Before the middle of the 18th century no method for producing an impression of the alveolar
ridges. Ridges were painted with dye and a block of ivory or bone was pressed on the ridge.
Areas of contact were scraped away.
 1756 beeswax was the first material used in making impressions.
 1840 Charles de Loude first references to impression trays.
 1847 Desirabode referred to an impression tray.
 1842 Montgomery discovered gutta percha.
 1848 Gutta percha introduced as an impression material, high working temp and stiffness made
it difficult to achieve satisfactory results.
 1844 Plaster of Paris first used as an impression material.
 1862 Franklin first corrected impression, wax followed by a plaster wash.
 Until the early1900s, wax or plaster were used directly.
 1857 Modeling plastics developed by Charles Stens
 1874 Modeling plastics developed by S. S. White
 1900 Green brothers introduce a method for manipulating the modeling plastics. First to use the
term "posterior dam" in describing the posterior palatal seal.
 S.G Supplee introduced the hot water heater for modeling plastics.
 1915 Rupert Hall perfected the first moderate-heat modeling plastic for making individual
impression trays. Used black modeling plastic for making a custom tray in which impression
plaster was placed for the correction.
 1925 Poller agar for dental impressions. Not ideal for edentulous impressions.
 Late 1920s first functional impression waxes developed. Waxes used before this time were
paraffin and beeswax, were far from ideal as they were hard flowed too slowly, or were
crumbly.
 1930s Ward and Kelly first use of ZOE for impressions.
 1939 Trapozzano early technique using ZOE
 1936 Alginate-type materials patent awarded.
 1940s first alginate impression. Write and Denen - use for corrective wash procedures.
 1938 Mucostatics. Pascal's law - tissues under a mucostatic impression act as a confined liquid.
 1950s elastomeric impression materials introduced: polysulfide, silicone base
 1955 Pearson reported on the polysulfide base materials. Elastomeric materials were intended
for impressions for inlays, crowns, and FPDs.
 1973 First moldable acrylic material. First practical research with the material in complete
denture construction.
 1961 Chase first described the moldable acrylic material used for tissue conditioning and for
functional (dynamic) impressions for complete dentures.
30-003. Devan, M.M. Basic Principles of Impression Making. J Prosthet Dent 2:26-35,
1952.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the basic principles in making impressions.
Discussion:
A. The problem: Displaceable tissue (oral mucosa/gingiva)
* factors related to tissue displacability - tissue thickness; ridgidity; point, magnitude, and
direction of the forces applied
B. Defining the impression: A facsimile of mouth tissues taken at an unstrained rest position or
in various positions of displacement
C. The impression area:
 1. the vault-ridge areas
2. the flange-heal areas
D. Rest impressions: Mucoperiosteum cannot be compressed; however, it can be displaced in the
absence of confining walls * Mucostatic dentures exhibit minimal mucosal irritation, even in the
presence of the rough contacting surface (tissue registration) because there exists no room for
tissue movement * Dentures made from rest impressions will remain serviceable for a longer
period of time than dentures fabricated from impressions made during displacement.
E. Retention vs Stability:
 Retention - state of the denture wherein the functional forces are unable to destroy the
attachment existing between the denture and the mucoperiosteum
 Stability - state wherein the forces that tend to cause motion are successfully resisted without
the loss of equilibrium
* A denture may be unstable and yet possess sufficient retention to resist dislodgment.
F. Means of denture attachment to the mucoperiosteum:1) interfacial surface tension
1. atmospheric pressure,
2. combination of both
G. Preservation of alveolar bone:
* "Preserve alveolar bone, and the soft tissues will take care of themselves."
H. Forces of retention:
1. adhesion (unlike molecules),
2. cohesion (like molecules)
3. surface tension
I. Mathematical approach to stability:
* Synge - the dispalceability of an incompressible membrane placed between two rigid bodies is
directly proportional to the cube of the thickness or inversely to the cube of the rigidity
30-004. Tench, R.W. Impressions for Dentures. JADA 21:1005-1018, 1934.
Purpose: To study the purpose of an impression, structures and reaction of tissues to an
impression and measures to ensure consistency of making an impression.
1. Purpose is to have as broad an area evenly distributing stress to minimize trauma to the tissues.
2. Epithelium, connective tissue and bone with its glands, organs and vessels not well adapted to
support dentures. Primary stress bearing area of the maxilla is the residual ridge and then the
hard palate. Capacity of the tissue to resist trauma depends on age, trauma from the denture,
disease, nutrition, and pre-existing conditions.
3. Technique of using modeling compound for muscle trimming and plaster impressions detailed.
Emphasis on stable bases with adequate clearance for material stressed. Evaluation and
adjustment of final denture more accurate than adjusting record bases.
30-005. Frank, R.P. Controlling Pressures During Complete Denture Impressions. DCNA
14:453-469,1970.
abstract not available at this time
30-006. Schlosser, R.O. Advantages of Closed Mouth Muscle Action for Certain Steps of
Impression Taking. JADA. 18:100-104,1931.
Purpose: To show the advantages of the closed mouth muscular action in the development of
modeling compound impressions for edentulous patients.
Discussion: This article follows the technique of Dr. Russell Tench with some variations. The
author utilized modeling compound to make his final maxillary and mandibular impressions. The
maxillary procedure is as follows:
 Preliminary upper and lower impressions are taken with stock form trays
 Study models are made of plaster of Paris
 Soft metal trays (without handles) are selected for the closed mouth impression Modeling
compound is placed internally, and an occlusal rim is attached externally
 The mandibular is used an occlusal support
 The impression is chilled intraorally by injecting cold/ice water
There are five steps in closed mouth muscle action to mold the flanges to proper form:
Steps 1 to 3 are similar but located in different areas (1) the upper, inner two thirds of the flange
area from heel to cuspid region (2) the opposite side (3) between the cuspid areas. The heated
compound is placed intraorally, the patient is instructed to close and suck, repeating several
times. Then to close their jaws, until ice water is injected to chill the area. (4) and (5) the outer
surface is heated and the patient is instructed to close their jaw and move the lips forward and
back x 5-6 times.
The frenum trim is done with the mouth wide open.
The mandibular tray preparation which has been used as an occlusal support for the maxillary
impression is now used to make an impression.
Conclusion: The author presents his clinical experiences in making an accurate maxillary and
mandibular impression (using modeling compound) For the most part, a closed mouth technique
is described to provide perfect surface adaptation to supporting tissues, and also the important
saving of time.
30-007. Wright, S.M. The Polished Surface Contour: A New Approach. Int J Pros 4:159-
163,1991.
Purpose: To describe a simple alternative approach that does not record the position of the
neutral zone, but rapidly assesses how well a functioning denture conforms to the potential
space, and to evaluate the contour of polished surface and borders.
Materials & Methods: The technique used here involved applying about 5ml of low viscosity
silicone impression material (Provil), to all of the polished labial/buccal surfaces including 3mm
onto the fitting surfaces of the maxillary denture. The process was repeated (except all polished
surfaces were coated with Provil) for the mandibular denture. The patient was given a moistened
piece of paper to chew (3 x 3 cm) vigorously but not swallowing it. Once the impression material
has set, the denture was removed and evaluated.
Results & Conclusions: Areas where the impression material has been displaced indicate areas of
denture impingement on normal muscular activity. From this technique, it can be determined if
the flange length or thickness of the denture is overextended. (ie. mylohyoid area), or a tooth is
not in the correct position. Assessment of the anterior tooth position can also be done using the
labiodental and linguodental speech sounds. (ie "F", "V" and "Th").
30-008. Smith, D.E., TOOLSON, B.L, et al. One-Step Border Molding of Complete Denture
Impressions using a Polyether Impression Material. J Prosthet Dent. 41:347-351, 1979.
Technique: Maxillary Tray
1. Custom tray:  Fabricate acrylic custom tray from preliminary impressions using one layer of
baseplate wax. Relieve the borders so that intraoral examination reveals borders are a minimum
 of 2 mm. underextended but not more than 6 mm. Excessive underextension is corrected using
acrylic.
2. Border molding the maxillary tray:  Use 3 in. of polyether base to 2.5 in. of catalyst to extend
working time. Mix for 30-45 seconds. Place the material on the denture border with a minimum
of 6 mm. on the inner aspect of the tray. Pre-shape the material with a wet finger. Insert the
tray taking care not to wipe the material with the lip. Inspect the vestibule to ensure that there
is sufficient material material in all areas. If any areas are deficient, use a wet finger to transfer
material from the adjacent area. Coach the patient through functional border molding. Add to
deficient areas using another mix of polyether or with compound.
3. Prepare the tray for final impression:  Reduce areas of "burn-through" with an acrylic bur.
Remove material that extends more than 6 mm. internally using a scalpel. Remove the wax
spacer. Clear any excess material from the external surface of the tray beyond the borders.
Reduce the thickness of the labial flange to a thickness of 3 millimeters. Reduce the remainder
of the border molding material by one-quarter of a millimeter to allow for thickness of
impression material.
Mandibular Tray:  The technique is much like the that for the maxillary tray. Often the material
flows onto the ridge portion of the tray. Remove it with a scalpel.
30-009. Levin, B. Current Concepts of Lingual Flange Design. J Prosthet Dent 45:242-252,
1981.
Purpose: To review the anatomy of the lingual space, various concepts of designing a lingual
flange, patient selection, clinical technique, patient management and adjustments.
Discussion:
Anatomy: Retromylohyoid fossa is bordered anteriorly by the mylohyoid muscle,
posterolaterally by the superior constrictor, posteromedially by the palatoglossus. In general
most lingual flanges are too short and narrow compared to the potential vestibular space when
the muscles are in normal function.
Design concepts:
 dynamic impressions- Carlisle, Schultz, Shanahan, Chase, Tride
 tissue conditioning materials- Chase
 thickening of anterior or sublingual fold space- Lawson
 "lower denture space" - muscles forces used to "fix" the denture. Brill, Tryde, and Cantor
 polished surfaces of the denture- Fish
 clinical advantages of thick boarders- Lott and Levin
Patient selection: Patient with an inadequate ridge and has not had success with one or more
conventional dentures- good candidate for a fully extended and modified flange design denture.
Clinical technique: dynamic impression concept.
Patient management and adjustments: Most difficult situation is patient with no irritations or
soreness but complains of the bulk. Reduce polished surface 1mm but do not shorten the borders
or change the contours.
Conclusion: In cases of highly resorbed ridges, thicker lingual borders and sublingual extensions
are advantageous. The use of muscle power on correctly contoured inclined planes will increase
denture retention and stability.
30-010. Zimmer I.D. and Sherman, H. An analysis of the development of complete denture
impression techniques. J Prosthet dent 46: 242-249, 1981.
Purpose: To document the frequency and historical development of knowledge associated with
scientific advancement from 1845-1964 (clinical sciences, biology, psychology, and material
science) as they relate to impression procedures in prosthodontics.
Discussion:
 Prior to 1600s CD replacements were not made, due to a lack of understanding of retention
 1711 Matthias Gottfried Purma recorded the use of wax
 1736 Phillip Pfaff used plaster casts to record mx-mn relations
 1844 Plaster of Paris first used as impression material
 1848 Gutta Percha introduced
1845-1899:
 concepts of atmospheric pressure, max extension of denture bearing area, equal dist of
pressure, and adaptation of denture bearing tissues were stressed
 secondary wash impression started, plaster within the primary impression
 retention, stability , and comfort - anatomic considerations
 all impressions were of open mouth variety
 impression trays developed (mostly Brittannia metal), also non metal trays used
1900-1929:
 introduction of closed mouth impression technique
 border molding to capture the anatomy of the tissues (oral/perioral muscles)
 placement of a posterior palatal seal (anatomic and mechanical), most texts recorded the
termination of the posterior palatal seal as the vibrating line
 introduced the concept of esthetics in impression
1930-1940:
 recognized the anatomy of denture bearing areas, and muscle physiology as related to
impression procedures
 emphasis on immediate denture techniques
 new materials-reversible hydrocolloids, ZOE
 stressed the use of plaster for final impression procedures:
 introduction of the concept of mucostatics
1950-1964:
 introduction of rubber base and silicones
 appreciation for rationale of border molding and posterior palatal seal
 used modeling compound (preliminary impressions)
 used ZOE or plaster (secondary impressions)
30-011. Harvey, W.L. et al. Large Edentuolus Ridges - are they Better for Dentures than
Small Ridges. J Prosthet Dent 47:595-599,1982.
Stabilizing areas have a high positive correlation to ridge size
Basing the prognosis solely on the size of the basal seat of their mandibular ridge may be correct.
However the size of that portion of the basal seat called the bearing area is not always directly
proportional to the size of the basal seat. The stabilizing area that includes the lingual flange area
may play a larger role.
A high correlation was found between the area of the basal seat and that of the stabilizing areas.
No correlation was found between the area of the basal seat and that of the bearing areas of the
small to large categories.
30-012. McArthur, D.R. Management of the Mucolabial Fold when Developing Impressions
for Complete Dentures. J Prosthet Dent 53:62-67,1985.
Vigorous manipulation or the lip: The border material will be displaced in an anterior inferior
position. The result is an anterior form that does not contact the tissue on its superior and inner
surfaces. The subsequent fit and retention of the denture will be compromised.
Overextended border molding: Improperly tempered border material may displace this
unattached tissue excessively. Complaints of fullness, soreness, and lack of denture retention.
When the overextension is adjusted in the processed denture to better approximate the normal
mucolabial fold, the denture may not contact the soft tissue on its inner labial surface.
Thick borders: Thickness can distort the mucolabial fold and the patient will complain of
thickness in the anterior region of the processed denture. When the dentist reduces the labial
polished surface (trying not to shorten the flange extension), the tissue will be less distorted and
return to its bony support. When this occurs, the denture flange will be short of its proper border
extension.
An effort to compensate for the errors in the finished denture will not correct them. Manipulation
of the mucolabial fold must be done correctly during the border molding procedure. If not, the
only recourse may be to reline the denture.
30-013. El-Khodary, N. M., et al. Effect of Complete Denture Impression Technique on the
Oral Mucosa. J Prosthet Dent 53:543-549,1985.
Purpose: To compare three impression techniques: minimal pressure, biting (maximum)
pressure, and functional pressure.
Subject: A study of the technique used in impression making, as it has an important role in the
reaction of supporting tissues to complete dentures.
Materials & Methods: Thirty edentulous patients were divided into three groups of ten.
Impressions were made by one of the three techniques listed above, and dentures fabricated and
delivered. Biopsies were taken from the mandibular ridges in the premolar area before, and six
months after denture delivery. The biopsies were evaluated histologically and histochemically.
Results: After dentures were worn for six months there was a relative increase in the thickness of
the keratinized layer. The biting(maximum) pressure technique produced disturbed deratinization
and an increased number of mononuclear inflammatory cells.
Conclusion: The biting (maximum) pressure technique may alter tissues unfavorably. The
minimal pressure technique proved to be satisfactory, but not to the same extent as the functional
technique. Therefore the functional technique is the recommended method of impression
making.
30-014. Khan, Z., Jaggers, J. and Shay, J. Impressions of Unsupported Movable Tissues.
JADA 103:590-592, 1981.
Purpose: To describe a technique for impression making of unsupported movable tissues.
Materials & Methods: None
Technique:
1. An indelible pencil is used to outline the unsupported tissue.
2. A single custom tray is made, and an opening is cut in the tray as indicated by the transfer of the
indelible pencil line.
3. An impression is made and trimmed to the outline of the aperture.
4. The shape of unsupported movable tissue is recorded by brushing on impression plaster, a
highly mucostatic impression material. Then sufficient bulk is added to the plaster for strength.
Advantages:
1. Saves chair time.
2. Does not require the fabrication of two custom trays as described by Osborne and Filler.
3. Enables visualization of the impression making of the unsupported movable tissues.
30-015. Tuckfield, W.J. Review of Impression Techniques in Full Denture Prosthesis. Int
Dent J 1:112-130, 1950
Discussion:
History of impression making for dentures:
1782- First impressions known made of bees wax, gutta percha or plaster of Paris
1856- Charles Stent introduced compound
1910- Greene brothers defined requirements of an impression.
 Needs to extend over the total area that the expected denture is to cover.
 Should be taken at the pressure it is to be worn
 Should not impede muscular movement yet provide a valve-like seal.
1921- Trench introduced trays with tissue stops and compound rims to allow patients muscle
trim the borders in the closed mouth method. A post-dam was added to the impression in wax.
1925- Stansbery and Pendlelton felt the functional impressions over-compressed the tissues and
resulted in ridge resorption. They each used methods of pressure release usually by perforating
the trays.
1932- Neil cut the post-dam into the cast at the "ah" line. Open mouth impression technique was
felt to enable a more controlled and uniform result. He along with Fournet and Tuller in 1936 felt
a mechanical lock should be created in the "lateral throat form area" for the best retention of the
mandibular denture.
1932- Fish felt the denture flange should be triangular in cross-section to allow the tongue and
cheeks to hold down the denture. The patients would need minimal training of musculature to
control the denture.
Late 1930s- Introduction of zinc oxide-eugenol to replace plaster wash.
1939- Schlosser advocated covering the retromolar pad, the full extent of the external oblique
ridge and forming the reverse curve on the lingual flange. He coined the term "functional test
impression".
1944- Page proposed the mucostatic technique. Dykins felt that the denture should only cover the
stress bearing area with a two mm flange on the lingual.
Summary: Stability is of much more importance than retention. To attain a stable mandibular
denture, it must be established at the correct vertical dimension, provide interocclusal distance,
have teeth set over the ridge center, occlusal plane parallel at the premolar-molar section,
balanced occlusion, extensions to the limit of tolerance and not impeding muscular function, and
a diverging border. Mechanical locks are not needed and the mucostatic technique is hog wash.
30-016. Koran, A. Impression Materials for Recording the Denture-Bearing Mucosa.
DCNA 24:97-111. 1980.
This is part of a symposium and review of the making of an impression of the edentulous area.
The following areas were discussed and defined:
A. Philosophies
 Functional impressions
 Semifunctional impressions
 Mucostatic and minimal pressure impressions
B. Materials
 Impression plaster
 Zinc Oxide Eugenol
 Polysulfide
 Silicones
 Agar
C. Factors determining the dimensions and accuracy of the edentulous impression
 Pressure applied to the impression
 Flow of impression material
 Setting time
 Accuracy
 Dimensional stability
 Reproduction of detail
 Contact Angles
 Deformation and Recovery of the denture bearing mucosa
Summary: To obtain an accurate record of the denture bearing mucosa the following should be
considered:
 Mucosa should be firm and healthy
 Impression material should be of low viscosity
 Pressure used to seat and hold the impression material should be kept to a minimum
It is important that the clinician be aware of the characteristics and limitations of the technique
and material used to obtain an accurate recording of the denture bearing mucosa.
30-017. Desjardins, R.P. and Tolman, D.E. Etiology and Management of Hypermobile
Mucosa Overlying the Residual Ridge. J Prosthet Dent 32:619-638,1974.
Purpose: Discuss the histopathology, etiology, and prosthodontic and surgical management of
the hypermobile ridge crest.
Discussion:
   1.masticatory mucosa over the residual ridge is 1.5 - 2mm thick.
   2. excessively mucosa undergoes movement during fabrication and use of a complete
denture.Patient will not be able to function successfully.
   3. inability to provide stability to the denture will encourage continuation of the problem and
increase its severity.
   4. hypermobile tissue = hyperplastic fibrous connective tissue.
   - look like fibromas
   - inflammation is usually absent
   - epithelium is most often normal
   5. etiology
   - is speculative
   - mechanism of bone resorption and tissue atrophy in the mouth is not understood.
   6. atrophy
   - decrease in size of any portion of the body
   - could be related to: preventing the passage of nutritional elements by, old age - decrease in
blood supply, disuse 
   - narrowing of blood vessels, pressure - compromises the blood supply.
   7. resorption
   - loss of osseous substance
   - parathyroid hormone - normal level is 10-12mg/dl, high levels blood calcium increases at the
expense of bone    causing resorption.
   - Vit A - hypervitimanosis = increased osteoclastic activity.
   - Vit C - deficiencies lower collagen production for bone matrix.
   - Vit D - excess causes resorption of bone and deposition in other organs. Lack of Vit D lowers
absorption of calcium from the intestine, decreases blood calcium, parathyroid removes calcium
from the bone, resorption occurs.
8. pressure and function effects are speculative. Constant pressure may cause resorption,
intermittent pressure may encourage bone maintenance. frequency,intensity,duration,direction,
may cause resorption in one patient and bone maintenance on another.
9. because of the unanswered questions about the initiation and continuation of both atrophy and
resorption, it is not possible to explain the development of the hypermobile ridge crest.
10. this condition is often seen when edentulous maxillae are opposed by natural teeth. resorption
of the anterior part of the maxillae and formation of a hypermobile ridge crest are also seen in
Class 3 patients, where the unstable maxillary denture is often created by positioning the
mandibular denture-bearing area anteriorly, which opposes the anterior aspect of a maxillary
complete denture.
11. management:
     prosthodontic - mucostatic, functional, or selective impressions.
- selective is the best - the hypermobile tissue would be recorded at rest with functional
placement of border tissues to enhance denture retention and stability.
- stabilizing balanced occlusion
- static records are used for maxillomandibular relationships, if redundancy is excessive, it is
unlikely that a balanced occlusion can be maintained in functional and parafunctional
movements.
- this unstable denture will further encourage bone resorption and increased denture problems.
- management must be concentrated in the impression-making and occlusal phases of denture
construction.
    surgical - excising, patient may be left with a flat alveolar process with muscle attachments
approaching the crest of the ridge.The opportunity to provide extension and thereby retention and
stability of a complete denture is limited. Therefore, consider a vestibuloplasty. Ridge
augmentation may also help.
- BSSO to correct a maxillomandibular ridge relationship.
- Injection of sclerosing solution
- 5% sodium morrhuate
- 3% sodium tetradecyl sulfate, scar tissue formed, firmer tissue on the ridge crest in 4-6 weeks.
good results