add Set Items
Add Items
 Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
 To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Example Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)

Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example Add elements from tropical into thisset:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object (tuples,
lists, dictionaries etc.).
Example Add elements of a list to at set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)
Python - Remove Set Items
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
 You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove
the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know what item that gets
removed.
 The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item that gets
removed.
Example The clear() method empties the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)
Example The del keyword will delete the set completely:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

Python - Loop Sets

Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
Example Loop through the set, and print the values:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
  print(x)
Python - Join Sets
Join Two Sets
 There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
 You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from both sets,
or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set into another:
Example The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Example The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

Keep ONLY the Duplicates

The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in both sets.
Example Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.intersection_update(y)
print(x)
The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items that are present in both
sets.
Example Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
z = x.intersection(y)
print(z)
Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates
The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that are NOT present in
both sets.
Example Keep the items that are not present in both sets:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.symmetric_difference_update(y)
print(x)
  The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only the elements
that are NOT present in both sets.
Example Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are present in both:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
z = x.symmetric_difference(y)
print(z)

Python - Set Methods

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or more

sets

difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included in
another, specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in other,
specified set(s)

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not

issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets

symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another

union() Return a set containing the union of sets

update() Update the set with the union of this set and others
Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
Dictionary
 Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.
 A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.
 As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

 Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:
Example Create and print a dictionary:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.
Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key name.
Example Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.
Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an item by using
an index.
Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after the dictionary
has been created.
Duplicates Not Allowed
Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964,
  "year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:
Example Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(thisdict))

Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:
Example String, int, boolean, and list data types:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "electric": False,
  "year": 1964,
  "colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}
type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data type 'dict':
<class 'dict'>
Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))
Python - Access Dictionary Items
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square brackets:
Example Get the value of the "model" key:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

 There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example Get the value of the "model" key:
x = thisdict.get("model")

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.
Example Get a list of the keys:
x = thisdict.keys()
 The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.
Example Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.
Example Get a list of the values:
x = thisdict.values()
  The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the values list.
Example Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

Example Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
Example Get a list of the key:value pairs
x = thisdict.items()
 The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to
the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
Example Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change
Example Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {
  "brand": "Ford",
  "model": "Mustang",
  "year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
  print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")