Chapter 1

Instructor: SHADRACH MALANA

 Other definitions of Philosophy:

• Philosophy is the love or • Philosophy is the art of • Philosophy is the never-

pursuit of wisdom; the questioning everything; the ending search for the total
search for basic principles goal of philosophy is human meaning of our
(The New Webster’s wisdom and wisdom experiences. It is a
Dictionary of the English requires questioning what discipline that attempts to
Language, 1995). is questionable (Kolak and look for answers to man’s
Martin, 1990). inquisitive mind that begins
in wonder and ends with
awe (Bauzon,2002).
 Importance of Philosophy

• Philosophy as a subject enables the

student to study, learn, and master
the various branches and divisions of
philosophy and the theories and • Philosophy helps the student to
beliefs of philosophers. develop the ability to form opinions
and beliefs. He thinks, evaluates and
decides what could be “better” or
“best” for him.
 Importance of Philosophy
• Philosophy helps the
student to be resilient
and philosophically calm
in the face of disorder • Philosophy also
and doubts, uncertainty, increases the student’s
indefiniteness and chaos. self-awareness and
awareness of the world.
• Philosophy deepens the
student’s self-awareness.
 Importance of Philosophy

• Philosophy provides the

• Philosophy helps student student with better
be creative. intellectual perspective
and outlook.
• Philosophy helps the
student to be
imaginative.
 Importance of Philosophy
• Philosophy gives the student
personal freedom – the freedom
from biases, prejudices and
conviction, and tyranny of
customs that have grown up in his
mind. • Philosophy helps the student to
refine his power of analysis – the
power to think critically, reason,
evaluate, theorize and justify.
 Top 5 Reasons to Study Philosophy
1. Philosophy is a fascinating subject-matter.
Philosophy seeks not simply knowledge, but deep understanding and wisdom.
Philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand
themselves, the world they live in, and the relations to the world and each other. Those
who study philosophy are engaged in asking, answering, evaluating, and reasoning
about some of life’s most basic, meaningful, and difficult questions, such as:
-What is it to be a human? Is there a God?
-What is the human mind? What is truth?
 Top 5 Reasons to Study Philosophy
2. A wide variety of interesting courses taught by outstanding
professors.
There are philosophy courses that address moral issues, others that
focus on the nature of science and technology, many that explore some of
the most important philosophical works written across the history of
Western civilization and others that introduce great thinkers of Eastern
philosophy, courses for those who are interested in Mathematics and logic
or politics and societies or religion or knowledge or the human mind or the
nature of reality.
 Top 5 Reasons to Study Philosophy

3. Skill development of students.

Taking philosophy courses imparts skills that will be useful not only in any
career but also in your personal life. The study of philosophy will enable you to think
carefully, critically, and with clarity, take a logical approach to addressing
challenging questions and examining hard issues, reason well and evaluate the
reasoning of others, discuss sensibly, and write effectively.
 Top 5 Reasons to Study Philosophy
4. Great preparation for any career or graduate study.
Most students of philosophy don't go on to become philosophy professors but they do
go on to get good jobs in a wide range of fields, including law, medicine, business, education,
journalism, public policy government, religion, communication fields, public relations, retail
management, social service, and many more.
Heading for a career in the business world? The skills you can develop through the
study of philosophy are just those that employers are looking for. And Philosophy majors
earn high mid-career salaries.
“Planning to go to graduate school, law school, or medical school? Of course, some
philosophy students go on to become philosophy professors. Other lawyers nave a degree in
philosophy.”
 Top 5 Reasons to Study Philosophy
5. For Personal Development
Careers and jobs are only one part of the rest of your life. The study of
philosophy not only affects how you think but also your development as a person.
The study of philosophy can be truly enriching and highly gratifying and it is
excellent preparation for lifelong learning and an enhanced intellectual, political, and
social existence. It can help you to live better by helping you to understand yourself
as a thinking acting being Socrates famously said that "the unexamined life is not
worth living;” and philosophy 1s the tool he recommended for examining both one's
own life and the various possibilities open to you throughout your life.
 The most important reason to study philosophy…

… it will transform you by turning your mind to the consideration

of the most basic questions concerning reality, human existence, and
God, you open yourself to a world of possibilities for understanding
the world and our place in it. By exercising your mind in the
disciplines of critical and logical and ethical thought, you gain the
ability to imagine, debate, and clarify the nature of the good life.
Philosophy encourages and empowers you to discover what really
is true and good, and to distinguish it from what merely appears so.
“When I let go of what I am, I
become what I might be.”
-Lao Tzu
Branches

of
 Aesthetics

Study of Art and Beauty

What is beauty?
Is it an art or pornography?
 Epistemology

Study of knowledge: how we know

about reality questions of reality

How do I know that I know?

Why do I know about it?
 Metaphysics

Study of the existence: the

fundamental questions of reality

Why am I here?
Where will I go later in life?
 Logic

Study of reasoning and argument

Why is it valid?
How do you argue correctly?
 Politics

Study of force; the study of human

person and its place in the society

What actions are permissible?

What is the best way to govern?
 Ethics

Study of action

How should you act?

Is it morally right?
 Schools of Philosophy

The schools of philosophy may be classified according to

eastern and western philosophy. Eastern philosophy includes
Taoism, Confucianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism,
Shintoism, among others. Western philosophy may be divided
into Ancient, Medieval and Modern Schools. These schools are
presented in the following:
 1. Ancient and Medieval Schools of Philosophy:
Aristotelianism (derived from Aristotle)-is
excessive use of discursive reason and distract aspects in
proving scheme or things.

-includes a concentration on knowledge either

accessible by natural means or accountable for by reason;
an inductive, or stress on experience, in the study of
nature—including the study of humans, their behaviour and
organizations—leading from the perception
of contingent individual occurrences to the discovery of
permanent, universal patterns; and the primacy of the
universal, that which is expressed by common or general
terms.
Atomism (Greek word atoma, "cannot be divided") -is a rational
explanation of the general aspects of phenomena.

Eleaticism- deals with existence, thought and expression coalesced

into one.

Epicureanism (derived from the philosophy taught by Epicurus) or

hedonism-means that happiness is the chief good.
Platonism (derived from the teaching of Plato) -
deals with the doctrine of forms and numbers.

-is the view that there exist such things as

abstract objects — where an abstract object is
an object that does not exist in space or time
and which is therefore entirely non-physical
and non-mental. Platonism in this sense is a
contemporary view.
Realism- objects and things exist outside and independent of mind.

Monasticism- moral and physical disciplines based on worldly

renunciations.

Scholasticism- an intellectual discipline which shows the doctrines

of the church are constant with reasons.
Pythagorianism (derived from the teaching of
Pythagoras) - deals with the metaphysics of numbers
and reality-that reality mathematical in nature.

-in its historical development embraced

a wide range of interests in politics, mysticism,
music, mathematics and astronomy.
Skepticism-(from Greek word, skepticos inquiries)- is raising doubts about
any knowledge beyond the control of directly felt experience about the world so
that one still looks for truth.

Sophism-deals on a whole series of questions in order to seek ample solutions

along clearly defined lines.

Stoicism- deals on the conduct of man characterized by peace of mind and

certainty of moral truth.
 2. Modern Schools of Philosophy
Analytical and Linguistic- are concerned with the close and careful examinations or
concepts.

Developmentalism- is a child-centered point of view based on a careful study of the

child.

Disciplinism- refers to education of the whole man through appropriate discipline.

Empiricism- (from Greek word emperia, "experience") means and real are those
that are confirmed by actual that what is true experience.
Existentialism- deals on the interpretation of human existence in the world
that stresses concreteness and its problematic character.

Humanism- stresses personal culture, individual freedom and development as

the best way toward full and rich lives.

Idealism- deals with reality as spirit or consciousness and whatever that exists
are chiefly mental or ideas and abstraction and laws are fundamental in
reality, not sensory things.

Materialism-deals with the world as material things that interact with one
another.
Naturalism- is concerned with the natural goodness of man and the
formation of society based upon the recognition of natural rights.

Phenomenology- is concerned with phenomena or events that are

commonly experienced.

Positivism- deals with knowledge of matter that is based on positive data

of experience and is beyond pure logic and mathematics.
Pragmatism-is concerned with what is true and real that are useful, workable
and practical.

Rationalism - deals with reason as the chief source and test of knowledge.

Realism- refers to the philosophy that is concerned with the activities of life
and understanding of the individual in the society in which he lives.

Utilitarianism- deals with the philosophy that an action is right if it provides

happiness of individual and everyone affected; it is wrong if it promotes
dissatisfaction and unhappiness.
 Sub-fields of Philosophy
• Philosophy of Art- deals on art, aesthetic value, expression, and other
concepts that the critic employs.

• Philosophy of Education- deals with speculation and application of

philosophical method in the study of educational issues and problems.

• Philosophy of History-deals with the description of events and actions

of man's past happenings and those that are to happen in man.
• Philosophy of Language - deals with languages, their meanings and
how to use and manage the language to man's existence.

• Philosophy of Law-deals with the formulation of theories and concepts

to help man, understand the nature of law, its sources of authority and
role in society.

• Philosophy of Logic - deals with the laws of thought, rules of right

reasoning principles of valid argumentation and truth based solely on
the meaning of the term they contain.
• Philosophy of Mathematics-is concerned on the critical examination of
basic mathematical entities, mathematical theories and number system.

• Philosophy of Mind-deals with the nature of the mind, desire, emotion,

pleasure, and pain and how they enter into the explanation of human
action.

• Philosophy of Nature- deals with whatever issues regarding the actual

features of nature as reality. It is divided into philosophy of physics
and philosophy of biology.
• Philosophy of Politics- deals with the question of the origin of the
state and authority and the law of the land.

• Philosophy of Psychology - deals on the actual theories and research

efforts of contemporary psychologists.

• Philosophy of Reading-deals on a set of beliefs on how reading should

be taught based on research and current thinking about reading.
• Philosophy of Religion-deals on situations, experiences, issues and
problems relating to religion and its methodology.

• Philosophy of Science- provides intellectually and accurately satisfying

explanations of a broad range or natural phenomena.

• Philosophy of Society-deals with questions about personal morality in

relation to man's existence as member of society.
 Moral Philosophy

- is the branch of philosophy that contemplates what is

right and wrong. It explores the nature of morality and
examines how people should live their lives in relation
to others.
 Branches of Moral Philosophy
(Areas of Study in Ethics)

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of

moral propositions, and now their truth values (if any) can be
determined

2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a

moral course of action

3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted)

to do in a special situation or a particular domain of action.
Meta-ethics answers the questions: What is morality? What is
justice? Is there truth? How can I justify my belief as better than the
beliefs held by others?

Normative Ethics answers the question: What we ought to do?

Applied Ethics answers the question: should we lie to help a friend

or co-Worker?
 Meaning of Ethics

Ethics or Moral Philosophy is a branch of philosophy

that involves the systematizing, defending, and recommending
the concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term “ethics”
derives the Ancient Greek word (ethikos), which comes from
the word (ethos) or “habit”, “custom”. The branch of
philosophy which is axiology comprises the sub-branches of
ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values.
 Importance of Ethics

1. It satisfies basic human needs: Being fair, honest and ethical is one of the
basic human needs. Every employee desires to be such himself and to work for
an organization that is fair and ethical in its practices.

2. It creates credibility: An organization that is believed to be driven by

moral values is respected n the society even by those who may have no
information about the working and the businesses or an organization. Infosys,
for example is perceived as an organization for good corporate governance and
social responsibility Initiatives. This perception is held far and wide even by
those who do not even know what business the organization is into.
 Importance of Ethics
3. It unites people and leaders: An organization driven by values is revered
by its employees also. It is the common thread that brings the employees and
the decision makers on a common platform. This goes a long way in aligning
behaviors within the organization towards achievement of one common goal or
mission.

4. It improves decision-making: A man's destiny is the sum total or all the

decisions that he takes in the course of his life. The same holds true for
organizations. Decisions are driven by values. For example, an organization
that does not value competition will be fierce in its operation aiming to wipe
out its competitors and establish a monopoly in the market.
 Importance of Ethics
5. It brings long term gains: Organizations guided by ethics and values are
profitable in the long run, though in the short run they may seem to lose money. The
Tata group, one of the largest business conglomerates in India was seen on the verge
of decline at the beginning or 10S, but which soon turned out to be otherwise. The
same company’s Tata NANO car was predicted as a failure and tails to do well but
the same is picking up fast now.

6. It secures the society: Often, ethics succeeds because there is a law in

safeguarding the society. The law machinery is often found acting as a mute
spectator, unable to save society and the environment. Technology is now growing at
such a fast pace that by the time the law comes up with a regulation, we already
have a newer technology with new thrusts replacing the older ones. Lawyers and
public interest litigations may not help a great deal but ethics can.
 Employee Ethics

Ethical behavior among workers in an organization ensures

that employees complete work with honesty and integrity.
Employees who use ethics to guide their behavior adhere to
employee policies and rules while striving to meet the goals of
their organization. Ethical employees also meet standards for
quality in their work, which can enhance the company’s
reputation for quality products and services.
 Ethical Organizational Culture

Leaders and employees adhering to a code of ethics create an ethical

organizational culture. The leaders of business organizations may
create an ethical culture by exhibiting the type of behavior they
would like to see in their employees. The organization can reinforce
ethical behavior by rewarding their employees who exhibit the values
and integrity that coincides with the company’s code of ethics and
discipline those who make the wrong choices.
 Benefits of Ethics to the Organization

A positive and healthy corporate culture improves the morale

of workers in the organization, which may increase
productivity and employee retention this, in turn, has financial
benefits for the organization. Higher level of productivity
improves the efficiency in the company, while increasing
employee retention reduces the cost of replacing employees.
Roslyn Frenz (2017) believed that ethics is important
because it helps people make good choices. Different
ethical codes provide various standards tor sorting through
and settling moral questions. Ethical ideas can come from
ancient philosophers, religious figures, modern Scholars and
philosophers and personal beliefs. Though different in each
specific philosophy, each type of ethical code contains
important core values.
 Why Should Students Study Ethics?

Christopher Panza and Adam Potthast gave five (5) reasons why students should
study Ethics.

1. Ethics allows you to live an authentic and meaningful life. An authentic and
meaningful that requires you to live with a sense of integrity. Integrity refers to a
commitment by sticking to the rules of law through thick and thin- no matter how
difficult the laws are. Having firm character or set of principles to guide your life and
the choices you make are what ethics is all about.
 Why Should Students Study Ethics?

2. Ethics makes you more successful. You may think that ethics can
hold you back in all kinds of ways, but the truth is- it is the opposite.
Ethical people embody traits that unethical people have to work at to fake.
Ethical people are honest, trust worthy, loyal, and caring. As a result,
ethical people are perfectly suited not only for interpersonal relationships,
but also more on the kinds of interactions that make for thriving business.
Unethical people generally don't do there well on these things
 Why Should Students Study Ethics?

3. Ethics allows you to cultivate inner peace. Lives that are lived
ethically tend to be calmer, more focused, and more productive than those that
are lived unethically. Most people can't turn of their Sympathy for other
human beings. Hurting people leaves scars on both the giver and the receiver,
As a result, unethical people have stormier internal lives because they have to
work to suppress their conscience and sympathies to deal with the ways they
treat others. When they fail to properly suppress their sympathies, the guilt
feelings and shame that come with harming or disrespecting their fellow
human beings take deep root within them.
 Why Should Students Study Ethics?
4. Ethics provides for a stable society. When people live on ethical lives, they tell the
truth, avoid harming others, and are very generous. Working with such people is easy.
On the other hand, callous and insensitive people are distrusted, so it’s difficult for
them to be integrated well into social arrangements. A stable society worked together in
a highly coordinated ways. If society were mostly composed of unethical people, it
would quickly crumble or disintegrate.

5. Ethics may help out in the afterlife. Some religious traditions believe that ethics
is the key to something even greater than personal success and social stability: eternal
life. No one can be sure about an eternal life, but people of faith from many different
religions believe that good behavior in this planet life leads to rewards in the next life.
 How to Study Ethics?
David C. Clowney (1992) described the ways on how to study
ethics. This is his description:

Looking at the ethics or morality of something means looking

at the right or wrong of it, the good or bad of it, the humanity
or inhumanity of it. In short, it means asking how well you could
sleep at night if you did it. That is not precise definition; but it will
do start out with.
Studying ethics in this class won’t make you ethical; nor that is
its purpose. Nevertheless, I can be a useful study. It may help you
understand better than others what is best, and how to pursue it.

Ethics is both easy and hard. It can be easy or hard to know

what is good and easy or hard to do it. Usually the hard part of
ethics is doing what you know is right when the cost is more than
what you pay.
 Studying Ethics can help you to:

1. Identify different kinds of moral values and distinguish them

from other sorts of values.

2. Notice what moral values are at stake in a variety of situations.

3. Clarify the reasons behind moral judgments and moral

decisions.
 Studying Ethics can help you to:

4. Make some sense out of many changing and conflicting

moral values.

5. Decide where you will stand and fight for on difficult

ethical choices you face.

6. Understand why we are concerned on ethical matters.

 Meaning and Importance of Rules
• Rules are defined in several ways:
1. Rules are instructions that tell you what you are allowed to do and what
you are not allowed to do.
Examples: 1. Raise your hand when you want to ask questions.
2. You are not allowed to go to the canteen while classes
are going on.

2. A rule is a statement telling people what they should do in order to achieve

success or a benefit of some kind.
Examples: 1. Eat nutritious food to maintain a healthy life.
2. Study your lesson well in order to get high grades in this
class.
 Rules are defined in several ways:
3. Rules are statement that describes the way things usually happen in a particular situation.
Examples: 1. In English, adjectives generally precede the noun they modify.
2. In science, all objects thrown up, go down.

4. Rule tells you the normal state of affairs.

Examples: 1. Schools are established for the education of the individuals.
2. Policemen have the duties to maintain peace and order.

5. Rules influence or restrict actions in a way that is not good for a person.
Examples: 1. It has been found that fear can ruin our lives and make.
2. Unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter this room.
 Rules are defined in several ways:
6. Rules tell us something that is true or should happen and then the
authority has officially decided that it is true.
Examples: 1. The court has decided that the respondent is liable for civil
damages.
2. The judge has finally decided that the protest is in favor or the
complainant.

7. Rules are principles or regulations governing conduct, action, procedure,

arrangement, etc.
Examples: 1. Fall in line when entering the classroom.
2. Knock before you enter.
 Importance of Rules
1. Prudent laws are the foundations of a nation because they define the
parameters of civil society. If laws become elastic, the boundaries become
dysfunctional.

2. Laws organize our lives. We are able to deal and live together because
of rules and laws.

3. Rules help us get along together and show respect to each other. If
there are no rules to follow, everyone is free to do whatever he wants.
 Importance of Rules
4. Most things we do are governed by rules. Imagine if a student ignores
the rule against talking in class, the teacher will not be able to achieve
her goal and other students cannot concentrate. Drivers who disobey
traffic rules can cause serious accidents.

5. Rules organize the relations between individuals and between

societies to make it clear to them what is right and wrong. They are
designed to ensure fairness, safety, and respect for each other s rights.
 Importance of Rules
6. Rules make the world a peaceful place to live.

7. Rules are needed in our community because they serve as balances

between laws and rights. If there are more laws than rights, there is
more chance that people will revolt because of the lack of their rights.
On the other hand, if there are more rights than laws, the people will go
out of control and become abusive. Thus, laws are needed for regulation
between laws and rights.
 Difference between Moral Standards and
Non-moral Standards

Moral Standards are those moral actions which are within

the moral sphere and are thus objects of moral judgments.

Non-moral actions or standards are those actions devoid

of moral quality and thus excluded from the scope of moral
judgment.
The word moral means that moral quality (rightness or wrongness,
goodness, or badness) is present, that is, what is either right or wrong. In
a narrower sense, moral means what is right or morally good and this is
opposed to immoral, that is - wrong is morally bad.

An instinctive action is one in which an individual feels himself

impelled without knowing the end to be accomplished yet with the ability
to select, the methods for the attainment of an object.
Instinctive tendencies are found most explicitly in lower animals and
are expressed in the activities displayed by them in seeking food.

Examples:
• actions of animals and insects
• grazing of a cow
• mourning of a dog or cat
• actions of young children and insane and idiots

These actions are not morally wrong, because they are not moral actions.
They are incapable of discriminating between right and wrong.
Thank you!