Dr. Shyam N.

Chawda, C Language Tutorial , 78 74 39 11 91

1.1 Concepts of Programming Methodology

Humans communicate through

language, animals communicate
through gestures, noise and actions. If
a person wants to explain something to
another person, how will he do it? The
answer is simple he/she will explain it
verbally through a language understood
by both.

Nowadays, machines have replaced humans in so many areas of technology. Now

humans must communicate with the machine and as computer does not understand
any natural verbal language how will s/he convey or explain something. This is
where programming languages work. These programming languages are specially
developed to communicate with computer by using a specific set of data and
instructions.
Programming languages generally consist of instructions for a computer.
Programming languages can be used to create programs that implement specific
algorithms.

In other words, A programming language is a special language that programmers

are use to develop software programs, scripts, or other sets of instructions for
computers to execute.

The most common and basic languages are C, C++, Java, Python, Php , C# , VB ,
SQL and Swift etc. These are programming languages. Instructions or programs
are written in these programming languages.

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1.1.1 Types of computer programming languages

Programming languages are used to communicate with the computer through a set
of code and instruction which are collectively known as Programs.

The person who writes the code using a programming language is

known as a Programmer or a Coder. A programmer is a person
who writes programs using programming languages. A
programmer writes programs using characters such as numbers,
symbols, letters etc. each computer language has its own set of
characters.

Mainly there are three major types of programming languages:

1.1.1.1 Machine Language

The only language that is understood directly by a computer is

the Machine Language. Machine Language is also known as
Binary language.

Machine Language is the lowest level of programming language and was the first
type of programming language to be developed. Machine Language only consists
of 0’s and 1’s.

Machine language uses strings of 1's (ones) and 0’s (zeros) codes as a character
sets for writing programs. Therefore, when the computer is given the sequence of
binary code, it identifies the code and executes the program.

Advantages of Machine Language

• As machine language is the only language understood by the

computer, it does not require any translator or mediator.
• Machine language is very fast and utilizes the computer
efficiently.

Disadvantages of Machine Language

• All the code has to be remembered and as the code consists

of only 1’s and 0’s it is very difficult.
• It is very inefficient for programmers.
• It is also very difficult to find errors or mistakes in a program
written in Machine Language.

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1.1.1.2 Assembly Language

Intermediate-level programming language which is higher than the Machine

language. Code written in assembly
language are converted into machine
language by translators.

These translators are specialized

programs called assemblers. The
Assembly Language is considered to be
a second-generation language.

Advantages of Assembly Language

• The Assembly Language is easier to use and understand as

compared to the machine language.
• It saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer, because
it uses character sets. This provides some flexibility
compare to machine language.
• It is easy to correct errors and hence, it is easy to modify
the code.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

• Like machine language, assembly language is also machine

dependent.
• As it is machine dependent, the programmer also needs to
understand the hardware.

1.1.1.3 High level languages

High-Level languages were introduced in the 1950’s. High level Languages also
abbreviated as HLL are computer language which are developed independent of a
computer i.e. that they are not limited by the computer and are designed for a
specific job.

It is much easier to understand than

Machine Language. But, for a computer
to interpret and execute a program
created in a High-Level language, it
must be compiled into Machine
Language. The translator that is used
for converting High-Level language to
Machine Language is known as
Compiler.

Advantages of Hight level languages

• High-Level languages are more user friendly.

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• The code and instructions are very similar and use well known English
vocabulary and symbols.
• High-Level languages are easier to learn and maintain.
• High-Level languages are problem oriented rather than
machine based and are designed to solve specific problems.
• High-Level languages can be translated into many Machine
languages and can run on any computer, if the computer
has an appropriate translator.

Disadvantages of Hight level languages

• High-Level language utilizes more time as it must be

translated into machine language by a translator.
• Difficult to manage the libraries.

Compiler

Compiler is a software.

Compiler is a program that converts a High-Level language into Machine language

that a computer can understand and execute. This interpretation is must as
computer only understands Machine language.

While a compiling a code, compiler will report any error it finds in the code. If it
does not find any error it translates the code into Machine language.

1.1.1.4 Procedure Languages

A procedural programming language is simply a programming language where you

write statements for the computer to execute. You simply tell the computer what
to do in basic steps. If any instruction in a program is complicated to execute it
would be divided into fragments of small subroutines. Thus, procedural
programming involves decomposition of a program into small procedures to make
it simple.

High level languages, such as COBOL, FORTRAN, Pascal, and C, are known as
procedural languages because they use a sequence of instructions to specify on
how to solve a problem.

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Advantages of Procedural Programming

• It is easier to write and debug the programs.

• It can divide the program into different modules and
subroutines.
• In procedural programming, one can reuse the program.
• An easier way to keep track of program flow.
• Requires less memory.

Disadvantages of Procedural Programming

• When the program is fragmented into modules and subroutines,

the data is exposed to the whole program. Hence there is no
security for data.
• It is difficult to relate with real world objects.
• Significance is given to the operation on data rather than data.

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1.2 Flowchart
A flowchart is a graphical representation of the plan.

A flowchart is’ a diagrammatic or pictorial

representation of the algorithm.

Flowchart is a type of program design technique.

Before writing a program in a computer language it
should be designed using flowchart to make the
program easier to convert into computer languages.

Flowchart is a visual representation of sequence of

steps and decisions needed to perform a process to
get the solution.

Flowchart is like a blueprint that is created before

starting the construction on a building. Likewise, a
programmer chooses to illustrate a flowchart before
writing the program in computer languages. The
symbols used in the flowchart are easy to learn.

Advantages of the flowchart

• Flowcharts are a better way to communicate the logic of a program.

• Flowchart helps in analyzing the program in a more
effective way ultimately reducing the cost and wastage of
time.
• A Problem can be examined in an efficient way.
• Program flowcharts serve as a good programming
documentation, which is required for several tasks.
• The flowchart also aids in debugging process.
• The maintenance of operating program becomes easy with the help of
flowchart. Hence a programmer would initially put more efforts in designing
a flowchart.

Disadvantages of the flowchart

• Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that

case, flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
• Flowchart are quite costly to produce and difficult to use and
manage.
• Time consuming

1.2.1 Symbols of flowchart

Listed below are the standard symbols used in a flowchart:

Start/Stop of Program flow (rounded rectangle)

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Input / Output Operation (parallelogram)

Connector

Process to be performed (rectangle)

Decision / Comparison Operation

Note that one arrow goes in, two go out

1.2.2 Guidelines for preparing flowchart

1. Every requirement should be noted down out in a logical order.

2. Use consistent design. The shapes, line and text in a flowchart should be
uniform.
3. The whole flowchart should be on one page.
4. A flowchart should always have the top to bottom approach.
5. If the flowchart is horizontal, then the data flow should be form left to right.
6. Every flowchart should be started with start symbol
and ended with end symbol.
7. Always use the standard flowchart symbols.
8. Only one flow line should come out from a process
symbol.
9. Instead of the traditional decision symbol use a split
path.
10. Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish
11. It is always good practice to test the flowchart by
passing a trial data before finalizing it.

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1.2.3 Flowchart structure

Mainly there are three aspects of a flowchart: Sequential, selection (branching)

and repetition.

1.2.3.1 Sequential

The sequential process is just a series of processes carried out one by one.
Following is the sequential structure of the flowchart.

Process1

Process2

Process3

Example# To find out sum of two numbers.

START

READ A, B

C=A+B

PRINT C

STOP

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1.2.3.2 Selection

In this structure, decision is to be made and one of the processes is to be carried

out in each path from the decision.

Following is the selection structure of the flowchart.

Example# To find maximum value between two values.

START

READ A,
B

NO YES
IF
A>B

PRINT C PRINT A

STOP

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1.2.3.3 Repetition

This structure allows representation of a conditional loop. The decision to execute

the process in the loop is made prior to the first execution of the process.

Following is the repetition structure of the flowchart.

Example# To find out the sum of series 1+2+3+…….N numbers.

START

SUM=0
I=1

READ N

False IF True
I<=N

SUM=SUM+I

PRINT
I = I+1
SUM

STOP

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1.3 Algorithm
Algorithm is a problem-solving technique.

An algorithm is a sequence of steps for solving a problem.

Here the ins tructions are written in English words and
that are similar to the high-level languages instructions.

It is also called pseudo-code and is commonly used to

express algorithms.

Properties of an Algorithm

• Every instruction must be clear and have single clearly defined meaning.

• Every algorithm has input/output.

• It must have sequence of finite instructions; it means instructions must be

finished after a fixed time duration.

• Algorithm should be simple.

• Algorithm should be clear with no ambiguity.

• Algorithm should lead to a unique solution of the problem.

Advantages of the algorithm

• It is simple to write and understand.

• It is not a programming language and hence any user can
write it.
• Errors can be easily highlighted.
• From the algorithm, programmer can write the programs
using high level languages.

Disadvantages of the algorithm

• It is not familiar for big projects.

• Writing algorithm takes a long time.

1.3.1 Algorithm Structure

An algorithm has following parts and these parts are always in below shown
order:

Header It specifies the name of the algorithm.

Declaration Describes the algorithm.
Body Sequence of steps for the solution.
Terminator End statement to terminate algorithm.

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1.3.2 How to write algorithm

An algorithm can be written in pseudo code for the different types of

operations:

1 To read a data.
Use Read or Get instructions
For example, Read name, no1
2 To print the data
Use Print or Write instructions
For example, print "The average is", average
3. To perform arithmetic operation
Add number to sum or
Sum = sum + Number
4. To assign some value to a variable
Variable=value or set variable to value
For example, Total =0
sum=0
5. To compare the value
Use selection type instructions if...else …endif
For example,
If number a< b then
Print “maximum is “,a
else
Print “maximum is “,b
end-if

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6. To perform repetitions operation
Use looping type instructions repeat…until or while..do
For example,
Repeat until I = 10
read number
write number
I=I+1
end-repeat
OR
while I < 10 do:
read number
write number
I=I+1
end-while

Algorithm and Flowchart

Write an algorithm and flowchart to add two numbers
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare two variables a,b
Declar no1,no2 as Number
3. Print “Enter value of a & b
->”
4. Input a and b Input no1,no2,ans

5. Print “Ans = “ & (a+b)

6. End
ans=no1+no2

Print “Sum is :- ” &ans

stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find area of a circle.

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare two variables r,ans
Declare area,p,r as Number
3. Print “Enter value of r ->”
4. Input r
5. ans=3.14*r*r
Input r
6. Print “Area of circle = “ &
ans
7. End p = 3.14
area = p * r * r

Print “Area of a Circle :-” &area

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find area of a rectangle.

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables l,b,ans
Declare the variables l ,b, ans
3. Print “Enter value of l ->”
4. Input l
5. Print “Enter value of b ->” Input l,b

6. Input b
7. ans=l*b Ans=l*b
8. Print “Area of Rectangle = “
& ans
Print ”Area Of Rectangle:
9. End ” & ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find area of a perimeter of

Rectangle.
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables l,b,ans Declare the variables l ,b, ans
3. Print “Enter value of l ->”
4. Input l
5. Print “Enter value of b ->” Input l,b

6. Input b
7. ans=2*(l+b)
8. Print “perimeter of Rectangle Ans=2*(l+b)

= “ & ans
9. End Print”Perimeter of
rectangle”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to swap the value of two variables.

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
a,b,c Dealer no1, no2, no3 as Number

3. Print “Enter value of a

->” Input no1,no2
4. Input a
5. Print “Enter value of b
->” no3 = no1
no1 = no2
6. Input b no2 = no3
7. c=a
8. a=b
9. b=c
10. Print “swap of no = “ Print “No1 is :-“ &no1
&c Print “No2 is :-” &no2

11. End

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find simple interest.

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables p,r,n,ans
Declare the variables p,r,n,ans
3. Print “Enter value of p ->”
4. Input p
5. Print “Enter value of r ->” Input p,r,n
6. Input r
7. Print “Enter value of n ->”
8. Input n ans=p*r*n/100
9. ans=p*r*n/100
10. Print “Simple interest = “ &
ans Print”Simple Interest
11. Stop ”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find Compound interest.

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Start
Step
1. Start
2. Declare variables p,r,n,t,ans Declare the variables
p,r,n,t,ans
3. Print “Enter value of p ->”
4. Input p
5. Print “Enter value of r ->” Input p,r,n,t
6. Input r
7. Print “Enter value of n ->”
8. Input n Ans=p*[1+(r/
9. Print “Enter value of t ->” n)^t]

10. Input t
11. ans=p*[1+(r/n)t] Print”Compound Interest
“&ans
12. Print “Compound Interest is
= “ & ans
13. Stop
Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the average marks of 3 subjects

of a student.
Start
Step
1. Start Declare the variables s1,s2,s3,total, avg
2. Declare variables
s1,s2,s3,total,avg
3. Print “Enter value of s1 ->” Input s1,s2,s3
4. Input s1
5. Print “Enter value of s2 ->”
6. Input s2 Total=s1+s2+s3
7. Print “Enter value of s3 ->”
8. Input s3
9. Total=s1+s2+s3 Print”total of 3 subject”&total
10. Print “Total of 3 subject is =
” & total
11. avg= &total/3 Avg=&total/3
12. Print “Average of 3 subject
is = “ & avg
13. Stop Print”Avarage of 3
subject”&avg

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to convert temperature from Celsius to

Fahrenheit.

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables f,ans Declare the variables f , ans
3. Print “Enter value of
Fahrenheit: ->”
4. Input f Input f

5. ans=(f-32)*9/5
6. Print “Celsius to Fahrenheit
= “ & ans Ans=(f-32)*9/5
7. Stop

Print”Celsius to
Fahrenheit”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to convert temperature from

Fahrenheit to Celsius.
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables c,ans Declare the variables c, ans
3. Print “Enter value of celsius: -
>”
4. Input c Input c

5. ans=(c*5/9)+32
6. Print “Fahrenheit to Celsius =
“ & ans
7. Stop
Ans=(c*5/9)+32

Print” Fahrenheit to
Celsius”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find area of triangle.

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables b,h,ans
3. Print “Enter value of b->” Declare the variables b,h, ans

4. Input b
5. Print “Enter value of h->” Input b,h

6. Input h
7. ans=1/2*(b*h)
Ans=½(b*h)
8. Print “Area of triangle = “ &
ans
9. Stop
Print”Area of
triangle”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find volume of a cylinder.

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables r,h,ans
Declare the variables r ,h, ans
3. Print “Enter value of r->”
4. Input r
5. Print “Enter value of h->” Input r,h
6. Input h
7. ans=3.14*r*r*h
8. Print “volume of a cylinder = Ans=3.14*r*r*h

“ & ans
9. Stop
Print”Volume of
Cylinder”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the circumference of a circle.

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables r,ans
Declare the variables r , ans
3. Print “Enter value of r->”
4. Input r
5. ans=3.14*2*r Input r

6. Print “circumference of a
circle = “& ans
7. Stop Ans=3.14*2*r

Print”Circumference of
Circle”&ans

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to solve the expression

x=(a+b+c)/(d+e).

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Start

Step
1. Start
Declare the variables a,b,c,d,e,ans
2. Declare variables
a,b,c,d,e,ans
3. Print “Enter value of a->” Input
4. Input a a,b,c,d,e

5. Print “Enter value of b->”

6. Input b
7. Print “Enter value of c->”
8. Input c Ans=(a+b+c)/(d+e)

9. Print “Enter value of d->”

10. Input d
11. Print “Enter value of e->” Print”Expression ”&ans

12. Input e
13. ans=(a+b+c)/(d+e)
14. Print “Ans is = “& ans
Stop
15. Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the maximum of two numbers

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare
two Declare variables
a,b
variable
s a,b
3. Print
Input a,b
“Enter
value a
and b -
>” Y A>b No B>A Y

4. Input a
&b
5. If a>b Print “ A is Print” B is
Maximum no.”&b
then maximum no.”&a
No
6. Print “a Print “A and
is B Both are
Equal”
maximu
m”
7. Else if
b>a
then
8. Print “b
is Stop

maximu
m”
9. Else
10. Print
“Both
are
same”
11. Stop

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Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the maximum of three numbers

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare two
variables a,b,c Declare variables a,b,c

3. Print “Enter value a ,

b , c ->”
4. Input a, b,c Input a,b,c

5. If a>b && a>c then

6. Print “a is
maximum” A == B N A>B
7. Else if b>a && b>c Y Y

then N
8. Print “b is
maximum” Y B>C N A>c
9. Else if c>a && c>b B=C
then
10. Print “c is maximum” Print “B” N Y

11. Else
12. Print “All are same” Print”A
Print”C
13. Stop Y

Print “All are same”

Y Stop

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Write an algorithm and flowchart to find if the given number is odd or
even
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare Declare varibles no
variable
no
3. Print Print”enter
no”
“Enter
value no Input no
->”
4. Input no
5. If Y Print”No is Even”
no%2== no%2==0
0 then
6. Print “no
N
is even”
7. Else
8. Print “no Print”No is Odd”
is odd”
9. Stop
Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find if the given number is positive,

negative or zero
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare
variable no Declare varibles no

3. Print
“Enter
value no - Print”enter no”

>”
4. Input no Print”No is Positive“
Input no
5. If no>0
then Y
6. Print “no is
No>0
positive”
Print”No is
7. Else if N N Zero.”
no<0 then
8. Print “no is No<0

negative”
9. Else Y
10. Print “no is
0” Print”No is Negative“&no
11. Stop
Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to give grade to the marks of a student

(if marks between 45 to 60 pass class, if marks between 60 to 70, First
class, if the marks >70: Distinction and if marks <45: fail)

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
maths,ss,eng,tot Declare variable maths,ss,eng,total,

al
3. Print “Enter value
maths,ss,eng ->” Print”Enter marks of
subject”
4. Input
maths,ss,eng
5. Total=maths+ss Input maths,ss,eng

+eng
6. If total<45 then
7. Print “Fail” Total=maths+ss+eng
8. Else if total>=45
and total<=60
then Total<45 Y Print”fail”
9. Print “Pass class”
10. Else if total>60
N
and total<=70
then
total>=45 &&
11. Print “First class” total<=60
Y Print”Pass class”

12. Else if total>70

then N
13. Print “Distinction”
14. Stop
total>60 &&
Y Print “First Class”
total<=70

total>70 Y Print “Distinction”

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to check if the entered value is vowel

or a consonant

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variable ch
3. Print “Enter value ch -
Declare variable ch
>”
4. Input ch
5. If ch==’a’ or ch==’e’ Print”Enter ch”
or ch==’I’ or ch==’o’
or ch==’u’ then
6. Print “it’s a vowel” Input ch

7. Else
8. Print “it’s a consonant”
9. stop
ch==’a’ || ch==’e’|| ch==’I’ ||
ch==’o’ || ch==’u’ Y

Print “it’s a vowel”

N

Print “it’s a consonant”

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the sum of first 10 successive

numbers
Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
sum,i
3. Initialize sum
Declare variables sum,i
=0,i=1
4. If i<11 then
sum=sum+i
i=i+1 sum =0,i=1
go to step 4
5. else
print “Sum = “ &
sum
6. Stop i<11 N Print”sum =” &sum

Sum = Sum +I
i=i+1

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the sum of first 10 odd and even
numbers

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Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables
sumo,sume,i
3. Initialize sumo Declare variables sumo,sume,i
=0,sume=0,i=1
4. If i<21 then
If I % 2 ==0
then sumo =0,sume=0,i=1

sume=sume+i
Else

sumo=sumeo+i
i=i+1 i<21

go to step 4
Y
5. else
print “Sume = “ &
Y I % 2 ==0 N
sume &” Sumo = “ &
sumo N
6. stop sume=sume+i
Sumo=sume+1

i=i+1

Print”Sume=”& sume &” Sumo

=”&sumo

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the sum of n1 to n2

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
sum,n1,n2 Declare variables sum,n1,n2
3. Initialize sum =0
4. Print “Enter n1 and
n2”
sum =0
5. Input n1 & n2
6. If n1<=n2 then
sum=sum+n1
n1=n1+1
go to step 6 Print “Enter n1 and n2”

7. else
print “Sum = “ &
sum
8. stop Input n1 & n2

n1<=n2 N Print”sum=”&sum

sum=sum+n1
stop
n1=n1+1

Write an algorithm and flowchart to count total number of odd and even
in Range

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
cnte,cnto,N,i Declare variables cnte,cnto,N,i
3. Initialize
cnte=0,cnto=0,i
=1 cnte=0,cnto=0,i=1

4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If i<N then Print “Enter N”
If I % 2
==0 then
Input N
cnte=cnte
+1
Else
Y i<N N
cnto=cnto
+1
i=i+1 I % 2 ==0 Y cnte=cnte+1

go to step 6
7. else N
Print”cnte=
print “cnte = “ & cnto=cnto+1 “&cnte&”cnto=”&cnto&
cnte &” cnto = “ i=i+1

& cnto
8. End

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to count total number +ve,-ve and

zeros from range of value

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Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare
variables
p,n,z,I,n1,n2 Declare variables p,n,z,I,n1,n2

3. Initialize
p=0,n=0,z=0
,i=1
P=0,n=0,z=0,i=1
4. Print “Enter
n1 and n2”
5. Input n1 & n2
6. If n1<=n2 Input n1,n2
then
If
n1>0
n1<=n2 Y n1<0
then
N
Y
p=p+ N n1>0 n=n+1
1
else if Y N
n1<0
z=1
then p=p+1
n1=n1+1
Print”Positive = “ & p
&”Negative = “&n&”Zero=”&z
n=n+
1
else
Stop
z=1n1
=n1+
1
go to step 6
7. else
print “Positive
= “ & p &”
Negative = “
& n &” Zero =
“&z
8. End

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Write an algorithm and flowchart to find maximum of N numbers entered

by the user
Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare
variables Declare variables
M,N,value, M,N,value,Max

Max
3. Initialize
M=1,Max= .M=1,Max=0

0
4. Print Input N
“Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If M<=N
then N M<=N

Print
Y
“Enter Y
Input
value
value” Print”Enter
Value>max
Value”
Input Print”Maxim
um = “&max
value

If
Y
value>Max
then Stop
Max=value
M=M+1
Max
=value

M=M+1
go to step
6
7. else
Print
“Maximum
= “ & Max
8. End

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find average of N numbers entered

by the user

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Start
Step
1. Start
2. Declare
variables Declare variables
M,N.value,avg
M,N,value,
Avg
3. Initialize M=1,avg=0

M=1,Avg=
0
4. Print Print “enter N”

“Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If M<=N
Input N
then
Print
“Enter
value”

Input M<=N

value Y

Print”enter
Input value
value”
Avg=avg+value
N
Avg=Avg+ M=M+1

value
Print”Maximum=”&(Avg/N)
M=M+1
go to step
6
7. else
Stop
Print
“Maximum
=“&
(Avg/N)
8. End

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find power (24=16)

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables
R,N,value,pow Declare variables
3. Initialize M=1,pow=1 R,N,value,pow

4. Print “Enter N and R”

5. Input N,R M=1,pow=1
6. If M<=R then
pow=pow*N
M=M+1 Print “Enter N
go to step 6 nad R”

7. else
Print “Ans = “ & pow
8. End Input N,R

Pow=pow*N
M<=R Y
M=M+1

Print”ans=”
&pow

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to find Factorial

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Step Start
1. Start
2. Declare variables N,
value, fact Declare variables
3. Initialize fact=1 N,value,fact

4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N fact=1
6. If N>0 then
fact=fact*N
N=N-1 Print “Enter N”
go to step 6
7. else
Print “Ans = “ & fact Input N
8. End

Fact=fact*N
N N>0 Y
N=N-1

Print”Ans=”
&fact

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to sum of digits of an integer

number.(123=1+2+3)

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Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables N, Sum
Declare variables
3. Initialize Sum=0 N,sum
4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If N>0 then Sum=0
Sum=Sum+N%10
N=N/10
go to step 6 Print “Enter N”
7. else
Print “Sum = “& sum
8. End Input N

Sum=sum+N%10
N>0 Y
N=N/10

Print”Sum=
”&sum

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to reverse number. (123=321)

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Start
Step
1. Start
2. Declare variables N,rev Declare variables
3. Initialize rev=0 N,rev

4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N rev=0
6. If N>0 then

rev=(rev*10)+N%10 Print “Enter N”

N=N/10
go to step 6
7. else Input N
Print “Reverse = “& rev
8. End

N>0 Y rev=(rev*10)+N%10

Print”Reverse = “rev

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to Prime Number

Step
1. Start
2. Declare variables N, flag=0,i
3. Initialize i=2
4. Print “Enter N”

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5. Input N
6. If i<N then
If N%i==0 then
flag=1
Go to step 7
Else
Go to step 6
7. If flag==1 then
Print “No is Not prime “
Else
Print “No is prime”
8. End

Write an algorithm and flowchart to 12+22+32+…..+N2

Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables N, sum,i
3. Initialize sum=0 Declare variables N,sum,i
4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If i<=N then
sum=sum+(i*i) sum=0
go to step 6
7. Print sum
8. End Input N

i<=N

sum=sum+(i*i)

Print”sum”

Stop

Write an algorithm and flowchart to 1/1+1/2+1/3+…..+1/N

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Step Start

1. Start
2. Declare variables N, sum,i
3. Initialize sum=0 Declare variables N,sum,i
4. Print “Enter N”
5. Input N
6. If i<=N then
sum=sum+(i*i) sum=0
go to step 6
7. Print sum
8. End Input N

i<=N

Sum=sum+(i*i)

Print”Sum = “ & sum

Stop

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1.4 About ‘C’ Programming Language

C is the most widely used computer language.

The C programming language is used to program desktop

applications, compilers, tools and utilities and even
hardware devices.

The C programming language follows a procedure oriented

paradigm. So, In C language, a large program is divided
into small programs called functions. Prime focus is on
functions and procedures that operate on the data.

C Program structure follows “Top Down Approach”.

Hey guys the founder of C Language is Dennis Ritchie. He

developed C Language in Bell Laboratories in 1971.

Dennis Ritchie is best known as the creator of the C

programming language and also a key developer of the Unix
operating system.

1.4.1 Why C Language is Popular? Or Say Characteristics of C Language or Say

Advantages of C Language

Keywords

• There are only 32 keywords in ANSI C and its strength lies

in its built-in functions.

Libraries

• C Compiler comes with list of header files which consist of many built in
functions which can be used to develop program.

Modularity

• It is one of the important characteristics of C. we can split the C program

into no. of modules instead of repeating the same logic statements. It allows
reusability of modules.

Middle level language

• It allows the programmer to perform operations from high level language to

low level of assembly language. Therefore, it is also known as middle level
language.

• As a middle level language C combines both the advantages of low level and
high-level languages.

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Operating Systems are written in C language

• Major operating systems (OS) like Windows, Linux and Unix are all written
in C language. So, if we want to modify programs in Windows or Linux, basic
understanding of C is inevitable.

Portability

• We can compile or execute C program in any operating

system(unix,dos,windows). This means that C programs written for one
computer can easily run on another computer without any change or by
doing a little change.

Powerful programming language

• C is very efficient and powerful programming language, it is best used for

data structures and designing system software.

Case Sensitive language.

• C is case sensitive language. It is essential to write a code according the

case sensitively.

Procedure Oriented Language

• C Language is procedure oriented language, means in the C language user

creates procedures or functions to execute their specific task. Usually C
programs are divided into small functions. Procedure oriented language is
follows algorithm to execute your statements.

Easy to learn

• C programming language is easy to Learn. C language syntax is very easy

to understand

Speed

• It is Close to hardware make many ‘C’ programs run at speed close to their
assembly language.

1.4.2 Applications of C Programming

Operating Systems Network Drivers Print Spoolers

Language Compilers Assemblers Text Editors

Modern Programs Data Bases Language Interpreters

Simulators Utilities Embedded System

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1.4.3 What is ANSI?

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has developed a standard and
formed a committee for the C language in 1983.

The ANSI established a committee to provide a modern,

comprehensive definition of C. The resulting definition, the
ANSI standard, or “ANSI C”, was completed late 1988.

Today C is in widespread use with a rich standard library of

functions.

So, we are going to learn ANSI C Language rather not C Language.

1.5 Creating the Source file, Compiling and Linking

C programs are compiling and run by many C compilers commercially available in

the market such as Borland turbo C++, Intel C/C++ , Microsoft Visual C++,
GCC/G++ for Linux, etc.

In this book, all the examples are tested using DOS based Borland turbo C++
Version 3.0 compiler.

Following are the steps that we have to follow practically.

Step 1: Open a turbo C++ editor or any editor and write a program.

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Step 2: Save the program and give the file name with extension.

For C program, the extension name must be. C. Filename can be any name but
should not be more than 8 characters and does not contain space or any symbols.

Step 3: Compiling source file

Compile the program. If you are using turbo C than from the compile menu and
select compile option. Compiler perform two operations, first find out errors in your
program, if no errors then it perform second operation, converts program into
binary file also known as object file(.obj) which is understood by the computer only.

If there are any errors during compilation process, then debug them and compile
the program again. During compilation process, compiler make an object file which
is specific to the operating system (on which we have compiled the program) and
hardware dependent, this means compiled code may not work on another operating
system.

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Step 4: Linking and executing

Link the object file (obj) generated by the compiler with other library files(lib) to
make a executable file(exe).This process is done by selecting link option from the
compile menu. If any errors occur during linking process, correct them and compile
the program again otherwise we can run the program by selecting run option from
the run menu in turbo C.

1.6 Basic structure of C program

All C programs should contain three elements

The preprocessor

These are the various Helpful files which gets executed on compiling. These
Preprocessor Files must be included in any program to run it smoothly, creating no
any errors. These commands tell the compiler to do preprocessing before doing
actual compilation. These are readymade standard library files with C provides the
facilities that are not defined within C, which we will se later on… Soo Cheers!!!

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Comments

Comments are used for commenting on Source code which will not get compiled
but it will be very helpful in finding errors, functioning of Various Commands.

Comments are non-executable codes as already said earlier.

Comments are generally categorized in two ways:

(i) They can be written in a Single line as:
//….. called as Single-Line comments.
(ii) Comments can also be written in symbols called Multi-Line Comment
/*…...*/ between the symbols, write the comments.

Functions

Various operational areas to be performed using Functions.

A Function is a name with a pair of circular bracket after it containing information

for various tasks.

These are of two types

1. User-Defined Functions
2. Derived Functions

There is only one compulsory function called - the main function. We can also write
our own functions.

Example#

//First Program to Print HELLO WORLD on Output screen.

Source Code or Input:

#include<stdio.h> See here’s the set of all Preprocessor directories

#include<conio.h> that must be included with a Hashtag(#) before it

/*Here, our all main contain to be executed, starts with a main() function which is
compulsory in every program*/

void main()
{
clrscr();

printf(“HELLO WORLD…!!”);

getch();
}

Output:
Hello World

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The Basic structure of a ‘C’ Program…

1. Documentation section

The documentation section consists of a set of comment lines giving the

name of the program, the author and other details, which the programmer
would like to use later.

2. Link section

The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from
the system library such as using the #include directive.

3. Definition section

The definition section defines all symbolic constants such using the #define
directive.

4. Global declaration section

There are some variables that are used in more than one function. Such
variables are called global variables and are declared in the global
declaration section that is outside of all the functions. This section also
declares all the user-defined functions.

5. main () function section

Every C program must have one main function section. This section contains
two parts; declaration part and executable part

1. Declaration part

The declaration part declares all the variables used in the executable
part.

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2. Executable part

There is at least one statement in the executable part. These two

parts must appear between the opening and closing braces.
The programming execution begins at the opening brace and ends
at the closing brace. The closing brace of the main function is the
logical end of the program. All statements in the declaration and
executable part end with a semicolon.

6. Subprogram section

If the program is a multi-function program then the subprogram section

contains all the user-defined functions that are called in the main () function.
User-defined functions are generally placed immediately after the main ()
function, although they may appear in any order.

All section, except the main () function section may be absent when they are not
required.

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1.7 Executing C Program

Step by Step Execution of a C program:

Step I: Edit

1. This is First Step i.e. Creating and Editing Program.

2. First Write C Program using Text Editor , such as [ Intel C/C++ ,

Microsoft Visual C++, GCC/G++ for Linux, Borland Turbo C/C++
3.0 , Notepad++, Notepad, etc. ]

3. Save Program by using [.C] Extension.

4. File Saved with [.C] extension is called “Source Program“.

Step II: Compiling

1. Compiling C Program: C Source code with [.C] Extension is given as input

to compiler and compiler convert it into Equivalent Machine
Instruction.

2. In Borland C/C++ 3.0 program can be compiled using key [Alt + F9 ].

3. Compiler Checks for errors. If source code is error-free then Code is

converted into Object File [.Obj ].

Step III: Checking Errors

1. During Compilation Compiler will check for error, If compiler finds any
error then it will report it.

2. User have to re-edit the program.

3. After re-editing program , Compiler again check for any error.

4. If program is error-free then program is linked with appropriate libraries.

Step IV: Linking Libraries

1. Program is linked with included header files.

2. Program is linked with other libraries.

3. This process is executed by Linker.

Step V: Error Checking

1. If run time error occurs then “Run-time” errors are reported to user.

2. Again, programmers have to review code and check for the solution.

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1.8 Character sets

As English language has characters, symbols, numbers similarly C language has
set of characters which programmers used in order to write a program.

C Language has its own character set as given below. The only characters required
by the C Programming Language are as follows:

1.8.1 Letters

LowerCase a-z
UpperCase A-Z

1.8.2 Digits

0-9

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1.8.3 Special Characters

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

& Ampersand ^ Caret
; Semicolon - Minus
, Comma + Plus
: Colon / Slash
“ Quotation mark < Less than
/ Slash > Greater than
. Dot {} Braces
‘ Apostrophe left/right
! Exclamation \ Back slash
mark ~ tide
? Question mark $ Dollar
% Percentage () Parenthesis
# Hash Left/right
= Equal to @ At the rate
_ underscore
1.8.4 White Spaces

These characters are also known as back slash or escape characters. Some white
space characters are non-printable. They are new line, form feed, blank space,
horizontal tab, carriage return.

These characters are used to print some character or to format the output of the
program. In C, these white space characters are also identifying as character
constant.

They start with back slash (\) and then following is the white space character.

White space character Meaning

‘\f’ Form feed

‘\n’ End of line
‘\t’ Horizontal tab
‘\v’ Vertical tab
‘\r’ Carriage return
‘\b’ Back space
‘\a’ Alert
‘\”’ Double quote
‘\\’ Back space
‘\0’ Null character/end of string
Table 1.2 white space characters in C

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1.9 Tokens

In a C program, smallest individual part or unit is known as token. It is recognized

by the compiler. We write a program using tokens.

C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed
together to write a C program.

Token Example
Keywords int, for,if
Identifiers main, result ,add
Constants 11, 3.14
Strings "total", "hello"
Special symbols (), {},"'",;
Operators +, /,-,*

Example# Identifiers

void main()
{
int a,b,sum;
a = 10;
b = 20;
sum=a+b;
printf ("\nSum = %d", sum);
getch();
}

main – identifier
{,}, (,) – delimiter
+ - operator
10 20 - constant
int – keyword
a,b,sum – identifier

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1.10 Keywords and Identifiers

1.10.1 Keywords

A word in C is named as keyword or identifier, consisting the set of rules for Case-
sensitivity, reserved word that are mainly used in writing a C program.

Keywords are basically the specific words of C language. In C, they

have special meaning. Keywords are also called reserved words.
These keywords are known to the compiler. We cannot change the
meaning of the keywords.

Since keywords are referred names for compiler, they can’t be used as variable
name.

There are 32 keywords in C Language.

Following are some examples of C keywords:

auto double int struct const float

short unsigned break else do union
long switch if continue forsigned void
case enum return register typedef While
default goto Sizeof volatile char static
extern

1.10.2 Identifiers

Identifiers are used to give name to the variables, functions, arrays, structure, and
union. This name is given by the programmer. Name of the identifier should be
meaningful.

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Following are the rules when declaring identifiers.

✓ Identifier contains letters (a-z), digits (0-9) and

underscores characters ( _ ) as a character sets.
Reserved words are not allowed as a identifier.
✓ First character must be a letter (A-Z or a-z) or
underscore ( _ ).
✓ Blank space or white space character is not allowed.
✓ Then length of the identifier should not be more than
31 characters
✓ C language is case sensitive. Thus, names TOTAL and
total are considered as different identifiers.

Example#

1.11 Constants
Constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter
during its execution. These fixed values are also called boot
literals or just literals.

Example# 1264, 3, 2, π, e, etc..

✓ Constants can be of any of the basic data types like

✓ an Integer constant (value in numbers without any
decimal)
✓ a Floating constant (value in numbers with decimal points)
✓ a Character constant (a single letter value)
✓ a String literal (containing a line or paragraph)

There are enumeration constants as well. Constants are treated just like regular
variables except that their values cannot be modified after their definition.

1.11.1 Integer Literals

✓ An integer literal can be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. A prefix

specifies the base or radix: 0x or 0X for hexadecimal, 0 for octal, and
nothing for decimal. Here are some examples of integer literals –

212 /* Legal */
215u /* Legal */
0xFeeL /* Legal */
078 /* Illegal: 8 is not an octal digit */
032UU /* Illegal: cannot repeat a suffix */

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✓ An integer literal can also have a suffix that is a combination of U and L,
for unsigned and long, respectively. The suffix can be uppercase or
lowercase and can be in any order. Following are other examples of various
types of integer literals –

85 /* decimal */
0213 /* octal */
0x4b /* hexadecimal */
30 /* int */
30u /* unsigned int */
30l /* long */
30ul /* unsigned long */

1.11.2 Floating-point Literals

✓ A floating-point literal has an integer part, a decimal point, a fractional

part, and an exponent part. You can represent floating point literals either
in decimal form or exponential form.

✓ While representing decimal form, you must include the decimal point, the
exponent, or both; and while representing exponential form, you must
include the integer part, the fractional part, or both. The signed exponent
is introduced by e or E.

Here are some examples of floating-point literals

3.14159 /* Legal */
314159E-5L /* Legal */
510E /* Illegal: incomplete exponent */
210f /* Illegal: no decimal or exponent */
.e55 /* Illegal: missing integer or fraction */

1.11.3 Character Constants

✓ Character literals are enclosed in single quotes, e.g., 'x' can be stored in a
simple variable of char type.

✓ A character literal can be a plain character (e.g., 'x'), an escape sequence

(e.g., '\t'), or a universal character (e.g., '\u02C0').

✓ There are certain characters in C that represent special meaning when

preceded by a backslash for example, newline (\n) or tab (\t).

1.11.4 String Literals

✓ String literals or constants are enclosed in double quotes "". A string

contains characters that are similar to character literals: plain characters,
escape sequences, and universal characters.

✓ You can break a long line into multiple lines using string literals and
separating them using white spaces.

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✓ Here are some examples of string literals. All the three forms are identical
strings.

1.12 Variables

In C programming language, a variable is a value that can change, depending on

conditions or on information passed to the program.

Variables are used to store a data. A variable is a container (storage area) to hold
data.

We can think of a variable like a bucket and values are like a water in bucket which
can easily change.

Variable is an entity where user can store digits, characters and strings. It is similar
to a box or a container.

Constant store a value that cannot be change but storing a value in a variable value
can be change.

1.12.1 How variable stores the value?

Data are normally stored in a computer’s memory which is organized as cells.

These cells are called the location or address that store the data. Variables are used
to give a name to these locations.

1.12.2 Variable names

A name given to the memory location is known as variable name. There are rules
that must be followed before giving a variable name in C. They are as under.
• In C, it must start with an alphabet or underscore (_) and following
characters can be letter, underscores and digits only.

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• Both uppercase and lowercase letters can be
used.
• Spaces are not allowed in variable name.
• Certain keywords (these are C language reserved
words) cannot be used in a variable name.
• The variable names should not be very long.
(maximum 32 characters)
• The variable names should be meaningful.

Example#

Valid A, a1, a_ ,_ a
Invalid If, 1a, a#, a bc

1.12.3 Declaration of the variables

Syntax#
Data-type variableName1, variableName2 … variableNameN;

Example# Name
int sum, rollno;
Variable
float average;

char gender, name[20]; Data type

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1.12.4 Data types in C

For example, in Our secular nation we can generally identify a person simply looking
at their costumes, their identity belonging, their language, their religion, their daily
eating etc. Similarly, in C language we can get idea about variable category from
its data type.

Data types represent the type of data to be stored in a variable. We store a data
in computer memory through the variables. So variables type must be specified
before Storing data into the computer memory.

Computer memory is organized in bytes, and byte stores the smallest amount of
data. C language supports different types of data (integer, float, character etc.)
and need to store the values in the program. In C, there is fixed amount of memory
assigned to each data type.

Data types can be broadly classified as:

1.12.4.1 Primary data types

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1.12.4.1.1 Integer types

• Integers are whole numbers with a range of values.

• Generally, an integer occupies 2 bytes memory and its value range limited
to -32768 to +32767.

Example#
int num1,num2;
long int num3;

There are various integer data types each has different memory assignment. This
gives you the flexibility of choosing the right type of variable in the program.

Data Type No of Default Range Control string

Bytes (minimum to maximum
Used in value)
memory
Int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d
long int 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld
Unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu
Unsigned short 1 0 to 255 %hd
int
short int 1 -128 to 127 %hd
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u

• Meaning of “unsigned” is that only positive number can be stored in the

variable.
• Here the “signed” keyword is not compulsory if the you have declared a variable
without it complier will assume as “signed” by default another wise write
“unsigned” keyword explicitly.
• Control string contains % character (known as conversion character) followed
by format specifier character. Control string is used to specify what types of
data you are going to read (input) or print (output) through input or output
statements in C.

1.12.4.1.2 Floating Point Types

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The float data type is used to store fractional numbers (real numbers) with up to 6
digits of precision.

When the accuracy of the floating-point number is insufficient, we can use the
double type instead of float.

The double is same as float but provide more memory space for storing large value
with longer precision.

Example#

float percentage;
double meterreading;

There are various float data types each has different memory assignment. this
gives you the flexibility of choosing the right type of variable in the program.

Data No of Bytes Default Range Control string

Type Used in (minimum to
memory maximum value)
Float 4 -3.4e38 to +3.4e38 %f or
%e (with exponent) or
%g (trailing zero or decimal
point will not appears)
Double 8 -1.7e308 to +1.7e308 %lf

• Control string contains % character (known as conversion character) followed

by format specifier character. This control string is used to specify what types
of data you are going to read (input) or print (output).

1.12.4.1.3 Character Type

Character type variable can hold a single character. There are signed and unsigned
chars; both occupy 1 byte each, but having different ranges.

Example#
char ch = ‘a’;

Data No of Bytes Default Range Control

Type Used in (minimum to maximum value) string
memory
Char 1 -128 to 127 (in this range ASCII %c
value of the character is stored.
Unsigned 1 0 to 255 %c
char
Char Equal to length For each character -128 to 127 (in %s
of character this range ASCII value of the
character is stored.

• Control string contains % character (known as conversion character) followed

by format specified character. This control string is used to specify what types
of data you are going to read (input) or print (output).

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1.12.4.1.4 void Type

This data type is used return type of the function and it means function does not
return any value.

Another use with the as an argument of the function and meaning is that function
does not has any arguments.

Example#

void read(); read() function does not return nay value.

void read(void); read() function does not have any arguments.

1.12.4.2 Derived (structured) data types

1.12.4.2.1 Arrays

• Instead of declaring individual variables, such as a,b,c,d,... ,and f, we

declare one array variable such as numbers and use ar[0], ar[1], and ...,
ar[99] to represent individual variables.

• Arrays a kind of data structure that can store a fixed-size sequential

collection of elements of the same type.

• Arrays can be any of the C data-types int, float, and char. An integer array
can only hold integer values and cannot hold values other than integer
similarly for others data types.

• All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations.

Like an Excel spreadsheet, arrays have a position number for each row.

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Each object of the array can be accessed
by using its positions number - index.
The positions-index in an array start at 0
and go up sequentially. Each position in
the array can hold a value. When we
declare an array, we need to set its size.

For example, we want to declare 10

variables of same int data type, instead
of declaring individual variables, such as
no0, no1, ..., and no9, we declare one
array variable such as numbers and use no[0], no[1], and ..., no[9] to
represent individual variables.

Types of Arrays in C

There are two types array.

One dimensional

Array having only one subscript variable is called.

Syntax# Example#
type arrayName [ arraySize ]; int a[10];

Multi-dimensional

Array having more than one subscript variable is called Multi-Dimensional array.

Multi Dimensional Array is also called as Matrix.

Syntax# Example#
type arrayName [ arraySize ] [ arraySize ]; int matrix[3][3];

1.12.4.2.2 Structures

Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose we want to keep track of

students in a college. We might want to track the following attributes about each
Student – Rollno , Name , Address ,ContactNo ,Div ,Semester
C structure is nothing but collection of different related data types.

Syntax# Example#
struct structure_name struct stu
{ {
data type member1; int sno;
data type member2; char sname[20];
… int sem;
… }; }

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1.12.4.2.3 Pointers

In C language, a pointer is a variable that points to a memory location in which

data is stored.

By using the pointer, we can change the content of the memory location.

Pointer allows accessing the memory location directly. This is the most important
feature of the C language.

Syntax# Example#
type * identifier; int *ptr;

1.12.4.3 User defined data type

1.12.4.3.1 typedef

In C language, a user can define another name for the data-type also known as
alias. This alias can later be used to declare variables.

Syntax#
typedef data-type identifier;

here data-type represent built in data type and ‘identifier’ denotes name given to
the data type.

Example#

typedef unsigned short int usint;

typedef int shyam;

Now we can use usint as a data-type name for unsigned short int and shyam in the
program
i.e. usint a; shyam b;

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1.12.4.3.2 enum

An enumeration is a user-defined data type that consists of integral constants. A

enumeration type is a "list of key words"

Syntax#

enum identifier {value1, value2 …. Value n};

The “identifier” is a user defined enumerated data type which can be used to declare
variables that have one of the values enclosed within the braces.

We can declare variables to be of this ‘new’ type as below.

enum identifier V1, V2, V3, ……… Vn

The enumerated variables V1, V2,…..Vn can have only one of the values value1,
value2 ….. value n

Example#
enum colour {Red,Green,Blue};
enum colour c1;

c1 = Red;

C language’s compiler assigns integer value 0, 1, 2…. to a member’s

value1,value2…..respectively. i.e Red has value 0, Green has 1 so on.

We can change default values of enum elements during declaration.

Example#
enum day {
Monday = 0,
Tuesday = 10,
Wednesday = 20,
Thursday = 3,
}

1.12.5 Initialization of Variable

When a variable declared but not initialized, it contains garbage.

Example#

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

main()
{
int a;
clrscr();
printf("A = %d",a);
getch();

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}

Output
A = -28762

There are two ways to initialize variable

1.12.5.1 Static initialization

Storing value at compile time is called static initialization.

Syntax#
Data-type variableName=value;

Example#
int rollno=5, total=300;
float pi=3.14;
char name[]=”Shyam”;

1.12.5.2 Dynamic initialization

Storing value at runtime is called dynamic initialization.

Syntax#
VariableName3=VariableName1/VariableName2

Example#
int a=20,b=5,c,x;
c=a/b;

printf(“\nEnter no =>”);
scanf(“%d”,&x);

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1.13 Type Conversion
Converting an expression of a given type into another type is known as type-
casting. typecasting is more use in c language programming.

Here, it is best practice to convert lower data type to higher data type to avoid data
loss.

Data will be truncated when higher data type is converted to lower. For example,
if float is converted to int, data which is present after decimal point will be lost.

There are two types of type casting in c language:

1.13.1 Implicit Conversion

Implicit conversions do not require any operator for converted.

They are automatically performed when a value is copied to a compatible type in

program.

Here, the value of a has been promoted from int to double and we have not had to
specify any type-casting operator. This is known as a standard conversion.

Example#

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=20;
double p;
clrscr();
p=i; // implicit conversion
printf(“implicit value is %d”,p);
getch();
}

Output
implicit value is 20.

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1.13.2 Explicit Conversion

In c language, many conversions, especially those that imply a different

interpretation of the value, require an explicit conversion. We have already seen
two notations for explicit type conversion.

They are not automatically performed when a value is copied to a compatible type
in program.

Syntax#

variableName =(DataType)VariableName;

Example#

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=20;
short p;
clrscr();
p = (short) i; // Explicit conversion
printf(“Explicit value is %d”,p);
getch();
}

Output
Explicit value is 20.

1.14 Comments
In the C Programming Language, you can place comments in our source code that
are not executed as part of the program.

Comments provide clarity to the C source code allowing others to better understand
what the code was intended to accomplish and greatly helping in debugging the
code.

Comments are especially important in large projects containing hundreds or

thousands of lines of source code or in projects in which many contributors are
working on the source code.

A comment starts with a slash asterisk /* and ends with a asterisk slash */ and can
be anywhere in your program. Comments can span several lines within your C
program.

Comments are typically added directly above the related C source code.

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Adding source code comments to your C source code is a highly recommended
practice. In general, it is always better to over comment C source code than to not
add enough.

There are two types of comment:

It is important that you choose a style of commenting and use it consistently

throughout your source code. Doing so makes the code more readable.

1.14.1 Single Line Comment

Syntax#

// comment goes here

Example# Comment in Single Line

// Author: Shyam

1.14.2 Multi-Line Comment

Syntax#

/*
comment goes here
*/

Example#

/*
* Author: Aspiration Institute- Shyam Sir
* Purpose: To show a comment that spans multiple lines.
* Language: C
*/

The compiler will assume that everything after the /* symbol is a comment until it
reaches the */ symbol, even if it spans multiple lines within the C program.

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