Reading and Note

Taking Study Guide

Help All Students Master

Rigorous Narrative Text
Reading and Note
Taking Study Guide

WORLD
HISTORY
Acknowledgments

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 Contents
FL World History Florida Edition
Reading and Note Taking Study Guide
How to Use the Reading and Note Taking Lesson 4: The Ottoman and
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 6 Safavid Empires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Lesson 5: Early Civilizations of Africa . . . . . 42
Review Topic Lesson 6: Kingdoms of West Africa . . . . . . . 43
Connecting with Past Learnings Lesson 7: Trading States of East Africa. . . . . 44
(Prehistory–1570) Lesson 8: Diverse Peoples and
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Traditions in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Lesson 1: Origins of Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Topic 2 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Lesson 2: The Ancient Middle
East and Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Topic 3
Lesson 3: Ancient India and China . . . . . . . . . 7 Civilizations of Asia (500–1650)
Lesson 4: The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Lesson 5: Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Lesson 1: The Deli Sultanate and
Lesson 6: Ancient Rome and the Origins of Mughal India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Christianity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Lesson 2: Golden Ages in China:
Review Topic Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . 16 Tang and Song Dynasties. . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Lesson 3: The Mongol Empire and
Topic 1 Ming China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Medieval Christian Europe (330–1450) Lesson 4: Korea and Its Traditions . . . . . . . . 53
Note Taking Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Lesson 5: The Island Kingdom of Japan . . . 54
Lesson 1: The Early Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . 19 Lesson 6: The Many Cultures of
Lesson 2: Feudalism and the Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Manor Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Topic 3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Lesson 3: The Medieval
Christian Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Topic 4
Lesson 4: Economic Expansion and The Renaissance and Reformation
Change: The Crusades and After . . . . . . 25 (1300–1650)
Lesson 5: The Feudal Monarchs and Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Lesson 1: The Italian Renaissance . . . . . . . . . 60
Lesson 6: Learning, Literature, and Lesson 2: The Renaissance in
Arts of the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Northern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Lesson 7: The Late Middle Ages: Lesson 3: The Protestant Reformation . . . . . 62
A Time of Upheaval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Lesson 4: Reformation Ideas Spread. . . . . . . 63
Lesson 8: Russia and Eastern Europe . . . . . . 32 Lesson 5: The Scientific Revolution . . . . . . . 64
Topic 1 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Topic 4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Topic 2 Topic 5
The Muslim World and Africa New Global Connections (1415–1796)
(730 B.C.–A.D. 1500) Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Lesson 1: Europeans Explore Overseas . . . . 68
Lesson 1: The Origins of Islam . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Lesson 2: Europeans Gain Footholds
Lesson 2: A Muslim Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Lesson 3: Achievements of Lesson 3: European Conquests in
Muslim Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 the Americas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

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Lesson 4: European Colonies in Topic 9
North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 The Age of Imperialism (1800–1914)
Lesson 5: The Slave Trade and Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Its Impact on Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Lesson 1: The New Imperialism . . . . . . . . . 130
Lesson 6: Effects of Global Contact. . . . . . . . 78 Lesson 2: European Colonies in Africa. . . . 132
Topic 5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Lesson 3: Europe and the Muslim World. . 133
Lesson 4: India Becomes a British Colony . 134
Topic 6
Lesson 5: China and the West . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Absolutism and Revolution (1550–1850) Lesson 6: The Modernization of Japan . . . . 136
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Lesson 7: Southeast Asia and the Pacific . . 137
Lesson 1: Absolute Monarchy in
Lesson 8: The Americas in the Age
Spain and France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
of Imperialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Lesson 2: Rise of Austria, Prussia,
Topic 9 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lesson 3: Triumph of Parliament Topic 10
in England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 World War I and the Russian
Lesson 4: The Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Revolution (1914–1924)
Lesson 5: The American Revolution . . . . . . . 91 Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Lesson 6: The French Revolution Begins . . . 93 Lesson 1: World War I Begins . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Lesson 7: A Radical Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Lesson 2: Fighting the Great War . . . . . . . . 144
Lesson 8: The Age of Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . 97 Lesson 3: World War I Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Topic 6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Lesson 4: Revolution in Russia . . . . . . . . . . 147
Topic 7 Topic 10 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
The Industrial Revolution (1750–1914) Topic 11
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The World Between the Wars (1910–1939)
Lesson 1: The Industrial Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Revolution Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Lesson 1: Revolution and Nationalism
Lesson 2: Social Impact of in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Industrialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Lesson 2: Nationalist Movements in
Lesson 3: The Second Industrial Africa and the Middle East . . . . . . . . . . 151
Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Lesson 3: India Seeks Self Rule . . . . . . . . . . 152
Lesson 4: Changing Ways of Lesson 4: New Forces in China and
Life and Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Topic 7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Lesson 5: The West After World War I . . . . 155
Topic 8 Lesson 6: Fascism Emerges in Italy. . . . . . . 157
Lesson 7: The Soviet Union Under Stalin . 159
Nationalism and the Spread of
Lesson 8: Rise of Nazi Germany . . . . . . . . . 161
Democracy (1790–1914) Topic 11 Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Note Taking Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Lesson 1: Revolutions Sweep Europe . . . . . 115 Topic 12
Lesson 2: Latin American Nations World War II (1930–1945)
Win Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Lesson 3: The Unification of Lesson 1: Aggression, Appeasement,
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 and War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Lesson 4: The Unification of Italy . . . . . . . . 120 Lesson 2: Axis Powers Advance . . . . . . . . . 167
Lesson 5: Democratic Reforms in Britain. . 121 Lesson 3: The Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Lesson 6: Divisions and Democracy in Lesson 4: The Allies Turn the Tide . . . . . . . 170
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Lesson 5: Victories for the Allies . . . . . . . . . 172
Lesson 7: Growth of the United States . . . . 124 Topic 12 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Lesson 8: Nationalism in Eastern Europe
and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Topic 8 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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Topic 13 Topic 15
The Cold War Era (1945–1991) The World Today (1980–Present)
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Lesson 1: A New Global Conflict . . . . . . . . 177 Lesson 1: Challenges of Development . . . . 195
Lesson 2: The Western Democracies and Lesson 2: Challenges for African
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Lesson 3: Communism in East Asia . . . . . . 181 Lesson 3: Rapid Development in
Lesson 4: War in Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . 182 China and India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Lesson 5: The Cold War Ends . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Lesson 4: Latin American Nations
Topic 13 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Move Toward Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Lesson 5: The Industrialized World . . . . . . 202
Topic 14 Lesson 6: Globalization and Trade . . . . . . . 204
New Nations Emerge (1945–Present) Lesson 7: Social and Environmental
Note Taking Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Lesson 1: New Nations in South Asia Lesson 8: Terrorism and
and Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 International Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Lesson 2: African Nations Win Lesson 9: Advances in Science and
Independence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Lesson 3: The Modern Middle Topic 15 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
East Takes Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Lesson 4: Conflicts in the Middle East . . . . 192
Topic 14 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

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How to Use the Reading and Note Taking Study Guide
The Reading and Note Taking Study Guide will help you better understand the content of
Pearson World History, Florida Edition. It will also help you develop your note taking, reading,
and vocabulary skills. Each study guide consists of three components. The first component
focuses on developing a graphic organizer for the material covered by each topic that will help
you take notes as you read.

Name Class Date

TOPIC
Note Taking Study Guide
12 164WORLD WAR II (1930–1945)
The Focus Question gives
Focus Question: How did the Allies turn away from appeasement, you a tool to focus your
respond to Axis aggression, and win World War II?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
reading.
below to understand why the Allies changed their policy of appeasement to Axis aggression to
a policy of fighting back and how they won World War II.

World War II

Allied appeasement Axis aggression Allied response Each Note Taking Study
• • •
Guide has a graphic
organizer. Completing the
graphic organizer will
• • • help you comprehend the
material and retain
• • • important details. Use
your completed graphic
• • • organizer to review and
to prepare for
assessments.
• •

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The second component highlights the central themes, issues, and concepts of each lesson in the
topic.

Name Class Date

Each Summary highlights
TOPIC Key Terms in boldface,
12
LESSON 2
Lesson Summary
AXIS POWERS ADVANCE and summarizes the key
points in the lesson.
In September 1939, Nazi forces launched a blitzkrieg against MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Poland. First, the Luftwaffe, the German air force, bombed. Then
tanks and troops pushed their way in. At the same time, Stalin
invaded from the east, grabbing land. Within a month, Poland
ceased to exist.
Then, in early 1940, Hitler conquered Norway, Denmark, the
Netherlands, and Belgium. By May, German forces had bypassed
France’s Maginot Line. British forces that had been sent to help the
French were trapped. In a desperate scheme, the British rescued
their troops from Dunkirk. However, in June, the French were Use the Notes in the side
forced to surrender. Germany occupied northern France and set up a
puppet state, the Vichy government, in the south. column to record
The British, led by Winston Churchill, remained defiant against
Hitler. In response, Hitler launched bombing raids over British cities
important information
that lasted from September 1940 until June 1941. Despite this blitz, from the lesson
Hitler was not able to take Britain. Meanwhile, Hitler sent one of his
best commanders, General Erwin Rommel, to North Africa. Rommel summary as you read.
had a string of successes there. In the Balkans, German and Italian
forces added Greece and Yugoslavia to the growing Axis territory.
At the same time, the Japanese were occupying lands in Asia and the
Pacific.
In June 1941, Hitler nullified the Soviet Union. Stalin was
unprepared, and the Soviet army suffered great losses. The Germans
advanced toward Moscow and Leningrad. During a lengthy siege of
Leningrad, more than a million Russians died. The severe Russian
winter finally slowed the German army.
As they marched across Europe, the Nazis sent millions to
concentration camps to work as slave laborers. Even worse, Hitler
established death camps to kill those he judged racially inferior.
Among many others, some six million Jews were killed in what
became known as the Holocaust.

(Continues on the next page.)

The Lesson Vocabulary
Lesson Vocabulary section defines some key
Blitzkrieg lightning war
nullify cancel, annul
terms used in the lesson
summary.

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The third component consists of review questions that assess your understanding of each
lesson in the topic.

Name Class Date

TOPIC
Review Questions
12 WORLD WAR II (1930–1945)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages. Comprehension
Lesson 1: Aggression, Appeasement, and War questions assess your
1. Who were the members of the Axis powers? understanding of key
points from the
2. Recognize Sequence What happened in Spain before Francisco Franco started a
summaries.
civil war there?

Lesson 2: Axis Powers Advance

3. What was the name of the German government in southern France?

Reading Skill
questions ask you to
4. Sequence Events When did the United States declare neutrality?
interpret what you
have read.
Lesson 3: The Holocaust
5. Which new country was created to provide a home for Jews of every nation?

6. Identify Supporting Details What were some of the atrocities the Nazis
committed against Jews at death camps such as Auschwitz?

Lesson 4: The Allies Turn the Tide

7. Who were the “Big Three”?

8. Recognize Sequence List the sequence of events in 1942–1943 that gave the Allies
control of North Africa.

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Name Class Date

REVIEW Note Taking Study Guide

TOPIC 1 CONNECTING
MANY CULTURES
TO PAST
MEETLEARNINGS (PREHISTORY–1570)

Focus Question: What aspects of ancient civilizations have remained

important influences on modern society?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to help you. Note specific examples that support the idea that ancient civilizations have
had profound effects on other societies, particularly our own modern civilization.

Philosophy Arts

Ancient
Civilizations

Science Government

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 Name Class Date

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TOPIC Lesson Summary
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION
LESSON 1

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Historians learn about the past from artifacts, such as clothing,
coins, and artwork, and from written evidence, such as letters or tax
records. Historians must determine if their evidence is reliable. Then
they interpret it to explain why an event happened.
Anthropology is the study of the development of people and
societies. Archaeology, a specialized branch of anthropology, is the
study of past cultures through material remains, including buildings
and artifacts. Archaeologists work with experts in many fields, such
as geology and biology and use modern innovations, such as
computers and aerial photography.
Before the 1950s, anthropologists knew little about early humans
and their ancestors. Anthropologists Mary and Louis Leakey
searched for clues in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge and found many
ancient stone tools. The tools showed that whoever had made them
had developed the skills and tools to survive.
In 1959, Mary Leakey found the skull of an early hominid. In
1974, anthropologist Donald Johanson found pieces of a 3-million-
year-old hominid skeleton in Ethiopia. Such work helped establish
that a number of different groups of hominids lived over the course
of several million years, including two groups of Homo sapiens—the
Neanderthals, who disappeared between 50,000 and 30,000 years
ago, and early modern humans, who were then the only hominids
on Earth.
Scholars have divided prehistory into eras called the Old Stone
Age, or Paleolithic Period, and the New Stone Age, or Neolithic
Period. During both, people made stone tools. However, during the
New Stone Age, people began to develop new skills and
technologies that led to dramatic changes.
Early modern humans were nomads who moved around in
small groups, hunting and gathering food. They made simple tools
and weapons, built fires for cooking, used animal skins for clothing,
and developed spoken language.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
historians scholars who study and write about the past
artifact object made by humans
anthropology the field of study related to the origins and
development of people and their societies
culture the way of life of a society, including its beliefs, values, and
practices
archaeology the study of past people and cultures through their
material remains
nomad person who moves from place to place to find food

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Name Class Date

REVIEW
TOPIC Lesson Summary
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION (continued)
LESSON 1

The New Stone Age began about 10,000 B.C. when nomadic MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
people learned to farm. Early farmers settled the first permanent
villages. This transition to settled farming brought about such
dramatic changes in people’s way of life that it is often called the
Neolithic Revolution. These early farmers were the first to
domesticate plants and animals. To farm successfully, people
developed new technologies, such as ways to protect their crops,
calendars, and the use of animals for plowing.
The earliest civilizations developed near major rivers. Rivers
provided water, transportation, and food. Floodwaters made the soil
fertile. In such rich conditions, farmers produced surpluses, which
allowed them to store food and feed growing populations. As
populations grew, villages expanded into cities.
The rise of cities is the main feature of civilization. In addition to
this, other basic features of most early civilizations include
organized governments, complex religions, job specialization, social
classes, arts and architecture, public works, and writing.
In these early civilizations, central governments led by chiefs or
elders coordinated farming and public works, established laws, and
organized defense. Also, for the first time, individuals began to
specialize in certain jobs and people’s jobs often determined their
social rank. Art and architecture developed. Many civilizations also
developed writing from pictographs.
Famine, drought, or other disasters sometimes led people to
migrate. Migration, as well as trade and warfare, led to cultural
diffusion. This brought about the development of city-states and,
later, the rise of the first empires.

Lesson Vocabulary
domesticate to raise in a controlled way
surplus more than is necessary
civilization a complex, highly organized social order
pictograph simple drawing that looks like the objects it represents
cultural diffusion the spread of ideas, customs, and technologies
from one people to another
city-state a political unit that included a city and its surrounding
lands and villages
empire a group of states or territories controlled by one ruler

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 Name Class Date

REVIEW
TOPIC Lesson Summary
THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT
LESSON 2

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Around 3300 B.C., Sumer, the world’s first civilization, arose in
southeastern Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia lay within the Fertile
Crescent, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Frequent flooding
forced Sumerians to work together to protect homes and control
water for irrigating farms. Sumerians built some of the world’s first
great cities. Eventually, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian armies
conquered Sumer.
However, Sumerians left a lasting legacy through developments
in math, astronomy, and the invention of writing. Beginning as
simple pictographs, by 3200 B.C. writing had developed into wedge-
like symbols, called cuneiform. Cuneiform could be used to record
complex information.
Many groups rose to power in ancient Mesopotamia and made
long-lasting cultural contributions. In 2300 B.C., the Akkadian leader,
Sargon conquered Sumer and formed the world’s first empire. In
1790 B.C., Hammurabi, king of Babylon, unified Mesopotamia. He
made the first important attempt to arrange and record all laws of a
state, known as Hammurabi’s Code. It covered both civil and
criminal matters.
Other conquerors brought new learning to Mesopotamia.
Hittites, ruling until 1200 B.C., extracted iron from ore to forge strong
weapons and their iron-smithing spread to Asia, Africa, and Europe,
launching the Iron Age. Later, the ruthless Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar controlled the region. His empire eventually
stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. However,
in 539 B.C., it fell to the Persian empire, which reached from present-
day Turkey to India. Emperor Darius I formed provinces ruled by
local governors and a bureaucracy. He also built roads across the
empire and established a single Persian coinage. This helped people
move from a barter economy toward a money economy.
The Phoenicians were skilled sea traders from the eastern
Mediterranean coast. The Phoenicians spread Middle Eastern culture
over a large area. However, perhaps their greatest achievement was
the creation of an alphabet. This letter system led to the alphabet we
use today.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
cuneiform in the ancient Middle East, a system of writing that
used wedge-shaped marks
bureaucracy system of government through departments and
subdivisions administered by officials who follow set rules

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Name Class Date

REVIEW
TOPIC Lesson Summary
THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT (continued)
LESSON 2

About 4,000 years ago, the ancient Israelites developed Judaism, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
one of today’s major religions. Unlike neighboring peoples, Israelites
were monotheistic, believing in only one god. They recorded events
and laws in the Torah. It is the most sacred text of the Israelites, or
Jews, and includes the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
According to the Torah, about 2000 B.C., Abraham and his family
migrated to a region called Canaan. Abraham is considered the
father of the Israelites. The Israelites believed that God made a
covenant with Abraham. This covenant promised a special
relationship with God and a homeland in Canaan. However, famine
forced the Israelites into Egypt, where they became slaves. Much
later, Moses led their exodus, or departure, from Egypt back to
Canaan.
There, they established the kingdom of Israel around 1000 B.C.
Under the second king, David, the feuding 12 tribes of Israel were
united into one kingdom. Then, David’s son Solomon completed a
massive temple and increased Israel’s influence in the region.
However, after his death, the kingdom eventually fell to the
Assyrians and Babylonians.
Israelite society was patriarchal, meaning that men held the
greatest authority. Also, from early times, law was central to
Judaism. The Torah contains a special set of laws called the Ten
Commandments. These laws stress moral conduct and religious duty.
For a 500-year period that began with the Babylonian Captivity,
many Jews left or were exiled from Israel. This spreading out of Jews
around the world is called the Diaspora. Still, they maintained their
identity in close-knit communities, following religious laws and
traditions. This helped them to survive centuries of persecution.
Judaism has been an important religion. From that culture and
faith, both Christianity and Islam emerged, creating an ethical legacy
we call the Judeo-Christian tradition.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
covenant a promise and an agreement
Diaspora the spreading out of Jews beyond their historic
Homeland

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 Name Class Date

REVIEW
TOPIC Lesson Summary
THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT (continued)
LESSON 2

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Fertile land along the Nile brought early peoples to Egypt, and
over time, a powerful Egyptian civilization arose. Egypt was made
up of two regions. Upper Egypt began at the Nile’s first cataract, or
waterfall, in the south. Lower Egypt covered the Nile’s delta, the
triangular marshland where it emptied into the Mediterranean.
About 3100 B.C., King Menes united both regions and leadership
passed from one dynasty, or ruling family, to another.
During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs, or Egyptian kings,
organized a strong central government and established a
bureaucracy with different jobs and authority levels. The Middle
Kingdom saw powerful Egyptian leaders usher in an age of
expansion.
Egyptians worshipped many gods, including Amon-Re, Osiris
god of the dead, and Isis, who promised life after death. People
believed the afterlife was much like life on Earth, so they buried
people’s possessions with them and preserved their bodies by
mummification, or embalming and wrapping in cloth, so that the
soul could return to the body.
Ancient Egyptians made advances in medicine, astronomy,
mathematics, and learning. Their first writing system, hieroglyphics,
used symbols carved in stone, and later they developed material to
write on, made from papyrus plants.
Egyptian civilization eventually declined; yet its written records
survived. No one understood them until the early 1800s, when a
French scholar, Jean Champollion, deciphered, or figured out
meanings for, the carvings on the Rosetta Stone.

Lesson Vocabulary
delta triangular area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the
mouth of some rivers
hieroglyphics a system of writing in which pictures called
hieroglyphs represent objects, concepts, or sounds
papyrus plant used to make a paper-like writing material in
ancient Egypt

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TOPIC Lesson Summary
ANCIENT INDIA AND CHINA
LESSON 3

The Indian subcontinent is a large landmass that juts out from Asia. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
It has a giant, fertile plain; a plateau, or raised area of level land, that
is too dry for farming; and wet coastal plains. Monsoons, or seasonal
winds, bring dry air from the northeast in winter and rains from the
southwest in summer.
Civilization began on the subcontinent around 2600 B.C. in the
Indus River valley. Archaeologists believe organized governments
helped plan cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Most people
farmed, although some traded goods by ship with Sumer. The
civilization declined by about 1900 B.C.
By 1500 B.C., nomadic herders had migrated into India from the
north. They married local people, and acculturation, or the blending
of cultures, took place. Their descendants, known as Aryans, learned
to farm and built a civilization after 1000 B.C.
People worshiped gods and goddesses who embodied natural
forces. Priests wrote sacred teachings in the Vedas, a collection of
hymns and religious instructions. Epic poems were part of the
culture. Over time, Aryan beliefs changed. There was a move toward
the concept of brahman, a single spiritual power beyond the gods of
the Vedas and existing in all things.
The idea of the brahman is important to Hinduism, one of the
two major religions to emerge in ancient India. Hinduism grew out
diverse religious ideas. However, most Hindus share basic beliefs
that the brahman is the basis of everything, people have an essential
self, or atman, and that their goal is to achieve moksha, or union
with brahman.
Because most cannot achieve it in one life, reincarnation allows
people to continue working toward moksha through several
lifetimes. Karma affects a person’s fate in the next life. By following
dharma, people can escape the cycle of death and rebirth.
Hinduism was connected to a system of castes, or social groups.
People in higher castes were believed to be more spiritually pure; the
lowest caste was considered untouchable. Each caste had a role with
strict rules in Indian society.

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Lesson Vocabulary
subcontinent large landmass that juts out from a continent
reincarnation in Hindu belief, the rebirth of the soul in another
bodily form
dharma in Hindu belief, a person’s religious and moral duties
caste in traditional Indian society, an unchangeable social group
into which a person is born

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TOPIC Lesson Summary
ANCIENT INDIA AND CHINA (continued)
LESSON 3

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The second major religion to emerge in ancient India is
Buddhism. It shares some beliefs with Hinduism but has key
differences. Buddhism began when Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu
prince born in 563 B.C., became known as the Buddha, or “the
Enlightened One.” He believed he understood the cause and cure for
human suffering.
The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths, which explain life as
suffering and give ways to overcome it. The fourth truth is to follow
the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path directs people in achieving
the goals of a moral life and enlightenment. Buddhists strive to
achieve nirvana.
Buddhism spread throughout Asia but gradually broke into two
subgroups. It remained very popular in other parts of Asia but
declined in India.
Chandragupta Maurya founded the first Indian empire in 321 B.C.
The Mauryan empire fostered a complex civilization.
Chandragupta’s grandson, Asoka, continued to expand the empire.
Asoka became a Buddhist and ruled by moral example. To help his
people, Asoka built hospitals and roads. The Mauryan empire ended
around 185 B.C.
Rival princes then held power for about 500 years, until the
Gupta dynasty united India from A.D. 320 to about 540. During this
time, India enjoyed a period of great cultural achievement called a
golden age. Prosperity contributed to a flowering of the arts and
learning. Advances in mathematics included the system of numerals
that we use today, the concept of zero, and the decimal system.
Eventually, nomadic people from Central Asia overran Gupta India.
For most Indians, everyday life revolved around the rules and
duties associated with caste, family, and village. Parents, children,
and their offspring shared a common dwelling as a joint family. The
father or oldest male served as head of the household.
In East Asia, the earliest civilization in China grew along the
Huang River. This river carries loess, or fine windblown yellow soil,
which raises the water level. The need to control the water likely led
to the rise of government.
The Shang dynasty began about 1766 B.C. Shang warriors used
leather armor, bronze weapons, and horse-drawn chariots.

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Lesson Vocabulary
nirvana in Buddhist belief, union with the universe and release
from the cycle of rebirth
golden age period of great cultural achievement
decimal system system of numbers based on 10
loess fine windblown yellow soil

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ANCIENT INDIA AND CHINA (continued)
LESSON 3

Next came the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou promoted the Mandate MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
of Heaven, or the divine right to rule. This idea later expanded to
explain the dynastic cycle. If rulers became corrupt, heaven would
withdraw support and dynasties would fail.
During the Shang dynasty, the Chinese prayed to many gods
and nature spirits. During the Zhou dynasty, two great thinkers
emerged: Confucius and Laozi. Confucius developed a philosophy,
or system of ideas, that emphasized social order and good
government. Filial piety, or respect for parents, was everyone’s
highest duty. Laozi’s Daoism emphasized that people should live in
harmony with nature. They should look beyond everyday cares and
focus on the Dao, or “the way.”
One great achievement of early China was silk-making. The
Chinese also developed a system of writing at least 4,000 years ago.
Later, a writing system evolved that included thousands of
characters, or written symbols.
The Qin Dynasty began in 221 B.C. when the leader of the Qin
conquered the Zhou and proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, or First
Emperor. He adhered to Legalism, a philosophy that said that
strength, not goodness, was a ruler’s greatest virtue. Under his
orders, thousands of workers connected shorter walls to form the
Great Wall of China.
The Han Dynasty began in 202 B.C. Instead of Legalism, the most
famous Han emperor, Wudi, made Confucianism the official belief
system of the state. He expanded the Chinese empire. He also
opened a network of trade routes, later called the Silk Road.
Han rulers chose Confucian scholars as government officials, or
civil servants. Young men could advance in government through
skill, rather than family influence.
The Han dynasty was a golden age for Chinese culture. Han
scientists, inventors, artisans, poets and historians made many
advances and created beautiful works of art. The last Han emperor
was overthrown in A.D. 220, after 400 years of Han rule. Buddhism
had spread from India to China by about A.D. 100. By A.D. 400 it had
spread throughout China.

Lesson Vocabulary
dynastic cycle rise and fall of Chinese dynasties according to the
Mandate of Heaven
philosophy system of ideas
filial piety respect for parents
characters written symbols in writing systems such as that of the
Chinese
civil servants government officials

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THE AMERICAS
LESSON 4

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES People first came to the Americas from Asia between 60,000 B.C. and
18,000 B.C. They may have walked across a land bridge or come by
boat. In Mesoamerica, a cultural region including Mexico and
Central America, people grew maize, or corn, and other crops. They
raised animals and settled into villages by about 1500 B.C. Some
villages became the early, great cities of the Americas.
The earliest American civilization, the Olmec, developed along
the Gulf Coast of Mexico. That civilization lasted from about 1500
B.C. to 400 B.C. A class of priests and nobles led it.
Around 300 B.C., the Maya were building large cities in present-
day Guatemala. By the time the Maya golden age began, about A.D.
250, Maya civilization included large, independent city-states
throughout Mesoamerica. Maya cities included temples, palaces,
and stelae, which were tall stone monuments decorated with
carvings. Around A.D. 900, the Maya abandoned most of their cities.
Aztec civilization began in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztec
founded Tenochtitlán, their capital city, in A.D. 1325. Because it was
located on an island in a lake, they found ingenious ways to create
more farmland, such as building chinampas.
Unlike the Maya, the Aztec built an empire. They also fought
wars continuously. War brought wealth and power. As their empire
grew, the Aztec used tribute to make Tenochtitlán magnificent.
They also sacrificed war prisoners to the sun god.
The first cultures of South America developed in the Andean
region. The earliest was the Chavín culture. Chavín’s arts and
religion influenced later peoples of Peru. Later, between A.D. 100 and
700, the Moche people lived along the north coast of Peru. They
improved farming techniques, built roads and large adobe
structures, and supported skilled artisans.
The Nazca people lived between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500. They are
known for the geoglyphs they etched in the desert of southern Peru.
The cities of Huari and Tiahuanaco also became powerful in Peru
and Bolivia.

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Lesson Vocabulary
stelae in the ancient world, tall, commemorative monuments that
were often decorated
chinampa in the Aztec empire, an artificial island used to cultivate
crops and made of mud piled atop reed mats that were anchored to
the lake bed with willow trees
tribute payment that conquered peoples may be forced to pay
their conquerors

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THE AMERICAS (continued)
LESSON 4

The most powerful of the Andean peoples were the Inca. Their MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
civilization began in the 1100s A.D., but peaked after 1438. Eventually,
the Inca empire controlled 2,500 miles along the Andes. The Inca built
a network of roads of about 14,000 miles. The roads allowed news
and armies to travel quickly throughout the empire.
The emperor had absolute power and was also the religious
leader. The Inca worshiped many gods, but the chief god was Inti,
the sun god. Nobles ruled provinces. Each village, or ayllu, had a
leader who assigned jobs and organized work for the government.
Farmers created terraces to farm the steep hillsides.
Before A.D. 1500, there were many Native American culture
groups in North America. This lesson covers the following culture
areas: Southwest, Southeast, Arctic, Northwest Coast, and
Northeast.
In the deserts of the Southwest, around 300 B.C., the Hohokam
built canals to carry river water to crops. Between A.D. 1150 and A.D.
1300, the Ancestral Puebloans built homes on cliffs, some with more
than 200 rooms. They also built villages on the ground. The Spanish
called these villages pueblos. Some pueblos housed kivas.
The Adena and Hopewell of the Northeast farmed in the Ohio
and Mississippi river valleys. They built large burial mounds. By
A.D. 800, these cultures had disappeared. A new people of the
Southeast, the Mississippians, began to build large towns and
ceremonial centers. They also built mounds. By about 1100 A.D., their
great city of Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, had 20,000 people.
The Inuit adapted to the harsh Arctic climate by 2000 A.D. They
lived on seals and other animals. They built homes from snow and
ice and used dogs to pull sleds across the ice. The Northwest Coast
provided Native Americans there with plentiful fish and game, and
trees for building permanent homes.
Several Native American groups of the Northeast were known as
the Iroquois. To stop constant warfare, five Iroquois groups formed
an alliance called the Iroquois League.

Lesson Vocabulary
ayllu in the Inca empire, a close-knit village
pueblos Native American villages of the North American
Southwest
kiva a large underground chamber that the Ancestral Puebloans
used for religious ceremonies and political meetings

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TOPIC Lesson Summary
ANCIENT GREECE
LESSON 5

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Two early Greek civilizations were the Minoans and the
Mycenaeans. The Minoan civilization was based on the island of
Crete in the Aegean Sea. The Minoans were successful traders. By
about 1400 B.C., the Minoan civilization had vanished, partly because
of invasions by the Mycenaeans.
The Mycenaeans ruled the Aegean world from about 1400 B.C. to
1200 B.C. They were also sea traders whose civilization reached as far
as Italy and Egypt. The Myceneans are remembered for their part in
the Trojan War, which began about 1250 B.C. Troy was a rich trading
city that controlled the vital straits, or narrow water passages,
connecting the Mediterranean and Black seas. The war ended with
the Myceneans burning Troy to the ground. Much of what we know
about the ancient Greeks comes from two epic poems, the Iliad and
the Odyssey. These works are credited to the poet Homer.
The Mycenaeans were conquered around 1100 B.C. Over time, a
new Greek civilization emerged and expanded. These Ancient Greeks
evolved a unique version of the city-state, called the polis. The polis
consisted of a major city or town and its surrounding countryside.
Citizens of a polis shared sense of responsibility for their city.
Different forms of government evolved in ancient Greece,
including monarchy, aristocracy, and oligarchy. In the city-state of
Athens, government evolved slowly toward democracy, starting
when the assembly became a genuine legislature, or lawmaking
body, in 507 B.C. Together, the various Greek city-states won the
Persian Wars, which began in 499 B.C. Athens became the most
powerful of the city-states and a golden age began. Under the
leadership of Pericles, Athens became a direct democracy. Under
this system, citizens take part directly in the daily affairs of
government.
Many Greeks resented Athens. In 431 B.C., warfare broke out
between Athens and Sparta, a warlike city-state. Sparta defeated
Athens with the help of Persia, ending Athens’ domination.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
citizen a native or resident of a town or city
monarchy government in which a king or queen exercises central
power
aristocracy government headed by a privileged minority or upper
class
oligarchy government in which ruling power belongs to a few
people
democracy government in which the people hold ruling power

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ANCIENT GREECE (continued)
LESSON 5

The Ancient Greeks are known for their rich cultural MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
contributions. Ancient Greek philosophers used reason and
observation to explore their world. Perhaps the most famous
Ancient Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Philosophers explored many subjects, from mathematics and music
to logic.
Ancient Greek artists, architects, and writers also made
advances. The most famous example of Greek architecture is the
Parthenon. Greek sculptors carved their subjects to show their most
perfect, graceful form. In literature, Greek playwrights wrote
tragedies and comedies, some of which are still performed widely
today. Ancient Greece’s historians also set standards for future
historians. Herodotus, often called the “Father of History” and
Thucydides are among the most famous.
Soon after Macedonian king Phillip II gained the throne in 359
B.C., he brought all of Greece under his control. Philip’s next goal
was to conquer the Persian empire. However, he was assassinated
before he could. After Philip’s death, his son, who came to be known
as Alexander the Great, succeeded in conquering Persia. Once much
of the Persian empire fell under his control, he advanced into India.
Alexander died young in 323 B.C. Although his empire collapsed
soon after, he is credited with spreading Greek culture from Egypt
to the borders of India. Local people assimilated, or absorbed, Greek
ideas. In turn, Greek settlers adopted local customs. Gradually, a
new Hellenistic culture emerged that blended Greek, Persian,
Egyptian, and Indian influences.
The Hellenistic world was home to many great cities, the most
magnificent of which was Alexandria in Egypt. Cities of the
Hellenistic world were centers of learning and the arts. Hellenistic
scholars built on earlier Greek, Babylonian, and Egyptian
knowledge. They made advances in mathematics, astronomy,
physics, and medicine.
Greek works in the arts and sciences set a standard for later
Europeans. Greek ideas about law, freedom, justice, and government
continue to influence political thinking today.

Lesson Vocabulary
philosophers someone who seeks to understand and explain life; a
person who studies philosophy
logic rational thinking
tragedy in ancient Greece, a play about human suffering often
ending in disaster
comedy in ancient Greece, play that mocked people or social
customs

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ANCIENT ROME AND THE ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY
LESSON 6

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Around 800 B.C., the city of Rome was founded on the Italian
peninsula. Italy was centrally located in the Mediterranean Sea and
had wide, fertile plains. Romans shared the peninsula with Greek
colonists and the Etruscans.
In 509 B.C., the Romans drove out the Etruscans and founded the
state of Rome. They put in place a new form of government called a
republic. To keep any person from getting too powerful, the republic
was run by officials who represented the people. However,
patricians, members of the upper class, controlled most of the
representatives. Plebeians, or common people, had little influence.
However, the plebeians fought for the right to elect their own
officials, called tribunes. The tribunes could veto, or block, laws that
they felt harmed the plebeians. The most powerful governing body
was still the senate, though, and its 300 members were all patricians.
The senate elected two consuls each year, who led the government.
By 270 B.C., Rome controlled most of the Italian peninsula. This
was due mainly to a well-trained army. Rome was committed to a
policy of imperialism. Roman power soon spread from Spain to
Egypt. Rome controlled busy trade routes that brought tremendous
riches. The gap between rich and poor grew, leading to corruption
and riots.
Rome was in need of social and political reform, but reformers
were unable to work with the senate. This power struggle led to a
period of civil war. Julius Caesar, a brilliant military commander,
emerged out of the chaos. After fighting rivals and suppressing
rebellions, Caesar forced the senate to make him dictator for life.
Caesar pushed through a number of reforms to help solve Rome’s
many problems. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C., another
power struggle took place. This time, Caesar’s nephew, Octavian
triumphed.
The senate gave Octavian the title of Augustus, or “Exalted
One.” He was the first emperor of Rome and ruled from 27 B.C. to
A.D. 14. Augustus built a stable government for the empire. He also
undertook economic reforms.
During the Pax Romana, Roman rule brought peace, prosperity,
and order to the lands it controlled. However, social and economic
problems hid beneath the general prosperity.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
republic form of government in which people choose their
officials
imperialism establishing control over foreign lands and peoples

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TOPIC Lesson Summary
ANCIENT ROME AND THE ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY
LESSON 6
(continued)

Like Greece, Rome had a cultural flowering during ancient MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
times. Although Greek culture made a significant impact on Rome,
the greatest Roman authors wrote in Latin. In his epic poem the
Aeneid, the Roman poet Virgil showed the heroism of Rome. Others
used poetry to satirize, or make fun of, Roman society. Roman
historians recalled Rome’s triumphant past.
Romans also supported sculptors and visual artists and made
great advances in architecture. They built impressive monuments to
Roman power. The Romans improved structures such as columns
and arches. In addition, the Romans excelled in engineering. Roman
engineers built roads, bridges, and harbors throughout the empire.
They built many aqueducts to carry water into Roman cities.
Rome was committed to regulating laws and to serving justice.
Many legal principles, such as using evidence to prove guilt,
evolved in Rome.
Within the Roman empire, there were various religious beliefs.
Rome tolerated these different religions, as long as citizens honored
Roman gods, too—including the emperor.
The followers of Judaism became divided about living under
Roman rule. Many began to follow a Jewish man named Jesus. They
believed Jesus was the messiah. While Jesus’ teachings were rooted
in Jewish tradition, he also preached new, Christian beliefs. Jesus
taught the need for justice, morality, forgiveness, and service to
others. Much of Jesus’ teaching and what we know about him come
from the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament in the
Christian Bible.
Jesus was put to death by Roman officials for challenging Rome’s
authority. After his death, the Gospels teach that he was brought
back to life by God and ascended into Heaven. His followers,
including the missionary Paul, worked to spread Christianity after
Jesus died.
Because they did not obey certain Roman practices, many
Christians were persecuted. Finally, the emperor Constantine issued
the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313. This granted freedom of worship to all
Roman citizens. By the end of that century, Christianity was the
official religion of the empire.

Lesson Vocabulary
engineering the application of science and mathematics to develop
structures and machines
aqueduct bridge-like stone structure that carried water from the
hills into a Roman city
messiah anointed king sent by God

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OPIC
Review
Note Taking
Questions
Study Guide
5
TOPIC ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
CONNECTING
INDIA
IN
WITH
AND
THEPAST
AGE
CHINA
OF
LEARNINGS
REASON (PREHISTORY–1570)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Origins of Civilization

1. What evidence do historians study to learn about the past?

2. Draw Conclusions Why did early civilizations develop near major rivers?

Lesson 2: The Ancient Middle East and Egypt

3. What major contributions to learning were made by Sumerians?

4. What was the Diaspora?

Lesson 3: Ancient India and China

5. Compare and Contrast How does Buddhism differ from Hinduism?

6. What was the focus of Confucius’s teachings?

Lesson 4: The Americas

7. Cause and Effect How did the Aztec benefit from war?

8. Which group was the most powerful Andean civilization?

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REVIEW Review Questions

TOPIC CONNECTING WITH PAST LEARNINGS (PREHISTORY–1570) (continued)

Lesson 5: Ancient Greece

9. What different forms of governments evolved in ancient Greece?

10. Understand Effects How did Alexander the Great’s conquests help create a new
Hellenistic culture?

Lesson 6: Ancient Rome and the Origins of Christianity

11. What made early Rome a republic?

12. What did the Edict of Milan accomplish?

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CHAPTER

1 Note Taking Study Guide

TOPIC

S 1
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN
IN THE AGE
EUROPE
OF REASON
(330–1450)
ECTION 1

Focus Question: Which was a more important force of change in

medieval Europe—religion or economics?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to recognize the causes and effects of religious and economic changes in Europe after the
fall of the Roman Empire.

Religious developments Economic developments

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

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L
1
Section
1
Lesson
ESSON
Summary
Summary
PHILOSOPHY
THEIN
EARLY
THE AGE
MIDDLE
OF REASON
AGES

After the Roman empire fell, Western Europe was cut off from MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
advanced cultures in Asia, overrun by invaders, and divided. The
period from 500 to 1000 is sometimes called the Dark Ages.
However, it was a time when Greco-Roman, Germanic, and
Christian traditions slowly blended to create a new, medieval
civilization called the Middle Ages.
In the early Middle Ages, Germanic tribes, such as the Franks,
divided Western Europe. In 486, Clovis, king of the Franks,
conquered Gaul, later to become France. Clovis followed his own
customs but also kept Roman customs and converted to Christianity.
In the 600s, Islam began in Arabia. Muslims, or believers in Islam,
created a huge and expanding empire. When a Muslim army crossed
into France, Charles Martel and his Frankish warriors fought them at
the battle of Tours in 732. Muslims ruled in Spain, but did not
advance farther into Western Europe.
In 768, Charles Martel’s grandson, also named Charles, became
king of the Franks. He built an empire covering what are now
France, Germany, and part of Italy, and he was known as
Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. Later, the pope crowned him the
new emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne worked, in his 46-year
rule, to unite his kingdom by fighting off invaders, conquering
peoples, spreading Christianity, and further blending Germanic,
Roman, and Christian traditions. He set up an orderly government,
naming nobles to rule locally. Charlemagne regarded education as
another way to unify his kingdom. He brought back Latin learning
across his empire and encouraged the creation of local schools.
After Charlemagne’s death in 814, his sons battled for power and
his grandsons split up the empire. About 900, nomads called
Magyars settled in what is present-day Hungary. They overran
Eastern Europe and moved into Germany, France, and Italy, but
they were eventually pushed back. Also, in the late 700s the Vikings
from Scandinavia began to invade towns along coasts and rivers in
Europe. The Vikings were skilled sailors and explorers. They settled
and mixed with local peoples in England, Ireland, northern France,
and parts of Russia, bringing their culture with them.

Lesson Vocabulary
medieval referring to the Middle Ages in Europe or the period of
history between ancient and modern times

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TOPIC

L
12
ESSON
Lesson Summary
FEUDALISM AND THE MANOR ECONOMY

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Medieval society was a network of mutual duties. Even kings and
nobles exchanged vows of service and loyalty. These vows were part
of a new political and legal system called feudalism, which was the
basis of European life during the Middle Ages.
Feudalism was a structure of lords and lesser lords, called
vassals. Lords and their vassals exchanged pledges, and this bond
was called the feudal contract. In this contract, lords expected
military service, payments, and loyalty from vassals. In return, they
granted vassals protection and parcels of land, called fiefs, or estates.
By the 1100s, many nobles lived in castles, which served as
fortresses.
All aristocrats had a place in this structured society. For nobles,
war was a way of life. Many trained from boyhood to become
knights. They learned to ride horseback, fight, and care for weapons.
They competed in mock battles called tournaments. Noblewomen,
too, participated in the warrior society. They took over estates while
their husbands were at war, and might even have fought to defend
their lands. A few learned to read or write. All were expected to
learn spinning, weaving, and the supervising of servants.
Knights were expected to follow a code of ideal conduct, called
chivalry. It required them to be brave, loyal, and honest, to fight
fairly, to treat captured knights well, and to protect the weak.
Troubadours, or wandering musicians, often sang about knights and
ladies. Their songs formed the basis for medieval romances, or epic
stories and poems.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
feudalism loosely organized system of government in which local
lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other
support to a greater lord
vassal in medieval Europe, a lord who was granted land in
exchange for service and loyalty to a greater lord
feudal contract exchange of pledges between lords and vassals
fief in medieval Europe, an estate granted by a lord to a vassal in
exchange for service and loyalty
knight a European noble who served as a mounted warrior
tournament a mock battle in which knights would compete against
one another to display their fighting skills
chivalry code of conduct for knights during the Middle Ages
troubadour a wandering poet or singer of medieval Europe

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12
ESSON
Lesson Summary
FEUDALISM AND THE MANOR ECONOMY (continued)

The manor, or lord’s estate, was central to the feudal economy. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Manors were self-sufficient, producing all that their people needed.
Most peasants on manors were serfs, who were bound to the land.
Although they were not slaves, serfs could not leave the manor
without permission. They had to work the lord’s lands several days
a week, pay fees, and get permission to marry. In return, they were
allowed to farm several acres for themselves and received protection
during war. Their work was harsh, and hunger and disease were
common. Yet they found times to celebrate, such as Christmas,
Easter, and dozens of Christian festivals each year.

Lesson Vocabulary
manor during the Middle Ages in Europe, a lord's estate that
included one or more villages and the surrounding lands
serf in medieval Europe, a peasant bound to the lord's land

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13
ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN CHURCH

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church controlled the
spiritual life of Christians in Western Europe but was also the
strongest worldly or secular force. Church officials were closely linked
to secular rulers. Clergy might even be nobles with lands and armies.
For most people, village churches were the center of community
life. Their parish priest celebrated mass and administered
sacraments, or sacred rites. Church doctrine also taught that men
and women were equal before God.
Some chose to live a religious life in monasteries or convents. In
about 530, a monk named Benedict created rules governing
monastery life. They required vows of obedience, poverty, and
chastity, or purity. In time, this Benedictine Rule was used by
monasteries and convents across Europe.
As God’s representatives on Earth, medieval popes eventually
claimed papal supremacy, or authority over kings and emperors.
The Church had its own courts and body of laws, known as canon
law, and issued punishments. One was excommunication, or the
withholding of sacraments and Christian burial. This condemned a
sinner to hell. In addition, rulers could be punished by the pope with
an interdict. This barred entire towns, regions, or kingdoms from
receiving sacraments and Christian burial. The Church also used its
authority to end warfare among nobles by declaring times of peace
known as the Truce of God.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
secular having to do with worldly, rather than religious, matters;
nonreligious
sacrament sacred ritual of the Roman Catholic Church
papal supremacy the claim of medieval popes that they had
authority over all secular rulers
canon law body of laws of a church
excommunication exclusion from the Roman Catholic Church as a
penalty for refusing to obey Church law
interdict in the Roman Catholic Church, excommunication of an
entire region, town, or kingdom

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13
ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN CHURCH (continued)

However, as Church wealth and power grew, so did corruption. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Monks and nuns ignored their vows. Throughout the Middle Ages,
there were calls for reform. In the early 900s, Abbot Berno of Cluny
brought back the Benedictine Rule. Over the next 200 years,
monasteries and convents copied these reforms. Other reforms came
from friars, or monks who traveled and preached to the poor, and
did not live in monasteries. The first order of friars, the Franciscans,
was founded by St. Francis of Assisi. The Franciscans preached
poverty, humility, and love of God.
In the Middle Ages, Jewish communities also existed all across
Europe. Yet by the late 1000s, prejudice against Jewish people had
increased. The Church eventually issued orders forbidding Jews
from owning land or having certain jobs.
The Roman emperor Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium
and renamed it Constantinople. Constantinople grew wealthy from
trade. In 330, Constantine made Constantinople the new capital of
the Roman empire. In time, the eastern Roman empire became
known as the Byzantine empire.
The Byzantine empire reached its peak under Justinian. Byzantine
armies reconquered North Africa and parts of southern Europe.
However, these victories were only temporary, as Justinian’s
successors later lost these lands. After a fire in 532, Justinian made
Constantinople even grander. One of his most important achievements
was rebuilding the church of Hagia Sophia. Justinian also had a
commission collect and organize the laws of Rome. This collection
became known as Justinian’s Code. It helped unify the empire, which
Justinian ruled as an autocrat, or with complete authority.
His wife, Theodora, served as his advisor and co-ruler.
Christianity was practiced differently in the Byzantine empire than in
the West. The Byzantine emperor controlled Church affairs and
appointed the patriarch, or highest Church official in Constantinople.
Byzantine Christians rejected the pope’s claim to authority over all
Christians. During the Middle Ages, the eastern and western
branches of Christianity grew further apart, partly due to a dispute
over the use of icons, or holy images. In 1054, other controversies
caused a complete split known as the Great Schism. The Byzantine
church became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. The western
branch became known as the Roman Catholic Church.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
friar a medieval European monk who traveled from place to place
preaching to the poor
icon holy image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint venerated in
the Eastern Orthodox Church

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN CHURCH (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES By this time, the Byzantine empire was in decline. In the 1090s,
the Byzantine emperor asked the pope for help in fighting the
Muslim Seljuks. This started the First Crusade. In 1204, knights on
the Fourth Crusade attacked Constantinople. The Byzantines lost
control of trade and much of their wealth. In 1453, Ottoman Turks
conquered Constantinople, renamed it Istanbul, and made it the
capital of their empire.
The Byzantines left an influential heritage. Their civilization
combined Christian beliefs with Greek science, philosophy, and arts.
Byzantine artists created unique religious icons and mosaics.
Byzantine scholars preserved Greek literature and produced their
own great books, especially in the field of history.

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14
ESSON
Lesson Summary
ECONOMIC EXPANSION AND CHANGE: THE
CRUSADES AND AFTER

New farming methods started a series of changes in medieval MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Europe. By the 800s, farmers were using iron plows instead of
wooden ones, and horses rather than slower oxen. Also, a new crop
rotation system improved soil fertility. These changes helped
farmers produce more food, and Europe’s population nearly tripled
between 1000 and 1300.
In the 1100s, trade improved, too, as warfare declined. Demand
for goods increased and trade routes expanded. Trade centers arose
along the routes and slowly grew into the first medieval cities.
Merchants in such towns would ask the local lord or king for a
charter. This was a document establishing rights and privileges for
the town in exchange for a large sum of money, a yearly fee, or both.
As trade expanded, new business practices arose. The need for
capital, or money for investment, stimulated the growth of banks. In
addition, merchants sometimes joined together in partnerships,
pooling their money to finance large-scale ventures. Other business
changes included development of insurance and use of credit rather
than cash, allowing merchants to travel without having to carry
gold. Overall, however, the use of money increased. Peasants began
selling their goods to townspeople for cash. Also, by 1300, most
peasants were hired laborers or tenant farmers, paying rent for their
land.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
charter in the Middle Ages, a written document that set out the
rights and privileges of a town
capital money or wealth used to invest in business or enterprise
partnership a group of merchants who joined together to finance a
large-scale venture that would have been too costly for any
individual trader
tenant farmer someone who would pay rent to a lord to farm part
of the lord’s land

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14
ESSON
Lesson Summary
ECONOMIC EXPANSION AND CHANGE: THE
CRUSADES AND AFTER (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES By 1000, merchants, traders, and artisans had become a powerful
social class between nobles and peasants, called the middle class.
Members of this class formed guilds, associations that controlled and
protected specific trades or businesses. To become a guild member,
people often began in early childhood as apprentices. After seven
years, an apprentice became a journeyman, or salaried worker. Few
became guild masters. Unlike in other areas of medieval life, women
dominated some trades and even had their own guilds.
Towns and cities expanded rapidly during medieval times.
Typical cities were overcrowded, with narrow streets, multistory
houses, and no garbage or sewage systems. They were a fire hazard
and breeding ground for disease.
The Crusades were a series of wars in which Christians fought
Muslims for control of Middle Eastern lands. The Crusades were
destructive, but ultimately opened a wider world to Europeans and
increased the pace of change.
In 1071, Seljuk Turks conquered Byzantine lands in Asia Minor
and then moved into the Holy Land. The Byzantine emperor asked
Pope Urban II for help, and Urban launched the Crusades to free the
Holy Land. Only the First Crusade was a success for Christians, who
captured Jerusalem in 1099. In the Second Crusade, Jerusalem fell to
the great Muslim leader Saladin. He agreed to reopen the city to
Christian pilgrims after crusaders failed to take Jerusalem in the
Third Crusade. By the Fourth Crusade in 1202, knights were fighting
other Christians to help Venice against its Byzantine trade rivals.
Crusaders captured and looted the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.

Lesson Vocabulary
middle class a group of people, including merchants, traders, and
artisans, whose rank was between nobles and peasants
guild in the Middle Ages, an association of merchants or artisans
who cooperated to uphold standards of their trade and to protect
their economic interests
apprentice a young person learning a trade from a master
journeyman a salaried worker employed by a guild master

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15
ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE FEUDAL MONARCHS AND THE CHURCH

During the early Middle Ages, European monarchs had limited MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
power. However, from 1000 to 1300, increases in royal power and
control gradually established the foundations of modern
government.
In 1066, William the Conqueror took over England. By 1086, he had
completed a census and property survey called the Domesday Book. It
helped establish an effective taxation system and treasury. In 1154,
Henry II ascended the English throne. He expanded the justice system.
Royal court decisions became the foundation of English common law,
a system based on custom and prior rulings. Henry II also set up a jury
system that was the forerunner of today’s grand jury.
Henry’s son, King John, abused his power and was forced to sign
the Magna Carta, or Great Charter. It required the king to obey the
laws. It also established two important principles: due process of law,
or protection from arrest without proper legal procedures, and habeas
corpus, or protection from imprisonment without being charged with
a crime. John also agreed not to raise taxes before consulting his Great
Council of lords and clergy. Under later rulers, this council evolved
into Parliament, England’s legislature. Parliament eventually
controlled the “power of the purse,” meaning it would not approve
new taxes unless the monarch met certain demands.
Unlike the English, early French monarchs did not rule a united
kingdom. Then in 987, Hugh Capet became king and began
expanding royal power. The Capetians stabilized the kingdom over
the next 300 years. In 1179, Philip II took the throne. He gained
control of English lands in Normandy and expanded territories in
southern France, adding vast areas to his domain, and becoming
Europe’s most powerful ruler.
Louis IX came to power in 1226. Although he persecuted heretics
and Jews and led crusades against Muslims, he also outlawed
private wars, ended serfdom, and expanded royal courts. By the
time of his death in 1270, France was a centralized monarchy ruling
over a unified state. In 1302, the Estates General was set up, but this
council of clergy, nobility, and townspeople never gained the
“power of the purse” over French royalty.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
common law a legal system based on custom and court rulings
due process of law the requirement that the government act fairly
and in accordance with established rules in all that it does
habeus corpus principle that a person cannot be held in prison
without first being charged with a specific crime

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE FEUDAL MONARCHS AND THE CHURCH (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During the Middle Ages, popes and the Church spread their
influence across Europe. European rulers, too, grew more powerful.
However, this increase in power often resulted in conflict.
Rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from
Germany to Italy, often confronted the pope over the appointment of
Church officials. Pope Gregory VII wanted the Church free from lay
(non-church) control. To do this he banned lay investiture, in which
the emperor rather than the pope named and installed bishops.
However, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV said that bishops held
royal lands under his control, so he had the right to appoint them. In
1076 the pope excommunicated him and threatened to crown a new
emperor. Henry was forced to humble himself to the pope as a
sinner, and Gregory forgave him. Later, Henry led an army to Rome,
sending Gregory into exile. Fifty years later, the Concordat of
Worms was accepted, giving popes sole power to invest bishops
with religious authority and emperors the right to invest them with
lands.
Power struggles over land also occurred during the 1100s and
1200s. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, called Frederick Barbarossa
or “Red Beard,” fought but failed to capture wealthy northern Italian
cities. Instead, he arranged for his son to marry the heiress to Sicily
and southern Italy, expanding his control there. His grandson,
Frederick II, also sought but failed to control northern Italy.
Ultimately, the Holy Roman Empire broke up into separate feudal
states, while southern Italy went through centuries of chaos.
By the 1200s, the Church reached its peak of power. In 1198,
Pope Innocent III took office and claimed supremacy over all other
rulers. He excommunicated the English and French kings, and
placed their kingdoms under interdict, barring people from religious
sacraments. He also launched a holy war against heretics in southern
France, killing tens of thousands. After Innocent’s death, popes
continued to claim supremacy, but they were challenged by the
monarchs’ growing power. In the late 1200s, France’s Philip IV
successfully challenged the pope on the issue of taxing the clergy.
Philip then went on to engineer the election of a French pope.

Lesson Vocabulary
lay investiture appointment of bishops by anyone who is not a
member of the clergy

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16
ESSON
Lesson Summary
LEARNING, LITERATURE, AND ARTS OF THE MIDDLE
AGES

Europe in the High Middle Ages experienced a blossoming of MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
education, literature, and the arts. This was influenced by increased
prosperity, contact with other cultures, and the rediscovery of
ancient learning.
Education gained importance. By the 1100s, schools had sprung
up near cathedrals, some evolving into the first universities. Muslim
scholars had translated the works of Aristotle and other Greeks into
Arabic. In Muslim Spain, they were translated into Latin, the language
of European scholars. In the 1100s, the new translations initiated a
revolution in learning. The Greek philosophers had used reason to
discover truth; Christians believed that the Church was the final
authority. Christian scholars struggled with this reason-based, rather
than faith-based, approach. To resolve the conflict, they began to use
reason to support Christian beliefs. This method is known as
scholasticism. The most famous scholastic was Thomas Aquinas. He
wrote Summa theologica to prove that faith and reason exist in
harmony.
Scientific learning also reached Europe, including translations of
Hippocrates on medicine and Euclid on geometry. Europeans
adopted the more streamlined Hindu-Arabic numerals over
cumbersome Roman numerals, allowing later scientists and
mathematicians to make great strides.
Latin remained the language of Europe’s scholars and
churchmen. However, new literature emerged in the vernacular, or
everyday languages of ordinary people. This change brought a
flowering of literary works, including the Song of Roland, a French
epic poem of chivalry; Divine Comedy, the Italian classic poem of
heaven, hell, and purgatory by Dante Alighieri; and a portrait of
English medieval life, the Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
scholasticism in medieval Europe, the school of thought that used
logic and reason to support Christian belief
vernacular everyday language of ordinary people

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
LEARNING, LITERATURE, AND ARTS OF THE MIDDLE
AGES (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Architecture and the arts also flourished. Fortress-like
Romanesque churches gave way to the Gothic style. Its key feature
was flying buttresses—exterior stone supports that permitted
thinner, higher walls and massive windows, bringing light and
height to cathedrals. Other arts during the period include stained
glass, religious paintings, and woven wall hangings. A famous
example is the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered illustration of the
Norman Conquest of England. The Gothic style was also applied to
the decoration of books, in an artknown as illumination.

Lesson Vocabulary
Gothic style type of European architecture that developed in the
Middle Ages, characterized by flying buttresses, ribbed vaulting,
thin walls, and high roofs
flying buttress stone supports on the outside of a building that
allowed builders to construct higher, thinner walls that contained
large stained-glass windows.
illumination the artistic decoration of books and manuscripts

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17
ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE LATE MIDDLE AGES: A TIME OF UPHEAVAL

In the mid-1300s a deadly disease called bubonic plague, or the MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Black Death, reached Europe. It was spread by fleas carried by rats.
Eventually, the epidemic, or outbreak, killed one third of all
Europeans. People were terrified, and normal life broke down.
People fled cities or hid in their homes. Without workers, production
declined. Survivors demanded higher wages, leading to inflation, or
rising prices. Landlords tried to limit wages and forced villagers off
the land. The plague not only spread death but also social unrest, as
bitter, angry peasants revolted.
By the late Middle Ages, the Church, too, was in crisis. Many
monks and priests had died during the plague. Survivors asked
tough spiritual questions. The Church could not provide the strong
leadership that was needed. For 70 years, a luxury-loving papal
court had ruled in Avignon. Reformers arose within the Church,
calling for change. In 1378, the reformers elected their own pope in
Rome. French cardinals elected a rival pope. This Church schism, or
split, finally ended in 1417 when a Church council removed
authority from all three popes and elected a compromise candidate.
For most of this time, a destructive war raged. Between 1337 and
1453 England and France fought a series of conflicts known as the
Hundred Years’ War. Both sides wanted control of lands in France
that had once been England’s, of the English Channel, and of
regional trade. England won early victories with new technology,
the longbow. However, led by 17-year-old Joan of Arc, France began
to win battles. Joan had told the uncrowned king, Charles VII, that
God sent her to save France, so he authorized her to lead an army
against the English. In one year, her troops won several victories, but
she was captured, tried, and burned at the stake. Her martyrdom
rallied French forces, and with their powerful new weapon, the
cannon, they drove the English out of most of France. Ultimately, the
war helped French kings expand their power. In England, it
strengthened Parliament.
As Europe recovered from the plague, its population grew,
manufacturing expanded, and trade increased. This set the stage for
the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Exploration.

Lesson Vocabulary
epidemic outbreak of a rapidly spreading disease
longbow six-foot-long bow that could rapidly fire arrows with
enough force to pierce most armor

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18
ESSON
Lesson Summary
RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Russia has three main geographic regions that shaped early life
there. The northern forests have poor soil and a cold climate. A band
of fertile land farther south attracted farmers. The southern steppe—
an open, treeless grassland—provided pasture for herds. It allowed
nomads to migrate easily from Asia into Europe.
Since ancient times, Slavic peoples had lived in areas that later
became part of Russia. Vikings came from Scandinavia. The Vikings
traveled south along Russia’s rivers, trading with the Slavs and with
Constantinople. The city of Kiev was at the center of this trade.
Russians date the origins of their country to 862, when a Viking
tribe called the Rus began ruling from Novgorod in the north. Rus
lands expanded to include Kiev, which became their capital.
In the 800s, Constantinople sent missionaries to Russia. Two
Orthodox monks, Cyril and Methodius, developed the Cyrillic
alphabet, which is still used in Russia. During the reign of the Rus
king Vladimir, Orthodox Christianity became the religion of the Rus
and they aligned themselves with the Byzantines.
Between 1236 and 1241, Mongols advanced into Russia. They
were known as the Golden Horde. They burned Kiev and ruled
Russia for the next 240 years. However, as long as they received
tribute, the Mongols let Russian princes rule and they tolerated the
Russian Orthodox Church. Although trade increased under the
Mongols, Mongol rule cut Russia off from Western Europe at a time
when Europeans were making great advances.
The princes of Moscow gained power under the Mongols, and
Moscow became Russia’s political and spiritual center. In 1380, these
princes led other Russians in defeating the Golden Horde at the battle
of Kulikovo. A driving force behind Moscow’s successes was Ivan III,
or Ivan the Great. Between 1462 and 1505, he brought much of
northern Russia under his rule. He tried to limit the power of the
nobles, and sometimes called himself tsar, the Russian word for
Caesar. His grandson, Ivan IV, became the first Russian ruler
officially crowned tsar. However, Ivan IV became unstable and
violent. The ways in which he used his power earned him the title
Ivan the Terrible.
Eastern Europe lies between Central Europe to the west and
Russia to the east. Included in this region is the Balkan Peninsula.
Both goods and cultural influences traveled along its rivers.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
steppe sparse, dry, treeless grassland
Cyrillic relating to the Slavic alphabet derived from the Greek and
traditionally attributed to St. Cyril; in modified form still used in
modern Slavic languages

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE (continued)

Many ethnic groups settled in Eastern Europe. An ethnic group MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
is a large group of people who share the same language and culture.
The West Slavs settled in Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe,
while the South Slavs occupied the Balkans. Asian peoples, like the
Magyars, as well as Vikings and other Germanic peoples, also
migrated to Eastern Europe. At times, some groups tried to
dominate the region.
Many cultural and religious influences spread to Eastern Europe.
Byzantine missionaries brought Eastern Orthodox Christianity and
Byzantine culture to the Balkans. German knights and missionaries
brought Roman Catholic Christianity to Poland and other areas. In
the 1300s, the Ottomans invaded the Balkans and introduced Islam.
Jews who were persecuted in Western Europe fled to Eastern
Europe, especially to Poland, where their liberties were protected.
During the Middle Ages, Eastern Europe included many
kingdoms and small states. The marriage in 1386 of Queen Jadwiga
of Poland to Duke Wladyslaw Jagiello of Lithuania made Poland-
Lithuania the largest state in Europe. However, power gradually
shifted from the monarch to the nobles. The nobles met in a diet, or
assembly, where a single noble could block passage of a law.
Without a strong central government, Poland-Lithuania declined
and eventually disappeared from the map.
The Magyars settled in Hungary and became Roman Catholics.
The Hungarian king was forced to sign the Golden Bull of 1222,
which strictly limited royal power. The Mongols overran Hungary in
1241, killing half of its people. Although they soon withdrew, the
Ottoman Turks ended Hungarian independence in 1526.
Some of the South Slavs who settled in the Balkans became the
ancestors of the Serbs. Most Serbs became Orthodox Christians and
set up a state based on a Byzantine model. Serbia reached its height
in the 1300s but could not withstand the advance of the Ottoman
Turks. It was conquered by the Ottomans in 1389.

Lesson Vocabulary
ethnic group large group of people who share the same language
and cultural heritage
diet assembly or legislature

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Review Questions
1 MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN EUROPE (330–1450)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: The Early Middle Ages

1. Name three things that Charlemagne did to unify his kingdom.

2. What happened to Charlemagne’s empire after his death?

Lesson 2: Feudalism and the Manor Economy

3. Describe the feudal contract.

4. What were serfs required to do?

Lesson 3: The Medieval Christian Church

5. What two actions could the Church take to punish Christians?

6. How did the Crusades help to weaken the Byzantine empire?

Lesson 4: Economic Expansion and Change: The Crusades

and After
7. What advances in agriculture led to greater food production and increased
population?

8. What new business practices arose as trade expanded?

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TOPIC Note Taking

Review Questions
Study Guide
1 PHILOSOPHY
MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN
IN THE AGE
EUROPE
OF REASON
(330–1450) (continued)

Lesson 5: The Feudal Monarchs and the Church

9. What important English document limited the absolute power of the king?

10. What did Popes Gregory VII and Innocent III claim?

Lesson 6: Learning, Literature, and Arts of the Middle Ages

11. How did Europeans become aware of Greek thinking?

12. How were Gothic cathedrals different from Romanesque churches?

Lesson 7: The Late Middle Ages: A Time of Upheaval

13. What caused a schism in the Church in the late 1300s?

14. Why did France and England fight the Hundred Years’ War?

Lesson 8: Russia and Eastern Europe

15. Why do Russians consider 862 the year when their country began?

16. Why did Poland-Lithuania decline?

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CHAPTER

1 Note Taking Study Guide

TOPIC

S 2
PHILOSOPHY
THE MUSLIM WORLD
IN THE AGE
ANDOF
AFRICA
REASON
(730 B . C .– A . D . 1500)
ECTION 1

Focus Question: Outline the main tenets of Islam, and compare how
Arab Islamic civilizations influenced European and African cultures into
the 1700s.
How did Arab Islamic civilization and religion influence European and
African cultures?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to recognize examples of Muslim influences on other civilizations. Outline the main
tenets of Islam, and compare how Arab Islamic civilizations influenced European and African
cultures into the 1700s.

Muslim Influence in Europe Muslim Influence in Africa

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM

The religion of Islam, whose followers are called Muslims, emerged MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
in the Arabian Peninsula. There, in A.D. 570, Muhammad was born in
Mecca—a trading and religious center. Muhammad worked among
nomadic herders called Bedouins. Later, he became a successful
merchant and decided to marry at 25. He was known for his honesty
in business and devotion to his family.
Muhammad often meditated on the moral ills of Meccan society,
including greed. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad
became a prophet at 40 when he was asked by an angel to become
God’s messenger. When he began teaching, a few listened, but
others opposed him with threats. In 622, he and his followers fled
Mecca for Yathrib, on a journey called the hijra. Later Yathrib was
called Medina. In Medina, thousands adopted Islam and formed
strong, peaceful communities. When Meccan leaders grew hostile,
Muslims defeated them in battle. Muhammad returned to Mecca in
630, where the Kaaba, which Muhammad dedicated to Allah,
became the holiest Islamic site. Muhammad died in 632.
The sacred text of Islam is the Quran, believed to be the direct
word of God as told to Muhammad. All Muslims study it to learn
about God’s will and living a good life.
Muslims believe that priests are not necessary to mediate
between people and God. Muslims gather in mosques to pray. They
follow the Five Pillars of Islam, which are the following duties:
declaring faith, praying five times daily, giving charity to the poor,
fasting during their holy month, and making the hajj, or pilgrimage
to Mecca, if a person is able. Another duty is jihad, which means to
struggle in God’s service.
Because Jews and Christians worship the same God and study
what are considered God’s earlier revelations, Muslims call them
“People of the Book.” In most cases, they have been allowed
religious freedom in Muslim societies.
The Sharia is a body of laws that interprets the Quran and
applies religious principles to legal situations. According to the
Quran, women are spiritually equal to men but have different roles.
In different places, Muslims interpret women’s roles and rights
differently. In some cases, Muslims adopted practices of conquered
peoples, such as requiring upper-class women to wear veils.

Lesson Vocabulary
hijra Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622
Quran sacred text of Islam
mosque Muslim house of worship
hajj one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the pilgrimage that all
Muslims are expected to make at least once in their lifetime
Sharia body of Islamic law that includes interpretation of the
Quran and applies Islamic principles to everyday life
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Lesson Summary
A MUSLIM EMPIRE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In 632, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, or successor to
Muhammad. He united all Arab tribes as Muslims. Once united, the
Arabs defeated the Persian empire and parts of the Byzantine
empire. However, a schism between Sunni and Shiite Muslims
occurred after Muhammad’s death, and still exists today.
Shiites believe that Muhammad’s successors must be descendants
of his son-in-law, Ali. They also should be religious leaders and
interpret the Quran. Sunnis believe that any pious male Muslim from
Muhammad’s tribe can lead without performing religious functions.
Today, about 90 percent of Muslims are Sunni. Both groups believe in
the same God, the Quran, and the Five Pillars of Islam, but they differ
in religious practices and laws. Sufis, who may be Sunni or Shiite,
meditate and fast to gain communion with God.
In the 700s, a powerful Meccan clan set up the Sunni Umayyad
caliphate. They directed conquests that extended Muslim rule from
Spain to the Indus River Valley. Their empire lasted until 750. The
Muslims brought many people under their rule. Muslim leaders
imposed a special tax on non-Muslims, but Jews, Christians, and
Zoroastrians could worship and some held important positions.
Many people converted to Islam.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
caliph successor to Muhammad as political and religious leader of
the Muslims
Sufi Muslim mystic who seeks communion with God through
meditation, fasting, and other rituals

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Lesson Summary
A MUSLIM EMPIRE (continued)

The Umayyads later faced economic tensions and opposition MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
from those who did not have the same privileges as Muslims. After
capturing Damascus in 750, with strong support from Shiites and
non-Arabs, Abu al-Abbas founded the Abbasid dynasty. The
Abbasids ended conquests and supported education and learning.
They enjoyed a golden age, with a more efficient government and a
beautiful new capital, Baghdad, in the former Persian empire.
Mosques with minarets, or slender towers, graced the cities, and
markets sold goods from far-off lands.
In Spain, one of the Umayyads established a separate state.
Muslims ruled parts of Spain until 1492. They were tolerant of other
religions, supported scholars, and constructed grand buildings.
As the empire declined, independent dynasties took power.
Seljuk Turks gained power, and their sultan, or ruler, controlled
Baghdad by 1055, keeping the Abbasid caliph as a figurehead.
Beginning in 1216, the Mongols attacked across southwest Asia. In
1258, they burned and looted Baghdad, ending the Abbasid dynasty.

Lesson Vocabulary
minaret slender tower of a mosque, from which Muslims are called
to prayer
sultan Muslim ruler

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Lesson Summary
ACHIEVEMENTS OF MUSLIM CIVILIZATION

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Muslim civilization enjoyed a golden age under the Abbasids. Their
empire stretched into Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
Merchants crossed the Sahara, traveled the Silk Road to China, and
sailed to India and Asia. New products and ideas were exchanged,
and the religion of Islam was introduced to many regions. All this
fueled the Muslim economy, leading to the development of
partnerships, the use of credit, and a banking system. Artisans
created manufactured goods for trade, and the government helped
improve farming through large irrigation systems.
Muslim society allowed some social mobility, the ability to
move up in social class through religious, scholarly, or military
achievements. Most slaves were household servants and some were
able to purchase their freedom. The children of some slaves could
become free under another system.
The diverse cultures in the empire, as well as Islam, influenced
art and literature. Early oral poetry told tales of nomadic life, while
later poets developed elaborate rules for poems. Great Muslim poets
include Firdawsi, who told the history of Persia, and Omar
Khayyám, who wrote about fate and life in The Rubáiyát. Storytellers
often used short anecdotes to entertain people. In architecture,
buildings reflected Byzantine influences, and mosques included
domes and minarets. Muslim artists also used calligraphy, the art of
beautiful handwriting, for decoration on buildings and in books.
Muslims made great strides in education. Both boys and girls
were educated so they could study the Quran. Several cities
supported learning centers with vast libraries. There, scholars
translated Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist texts. Known in Europe as
Averröes, the philosopher Ibn Rushd believed that knowledge
should meet the standards of reason. Another Muslim thinker, Ibn
Khaldun, studied history scientifically and advised others in ways to
avoid errors.
In mathematics, al-Khwarizmi pioneered the study of algebra.
Muhammad al-Razi, chief physician in the hospital at Baghdad,
wrote books on diseases and medical practices. Ibn Sina, a famous
Persian physician, compiled an encyclopedia of medical knowledge.
Both doctors’ works guided medical study in Europe for 500 years.
Other physicians improved ways to save eyesight and mix
medicines.

Lesson Vocabulary
social mobility the ability to move between social classes
calligraphy the art of producing beautiful handwriting

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Lesson Summary
THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES

The Ottomans were Turkish-speaking nomads who had expanded MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
into Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula by the 1300s. They were
successful in capturing Constantinople in 1453. The city was
renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman empire.
The Ottoman empire enjoyed a golden age under Suleiman, who
ruled from 1520 to 1566. He expanded the empire into Asia, Africa,
and Europe. Although he was defeated at Vienna in 1529, the empire
remained the largest and most powerful in Europe and the Middle
East for centuries. Suleiman had absolute power, but a council
helped him govern. He based the justice system on the Sharia, as
well as royal edicts.
The top two social classes in Ottoman society—military men and
intellectuals, such as scientists and lawyers—were nearly all
Muslims. Below them were men involved in trade and production,
and then farmers. All people belonged to religious communities,
which provided for education and legal matters. The Jewish
community, which had been expelled from Spain, possessed
international banking connections that benefited the Ottomans.
Ottomans converted some young Christian boys to Islam and
trained them for government service. Some were chosen for the
janizaries, an elite force of the Ottoman army. The brightest became
government officials.
Ottoman culture included great poets, painters, and architects.
However, after Suleiman’s death, the empire declined. By the 1700s,
it had lost control of areas in Europe and Africa.
By the early 1500s, the Safavids united an empire in Persia
(modern Iran). They were Shiite Muslims who fought with Sunni
Ottomans to the west and the Mughals in India to the east. Their
greatest king, or shah, was Shah Abbas who ruled from 1588 to 1629.
He created a strong military and developed military alliances with
Europeans. Abbas lowered taxes and encouraged industry. He
tolerated other religions and built a capital at Isfahan, which became
a center for silk trading.
After Abbas’s death, the empire suffered from religious disputes
until its end in 1722. In the late 1700s, a new dynasty, the Qajars,
won control of Iran, made Tehran the capital, and ruled until 1925.

Lesson Vocabulary
janizary a member of the elite forces of the Ottoman army
shah king

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF AFRICA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Africa includes tropical rain forests, grassy plains called savannas,
and deserts such as the vast Sahara. Deserts, rain forests, the interior
plateau, and rivers with cataracts, or waterfalls, limited travel and
trade. On the other hand, an interior valley and the Mediterranean
and Red seas provided overseas trade routes to Asia and Europe. By
A.D. 200, camel caravans helped transport goods across the Sahara.
Valuable minerals also encouraged trade.
Before 2500 B.C., there were grasslands and savanna in the
Sahara. Due to climate change, however, the area slowly dried up
and became desert—a process called desertification. As a result,
people migrated to find new farmland. Between 1000 B.C. and
A.D. 1000, people from West Africa moved south and east. They
spoke Bantu languages. These Bantu peoples merged with existing
peoples and brought skills in farming and ironworking.
About 2700 B.C., the civilization of Nubia, or Kush, developed on
the upper Nile. Egypt controlled Nubia for about 500 years
beginning in 1500 B.C. Early Nubian culture was influenced by
Egyptian architecture and religion.
Forced to move by Assyrian invaders, the Nubians established a
new capital in Meroë about 500 B.C. Meroë developed into a
successful trade center. Nearby areas were rich in iron ore and
timber. Using wood to fuel smelting furnaces, the Nubians made
iron tools and weapons, improving their defense. The Nubians also
established a new religion and a system of writing. In A.D. 350,
Nubia was conquered by an invader from the south, King Ezana of
Axum.
While Nubia was thriving along the Nile, Carthage emerged
along the Mediterranean in North Africa. Founded by Phoenician
traders, Carthage forged a huge empire from 800 B.C. to 146 B.C. At
the end of the Third Punic War, however, Rome destroyed Carthage.
The Romans then utilized North Africa’s farmlands to provide grain
for their armies. They also built roads and cities, and later brought
Christianity to the area.
Muslim Arabs took control of North Africa in the 690s. Islam
replaced Christianity, and traders later carried the religion to West
Africa. Arabic replaced Latin as North Africa’s main language.

Lesson Vocabulary
savanna grassy plain with irregular patterns of rainfall
cataract waterfall
desertification process by which fertile or semi-desert land
becomes desert

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Lesson Summary
KINGDOMS OF WEST AFRICA

After early farmers moved from the Sahara to more fertile lands to MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
the south, they began to produce more food than they needed, or a
surplus. They were then able to trade surplus food for goods from
other villages. A trade network developed that eventually connected
Africa with Asia and Europe. Cities developed along the trade
routes.
Much of the trade exchanged gold for salt, each a valuable
product or commodity. Gold was common in West Africa, while salt
was plentiful in the Sahara. People needed salt to stay healthy and
preserve food. In fact, traders might exchange one pound of salt for
one pound of gold.
In about A.D. 800, the ancient West African kingdom of Ghana
became a center of trade. From there, the king controlled the salt and
gold trade. In addition, the king administered justice and other
government activities, and kept the peace. Ghana was very
prosperous and attracted Muslims from the north. They brought
new ideas about military technology and business. Later, Ghana was
swallowed up by a new power, the rising kingdom of Mali.
About 1235, Sundiata established the empire of Mali. He gained
control of trade routes, the gold mining regions, and the salt
supplies. Mansa Musa, Mali’s greatest ruler, came to power in about
1312. He fostered justice and religious freedom. His pilgrimage to
Mecca created ties to Muslim states and brought Islamic scholars to
Mali to provide religious instruction.
After Mali weakened, another kingdom, Songhai, developed in
West Africa. After 1492, Songhai’s emperor Askia Muhammad
established a Muslim dynasty, expanded the territory, and improved
the government. He strengthened ties to other Muslim states and
built mosques and schools. However, internal conflicts weakened
the empire, which was conquered by the sultan of Morocco around
1591.
Smaller societies, such as Benin, also flourished in the region
from A.D. 500 to 1500. In the rain forests of the Guinea coast in the
1300s, the people of Benin built farming villages. They also traded
pepper, ivory, and slaves to neighbors. At the same time, the Hausa
built clay-walled cities. These cities grew into commercial centers,
where artisans produced goods, and merchants traded with Arabs.
Many Hausa rulers were women.

Lesson Vocabulary
surplus an amount that is more than needed; excess
commodity valuable product

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Lesson Summary
TRADING STATES OF EAST AFRICA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES After 100 B.C., the kingdom of Axum spread from the Ethiopian
highlands to the Red Sea coast. Axum included the upland capital
city of Axum and the port of Adulis on the Red Sea. The peoples of
Axum were descended from African farmers and people from the
Middle East. By about A.D. 400, Axum controlled a rich trade
network connecting Africa, India, and the Mediterranean. Traders
exchanged many cultural influences in their travels.
Axum became a Christian kingdom in the 300s. At first, this
helped strengthen trade ties with other Christian countries. When
Islam began spreading across North Africa in the 600s, however,
Axum became isolated and lost power. Civil war and economic
decline combined to weaken Axum.
Axum’s legacy, however, survived for centuries in a portion of
present-day Ethiopia. There, Christianity was a unifying influence
that helped give Ethiopia a unique identity among Muslim
neighbors. A distinct culture developed in Ethiopia. In the 1200s,
under King Lalibela, Christian churches were carved below ground
into mountain rocks. Ethiopian Christianity absorbed local customs.
After Axum declined, Arab and Persian traders established
Muslim communities along the East African coast. By the 600s, ships
regularly took advantage of monsoon winds to sail to India and
back, and the cities in East Africa grew wealthy by trading goods
with Africa, Southeast Asia, and China. The cities were independent,
and although they competed for power, relations among them were
generally peaceful. By the 1000s, the mixture of cultures created
unique architecture, as well as a new language and culture, both
called Swahili. The language was Bantu-based, using some Arabic
words and written in Arabic.
Great Zimbabwe, the capital of a great inland Zimbabwe
empire, was built by a succession of Bantu-speaking peoples
between 900 and 1500. It reached its height around 1300. The city
included great stone buildings, and its people mined gold and
traded goods across the Indian Ocean. By the 1500s, the empire of
Zimbabwe was in decline. Later, Portuguese traders tried, but failed,
to find the region’s source of gold.

Lesson Vocabulary
Swahili an East African culture that emerged in about A.D. 1000;
also a Bantu-based language, blending Arabic words and written in
Arabic script

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Lesson Summary
DIVERSE PEOPLES AND TRADITIONS IN AFRICA

In small societies in medieval Africa, the nuclear family, or one set MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
of parents and their children, lived and worked together. In other
societies, the family included several generations. Patrilineal
families passed inheritances through the father’s side of the family,
while matrilineal families passed property down through the
mother’s side. Each family belonged to a lineage, a group of
households with a common ancestor, and a clan included several
lineages descended from a common ancestor.
Political patterns depended on the size and culture of a
community. In small societies, political power was often shared among
a number of people. Village decisions were often made by consensus,
or general agreement, after open discussions. Because elders had
experience, their opinions usually carried the greatest weight. Women
sometimes took strong roles in the marketplace or as peacemakers.
Large empires usually required villages to obey decisions made by
distant rulers and their courts. Another form of government that
developed grouped many villages into districts and provinces governed
by the king’s officials. Around A.D. 1500, Kongo, a kingdom in central
Africa, governed in this way. The king had limited powers. Villagers were
governed by appointed royal officials, but each village had its own chief.
Early African religions were varied and complex. They involved
many gods, goddesses, rituals, and ceremonies. Many people
believed in one supreme being, and some honored the spirits of
ancestors. By A.D. 1000, Christianity and Islam had spread and
absorbed many local practices and beliefs.
The tradition of African arts includes the Egyptian pyramids, built
4,000 years ago. Much art served decorative, religious, or ceremonial
purposes, such as cloths, pottery, and jewelry. Objects often had
symbolic meanings, such as the bright blue-and-gold kente cloth of
West Africa, which was reserved for the wealthy and powerful.
Medieval written histories from Africa provide records of laws,
religion, and society. Arabic provided a common written language
in Muslim areas, and Muslim scholars gathered in important cities.
In West Africa, griots, or professional storytellers, kept traditions
alive by reciting ancient stories and histories. Folktales and other
stories encouraged a sense of community and common values.

Lesson Vocabulary
nuclear family family unit consisting of parents and children
patrilineal kinship ties that are passed on through the father’s side
of the family
matrilineal kinship ties that are passed on through the mother’s
side of the family
lineage a group claiming a common ancestor
consensus widespread agreement among all members of a group
griot professional storyteller in early West Africa
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Review Questions
2 THE MUSLIM WORLD AND AFRICA (730 B . C .– A . D . 1500)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: The Origins of Islam

1. What is the Quran?

2. Why do Muslims call Jews and Christians “People of the Book”?

Lesson 2: A Muslim Empire

3. What are the differences between Shiite and Sunni beliefs?

4. What two groups took power from the Abbasid dynasty?

Lesson 3: Achievements of Muslim Civilization

5. How did trade affect the Abbasid empire?

6. How did Muslim poetry change during this time?

Lesson 4: The Ottoman and Safavid Empires

7. What social classes existed in the Ottoman empire?

8. What religious difference existed between the Ottoman and Safavid empires?

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2 47 THE MUSLIM WORLD AND AFRICA (730 B . C .– A . D . 1500) (continued)

Lesson 5: Early Civilizations of Africa

9. How did the Bantu migrations affect existing cultures?

10. How did Meroë’s resources strengthen Nubia?

Lesson 6: Kingdoms of West Africa

11. The king of Ghana controlled the trade of which two commodities?

12. What were Mansa Musa’s contributions to Mali?

Lesson 7: Trading States of East Africa

13. How did the spread of Islam in North Africa affect the Axum empire?

14. How did Axum’s decline affect trade in East Africa?

Lesson 8: Diverse Peoples and Traditions in Africa

15. What are a lineage and a clan?

16. How did the rulers of the Kongo control their lands?

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HAPTER

1 Note Taking Study Guide

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ECTION 1
48 CIVILIZATIONS
MANY CULTURES OFMEET
ASIA (500–1650)

Focus Question: How did the civilizations of China and India influence
their neighbors in Asia and Southeast Asia?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer by
listing some features of each area's culture to help you understand the influences these
countries or regions had on each other.
S.E. Asia

Japan
India

•
•

Korea
China

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Lesson Summary
THE DELI SULTANATE AND MUGHAL INDIA

After 550, rival princes fought for control of India. Around 1000, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Muslim armies moved in. Muslim attacks included onslaughts that
killed many Hindus and destroyed Buddhist temples. Muslims
triumphed due to military superiority, rivalries among Hindu
princes, and the many Hindus who converted to Islam. By the 1100s,
a sultan controlled northern India. From the capital in Delhi, the
Delhi sultanate ruled from 1206 to 1526.
Muslim rulers reorganized Indian government and increased
trade. During the Mongol raids of the 1200s, scholars fled from
Baghdad to India, bringing Persian and Greek learning with them.
These newcomers helped turn Delhi into a place where art and
architecture flourished. However, in 1389, Mongols attacked Delhi,
destroying much of its culture.
The Muslim advance brought two very different religious
groups—Hindus and Muslims—face to face. Muslims worshiped a
single god, while Hindus prayed to many. Hindus accepted the caste
system, while Islam promoted equality.
Gradually, the cultures blended. Hindus were allowed to
practice their religion, and some rajahs, or local Hindu rulers,
continued governing. Many Hindus converted to Islam because it
rejected the caste system. Muslims followed some Hindu customs
and ideas. A new language, called Urdu, blended Arabic, Persian,
and the Indian language spoken in Delhi. A new religion, Sikhism,
emerged. It taught that there was one God for all people and that all
people were equal regardless of race, gender, social status, or
religious beliefs.
In 1526, Babur led Turkish and Mongol armies into northern
India to establish the Mughal dynasty, which would last until 1857.
Babur’s grandson, Akbar, known as Akbar the Great, ruled from
1556 to 1605. He established a strong central government that had
paid officials; he also modernized the army and encouraged
international trade. He allowed Hindus to work in government and
promoted peace through religious tolerance.
After Akbar’s death, his son’s wife, Nur Jahan, managed the
government skillfully. She was the most powerful woman in Indian
history until the twentieth century. Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan,
ruled when Mughal literature, art, and architecture were at their
height. He built the Taj Mahal, a tomb for his wife. It is a spectacular
building and a great monument of the Mughal empire.

Lesson Vocabulary
sultan Muslim ruler
rajah in ancient India, an elected warrior chief of an Aryan tribe

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Lesson Summary
GOLDEN AGES IN CHINA: TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES After the Han dynasty collapsed, China broke apart. During the Sui
dynasty (589–618), the emperor Sui Wendi reunited north and south.
In 618, the general Li Yuan and his son Li Shimin led a revolt and
established the Tang dynasty. Eight years later, Li Shimin compelled
his aging father to step down. Li Shimin then took the throne under
the name Tang Taizong. Later Tang rulers conquered many
territories and forced Vietnam, Tibet, and Korea to become tributary
states, or self-governing states that sent tribute. Other Tang rulers,
such as Empress Wu Zhao, restored the Han system of uniform
government. Tang emperors also undertook land reform in which
they redistributed land to peasants. However, the Tang dynasty
eventually weakened. In 907, the last Tang emperor was overthrown.
In 960, Zhao Kuangyin founded the Song dynasty. The Song
ruled for 319 years. They faced the constant threat of invaders from
the north. Nonetheless, the Song period was a time of great
achievement. A new type of faster-growing rice was imported from
Southeast Asia. The rise in productivity created food surpluses,
freeing more people to pursue commerce, learning, or the arts.
Under the Tang and Song, China was a well-ordered society. At
its head was the emperor. Scholar-officials had the highest social
status. Most of them came from the gentry, or wealthy, landowning
class. The vast majority of Chinese were poor peasant farmers.
Merchants had the lowest status because their riches came from the
labor of others. Women had higher status during this period than
they did later. However, when a woman married, she could not
keep her dowry, the payment that a woman brings to a marriage.
She could also never remarry.
The Tang and Song developed a rich culture. Song landscape
painting was influenced by Daoist beliefs. Buddhist themes
influenced Chinese sculpture and architecture. The Indian stupa
evolved into the Chinese pagoda. The Chinese also perfected the
making of porcelain. Among the gentry, poetry was the most
respected form of literature. Probably the greatest Tang poet was Li
Bo, who wrote some 2,000 poems.

Lesson Vocabulary
tributary state independent state that has to acknowledge the
supremacy of another state and pay tribute to its ruler
land reform a break-up of large agricultural holdings for
redistribution among peasants
gentry wealthy, landowning class
dowry in some societies, payment a bride’s family makes to the
bridegroom and his family; payment a woman brings to a marriage
pagoda multi-storied Buddhist temple with eaves that curve up at
the corners

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Lesson Summary
THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND MING CHINA

The Mongols were nomads who grazed their animals on the steppes, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
or treeless plains, of Central Asia. Mongol clans spent much of their
time warring with one another. In the early 1200s, however, a Mongol
chieftain united these clans. He took the name Genghis Khan, meaning
“Universal Ruler.” Under his leadership, Mongol forces conquered a
vast empire. After his death, his heirs continued to expand the Mongol
empire. For the next 150 years, they dominated much of Asia. The
Mongols established peace and order within their domains. They
controlled and protected the Silk Road, and trade flourished.
Genghis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan, toppled the last Song
emperor in China in 1279. He named his dynasty the Yuan. Only
Mongols could serve in his military and in the highest government
jobs, but he allowed Chinese officials to continue to rule in the
provinces. He welcomed many foreigners to his court, including Ibn
Battuta and Marco Polo. Polo’s writings about the wealth and
splendor of China sparked European interest in Asia. Chinese
products, including gunpowder and porcelain, made their way to
Europe.
The Yuan dynasty declined after Kublai Khan’s death in 1294.
Finally, Zhu Yuanzhang formed a rebel army that toppled the
Mongols. In 1368, he founded the Ming, or “brilliant,” dynasty.
Ming China was immensely productive. Better methods of
fertilizing improved farming. The Ming repaired the canal system,
which made trade easier and allowed cities to grow.
The Ming carefully limited trade with Europeans. By accepting
only silver or gold in exchange for goods in high demand in Europe,
such as silk, tea, and porcelain, the Ming caused a massive flow of
precious metals into China.
The arts and literature also flourished in Ming China. Ming
artists developed their own styles of painting and created beautiful
blue-and-white porcelain. Ming writers composed novels and the
world’s first detective stories.
Mathematicians during the Ming period turned to popular
and practical application. The use of the abacus, a much earlier
invention for making calculations, now spread swiftly within and
beyond China.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
steppe sparse, dry, treeless plain
abacus a device used for counting and calculating by sliding small
balls or beads along rods or in grooves

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Lesson Summary
THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND MING CHINA (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Many Ming scholars sought to integrate their own traditions
with the Western science and technology they were learning from
Jesuit missionaries. In 1629, Xu Guangqi led an imperial research
program to reform the inaccurate Chinese calendar. Assisted by
Jesuits, Chinese scholars used Western ideas and technology,
including telescopes, to make observations of the heavenly bodies.
Early Ming rulers sent Chinese fleets into distant waters to show
the glory of their empire. The most famous voyages were those of
Zheng He. Between 1405 and 1433, he commanded seven
expeditions that explored the coasts of Southeast Asia, India, the
Persian Gulf, and East Africa. However, after Zheng He died in
1435, the Ming emperor banned the building of seagoing ships, and
overseas expeditions came to a halt. Historians are not sure why.

Lesson Vocabulary
expedition voyage to explore unknown lands

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
KOREA AND ITS TRADITIONS

Korea is located on a peninsula that juts south from the Chinese MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
mainland. Because of its location, Korea has been strongly
influenced by China. The earliest Koreans probably migrated from
Siberia and northern Manchuria. They evolved their own ways of
life before they were influenced by China. In 108 B.C., the Han
emperor, Wudi, invaded Korea. The invasion brought with it
Confucian traditions and Chinese ideas.
Between A.D. 100 and 668, local rulers forged three kingdoms in
Korea: Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla. The three kingdoms often
warred with one another or with China. Still, Chinese ideas
continued to spread there. Missionaries brought Buddhism to Korea.
Korean monks then traveled to China and brought home Chinese
arts and learning. In 668, the Silla kingdom united the Korean
peninsula. Under the Silla dynasty, Korea became a tributary state of
China. As Chinese influence increased, Confucian views took root.
However, Koreans adapted Confucian ideas to fit their own
traditions.
The Koryo dynasty replaced the Silla in 935. Confucianism and
Buddhism were both influential during this time. Koreans used
woodblock printing from China to produce Buddhist texts. They
learned to make Chinese porcelain. They then perfected the
technique for making celadon, a porcelain with an unusual blue-
green glaze.
The Mongols first invaded Korea in 1231 and occupied the
country until the 1350s. When their rule collapsed, the Koryo
returned to power. However, in the late 1300s the Korean general Yi
Song-gye overthrew them and set up the Choson dynasty. This was
the longest-lasting, but final, Korean dynasty.
In 1443, King Sejong decided to replace complex Chinese
writing. Sejong had experts develop hangul, the Korean phonetic
alphabet. Hangul spread quickly because it was easier to use than
written Chinese. Its use led to an extremely high literacy rate.
In the 1590s, the Japanese armies invaded Korea. To stop the
invaders at sea, Korean Admiral Yi Sun-shin sailed armored ships
into the Japanese fleet. Eventually, the Japanese armies withdrew
from Korea. As they left, they carried off many Korean artisans in
order to introduce their skills to Japan.

Lesson Vocabulary
celadon porcelain made in Korea with an unusual blue-green glaze
hangul alphabet that uses symbols to represent the sounds of
spoken Korean
literacy rate percentage of people who can read and write

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE ISLAND KINGDOM OF JAPAN

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Japan felt the influence of Chinese civilization early in its history yet
continued to maintain its own distinct culture. Japan sits on an
archipelago, or chain of islands. In early times, surrounding seas
both protected and isolated Japan. This region has many volcanoes,
earthquakes, and tidal waves called tsunamis.
Early Japanese society was divided into clans. The clans honored
kami, or powers that were natural or divine. The worship of these
forces of nature became known as Shinto. Missionaries from Korea
introduced Buddhism to Japan in the 500s. They also brought
knowledge of Chinese culture. In the 600s, Prince Shotoku sent
nobles to study in China. The visitors brought back Chinese
technology and arts. In 710, the Japanese emperor built a new capital
at Nara, modeled after the Chinese capital.
The Japanese kept some Chinese ways but discarded others. This
process is known as selective borrowing. The Japanese revised the
Chinese writing system and added kana, symbols representing
syllables. From 794 to 1185, Heian was the Japanese capital. Heian
women, such as Murasaki Shikibu, produced some of the most
important works of Japanese literature.
Japan evolved into a feudal society. Theoretically, the emperor
was the head of this society, but really he was powerless. The
shogun, or supreme military commander, had the real power.
Minamoto Yoritomo was appointed shogun in 1192. He set up the
Kamakura shogunate. The shogun distributed land to lords, called
daimyo, who agreed to support him with their armies. They, in turn,
granted land to lesser warriors called samurai. Samurai developed a
code of values, known as bushido or the “way of the warrior.” The
code emphasized honor, bravery, and loyalty to one’s lord.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
tsunami a very large wave caused by an earthquake or very strong
wind
selective borrowing adopting or adapting some cultural traits but
discarding others
kana in the Japanese writing system, phonetic symbols
representing syllables
samurai member of the warrior class in Japanese feudal society
bushido code of conduct for samurai during the feudal period
in Japan

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Lesson Summary
THE ISLAND KINGDOM OF JAPAN (continued)

The Mongol conquest of China and Korea threatened Japan. Kublai MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Khan tried to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281, but typhoons wrecked
the Mongol ships during both invasions. However, after the attempted
invasions, the Kamakura shogunate crumbled. By 1590, Toyotomi
Hideyoshi had brought most of Japan under his control. In 1600,
Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated his rivals to become master of Japan. The
Tokugawa shoguns created an orderly society. With peace restored to
the countryside, agriculture improved and trade flourished.
During Japan’s feudal age, a Buddhist sect known as Zen won
widespread acceptance. Zen monks were great scholars, yet they
stressed the importance of reaching a moment of “non-knowing.”

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Lesson Summary
THE MANY CULTURES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Southeast Asia is made up of two regions: mainland Southeast Asia,
which includes present-day Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam, and Malaysia; and island Southeast Asia, which consists of
more than 20,000 islands. These islands include the present-day
nations of Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippines.
Historically, sea trade between China and India had to pass through
the Malacca or Sunda straits, so the islands that controlled these
straits were strategically important. Women took part in the spice
trade and had greater equality there than they did elsewhere in Asia.
Matrilineal descent, or inheritance through the mother, was an
accepted custom in this region.
In the early centuries A.D., Indian merchants and Hindu priests
slowly spread their culture through Southeast Asia. Later, monks
introduced Theravada Buddhism. Indian traders eventually carried
Islam to Indonesia, and as far east as the Philippines. Trade with
India brought prosperity. Merchants exchanged cotton cloth, jewels,
and perfume for timber, spices, and gold.
A series of kingdoms and empires developed in Southeast Asia.
The kingdom of Pagan arose in present-day Myanmar. In 1044, King
Anawrahta united the region and brought Buddhism to his people.
He filled his capital city with magnificent stupas, or dome-shaped
shrines.
Indian influences also shaped the Khmer empire, which reached
its peak between 800 and 1350. Its greatest rulers controlled much of
present-day Cambodia, Thailand, and Malaysia. A crowning
achievement was the building of the temple at Angkor Wat by King
Suryvarman II. Khmer rulers became Hindus, but most people were
Buddhists.
In Indonesia, the trading empire of Srivijaya flourished from the
600s to the 1200s. Both Hinduism and Buddhism reached Srivijaya.
The heart of northern Vietnam was the Red River delta. There, the
river irrigated fertile rice paddies. In 111 B.C., Han armies
conquered the region, and China remained in control for the next
1,000 years. During that time, the Vietnamese absorbed Confucian
ideas. Unlike the rest of Southeast Asia, where Theravada Buddhism
had the strongest impact, Vietnam adopted Mahayana Buddhism
from China. In A.D. 39, two noble sisters, Trung Trac and Trung Nhi,
led an uprising that briefly drove out the Chinese. Finally, in 939,
Vietnam was able to break free from China.

Lesson Vocabulary
stupa large, domelike Buddhist shrine

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Review Questions
3 CIVILIZATIONS OF ASIA (500–1650)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: The Deli Sultanate and Mughal India

1. What were Nur Jahan’s contributions to the Mughal empire?

2. Identify Supporting Details Record details that support this statement: In India,
the Hindu and Muslim cultures blended.

Lesson 2: Golden Ages in China: Tang and Song Dynasties

3. What are tributary states?

4. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the social classes in Tang and Song
China.

Lesson 3 The Mongol Empire and Ming China

5. Why did trade flourish under the Mongols?

6. Recognize Sequence List in correct chronological order the three Chinese

dynasties mentioned in the Summary.

Lesson 4: Korea and Its Traditions

7. What is hangul?

8. Categorize List events and developments during each of the three Korean
dynasties

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Review Questions
3 58 CIVILIZATIONS OF ASIA (500–1650) (continued)

Lesson 5: The Island Kingdom of Japan

9. Categorize List the levels in Japanese feudal society and give details about each
level.

10. How did the shogun gain the support of the daimyo?

Lesson 6: The Many Cultures of Southeast Asia

11. Summarize Summarize the influence of India on Southeast Asia.

12. What is matrilineal descent?

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1 Note Taking Study Guide

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ECTION 1
59 THE
PHILOSOPHY
RENAISSANCE
IN THEAND
AGEREFORMATION
OF REASON (1300–1650)

Focus Question: What ideas of the Renaissance both influenced and

were carried forth through the Reformation?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to identify examples of Renaissance thought that both led to the Reformation and were
important aspects of the Reformation.

Cause Effect
Renaissance Idea or Practice Reformation Idea or Practice
Humanism’s emphasis on individual Each individual can interpret Scripture
achievement for him- or herself

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Lesson Summary
THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES A new age called the Renaissance, meaning “rebirth,” marked a
great change in culture, politics, society, and economics. In Italy, it
began in the 1300s and reached its peak around 1500. Instead of
focusing on religion, as in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance
explored the human experience. At the same time, there was a new
emphasis on individual achievement. At the heart of the Renaissance
was an intellectual movement called humanism. Renaissance
humanists studied the classical cultures of Greece and Rome to try
to better understand their own times. They emphasized the
humanities—subjects such as rhetoric, poetry, and history.
Poet Francesco Petrarch was an early Renaissance humanist. He
gathered a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts. This opened
the works of Cicero, Homer, and Virgil to Western Europeans. Italy
was the birthplace of the Renaissance for many reasons. It had been
the center of the Roman empire; remains of that ancient culture were
all around. Rome was also the seat of the Roman Catholic Church,
an important patron of the arts. Furthermore, Italy’s location
encouraged trade with markets on the Mediterranean, in Africa, and
in Europe. Trade provided the wealth that fueled the Renaissance. In
Italy’s city-states, powerful merchant families, such as the Medici
family of Florence, lent political and economic leadership and
supported the arts.
Renaissance art reflected humanism. Renaissance painters returned
to the realism of classical times by developing improved ways to
represent humans and landscapes. For example, the discovery of
perspective allowed artists to create realistic art and to paint scenes
that appeared three-dimensional. The greatest of the Renaissance
artists were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.
Some Italian writers wrote guidebooks to help ambitious people
who wanted to rise in the Renaissance world. The most widely read
of these was The Book of the Courtier, by Baldassare Castiglione.
His ideal courtier was a well-educated, well-mannered aristocrat
who mastered many fields. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote a guide for
rulers, titled The Prince, on how to gain and maintain power.

Lesson Vocabulary
humanism an intellectual movement at the heart of the Renaissance
that focused on education and the classics
humanist someone who studies subjects such as grammar, rhetoric,
poetry, and history that were taught in ancient Greece and Rome
patron a person who provides financial support for the arts
perspective artistic technique used to give paintings and drawings
a three-dimensional effect

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Lesson Summary
THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE

By the 1400s, northern Europe began to enjoy the economic growth MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
needed to develop its own Renaissance. An astounding invention—
the printing press—helped to spread Renaissance ideas. In about
1455, Johann Gutenberg printed the first complete edition of the
Bible using the new printing press. The printing press caused a
printing revolution. Before, books were made by hand. They were
rare and expensive. Printed books were cheaper and easier to
produce. Now more books were available, so more people learned to
read. Printed books exposed Europeans to new ideas and new
places.
The northern Renaissance began in the prosperous cities of
Flanders, a thriving center of trade. Flemish painters pursued
realism in their art. One of the most important Flemish painters was
Jan van Eyck. He portrayed townspeople and religious scenes in rich
detail. Pieter Bruegel used vibrant color to portray lively scenes of
peasant life. Peter Paul Rubens blended the tradition of Flemish
realism with themes from mythology, the Bible, and history. German
painter Albrecht Dürer traveled to Italy to study the techniques of
the Italian masters. He soon became a pioneer in spreading
Renaissance ideas to northern Europe. Dürer applied the painting
techniques he learned in Italy to engraving. Many of his engravings
and paintings portray the theme of religious upheaval.
Northern European humanists and writers also helped spread
Renaissance ideas. The Dutch priest and humanist Desiderius
Erasmus called for a translation of the Bible into the vernacular so it
could be read by a wider audience. The English humanist Sir
Thomas More called for social reform in the form of a utopian, or
ideal, society in which people live together in peace and harmony.
The towering figure of Renaissance literature, however, was the
English poet and playwright William Shakespeare. His 37 plays are
still performed around the world. Shakespeare’s genius was in
expressing universal themes, such as the complexity of the
individual, in everyday, realistic settings. He used language that
people understand and enjoy. Shakespeare’s love of words also
enriched the English language with 1,700 new words.

Lesson Vocabulary
engraving art form in which an artist etches a design on a metal
plate with acid and then uses the plate to make multiple prints
vernacular everyday language of the native people
utopian idealistic or visionary, usually used to describe a perfect
society

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Lesson Summary
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the 1500s, the Renaissance in northern Europe sparked a religious
upheaval that affected Christians at all levels of society. This
movement is known as the Protestant Reformation. In the late
Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had become caught up in worldly
affairs. Popes led lavish lives and hired artists to enhance churches.
To finance such projects, the Church increased fees for services.
Many Christians protested such acts. They also questioned why the
Church in distant Rome should have power over their lives.
In 1517, protests against Church abuses turned into a revolt. A
German monk named Martin Luther triggered it over an event in
Wittenberg, Germany. There, a priest sold indulgences to Christians
to raise money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. To Luther,
the priest’s actions were the final outrage. He wrote 95 Theses, or
arguments, against indulgences. He said that they had no biblical
basis, that the pope did not have the authority to release souls from
purgatory, and that Christians could be saved only through faith.
Throughout Europe, Luther’s 95 Theses stirred furious debate. The
new Holy Roman emperor, Charles V, summoned Luther to the diet,
or assembly, at the city of Worms. Luther refused to change his
views. Thousands hailed Luther as a hero and renounced the
authority of the pope. At the heart of Luther’s doctrines were several
beliefs, including the idea that all Christians have equal access to
God through faith and the Bible. Printing presses spread Luther’s
writings and ideas throughout Germany and Scandinavia. By 1530,
Luther’s many followers were using a new name, “Protestants,” for
those who “protested” papal authority.
In Switzerland, the reformer John Calvin also challenged the
Catholic Church. Calvin shared many of Luther’s beliefs but also
preached predestination. Protestants in Geneva asked Calvin to lead
them. In keeping with his teachings, Calvin set up a theocracy.
Reformers from all over Europe visited Geneva and then returned
home to spread Calvin’s ideas. This new challenge to the Roman
Catholic Church set off fierce wars of religion across Europe. In the
1600s, English Calvinists sailed to America to escape persecution.

Lesson Vocabulary
indulgence in the Roman Catholic Church, pardon for sins
committed during a person's lifetime
diet assembly or legislature
predestination Calvinist belief that God long ago determined who
would gain salvation
theocracy government run by religious leadersr

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REFORMATION IDEAS SPREAD

As the Reformation continued, hundreds of new Protestant sects MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
arose, influencing Protestant thinking in many countries. In
England, the break with the Catholic Church came from Henry VIII.
He and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one child, Mary Tudor.
Henry wanted to divorce Catherine and marry another woman
whom he hoped would bear him a male heir. However, the pope
refused to annul Henry’s marriage. Furious, Henry had Parliament
pass laws to take the English church from the pope’s control. Henry
appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop of the new English church.
Cranmer annulled the king’s marriage. In 1534, Parliament passed
the Act of Supremacy, making Henry the head of the Church of
England.
Many Catholics, including Sir Thomas More, refused to accept
the Act of Supremacy and were executed. The Catholic Church later
canonized More for his stand against Henry. When Henry died in
1547, his son Edward VI inherited the throne. Under Edward,
Parliament passed laws bringing more Protestant reforms to
England. When Edward died, his half-sister Mary Tudor, a Catholic,
became queen. She wanted to return England to the Catholic faith.
Hundreds of English Protestants were burned at the stake.
On Mary’s death in 1558, the throne passed to her half-sister,
Elizabeth. She made reforms that became known as the Elizabethan
settlement—a compromise between Protestant and Catholic
practices. Elizabeth restored unity to England; she kept many
Catholic traditions but made England a Protestant nation.
As the Protestant Reformation swept northern Europe, the
Catholic Church began a Counter-Reformation. The pope’s Council
of Trent reaffirmed Catholic beliefs that Protestants had challenged.
Ignatius of Loyola founded a new religious order, the Jesuits. They
followed a rigorous program of strict discipline, thorough religious
training, and absolute obedience to the Church. Teresa of Avila
established her own order of nuns dedicated to prayer and
meditation. Both Catholics and Protestants fostered intolerance and
persecuted radical sects. Innocent people were executed for
witchcraft. In Venice, Jews were pressured to convert and forced to
live in a separate part of the city called the ghetto.

Lesson Vocabulary
sect subgroup of a major religious group
canonize recognize a person as a saint
compromise an agreement in which each side makes concessions;
an acceptable middle ground
ghetto separate section of a city where members of a minority
group are forced to live

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Lesson Summary
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the mid-1500s, a big shift in scientific thinking caused the
Scientific Revolution. At the heart of this movement was the idea
that mathematical laws governed nature and the universe. Before
the Renaissance, Europeans thought that Earth was the center of
everything in the heavens. In 1543, Polish scholar Nicolaus
Copernicus proposed a heliocentric, or sun-centered, model of the
solar system. In the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
provided evidence that supported Copernicus’s theory. The German
astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler used Brahe’s data
to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. His
calculations also supported Copernicus’s heliocentric view.
Scientists from different lands built on the foundations laid by
Copernicus and Kepler. In Italy, Galileo assembled a telescope and
observed that the four moons of Jupiter move slowly around that
planet. He realized that these moons moved the same way that
Copernicus had said that Earth moves around the sun. Galileo’s
findings caused an uproar. Other scholars attacked him because his
observations contradicted ancient views about the world. The Church
condemned him because his ideas challenged the Christian teaching
that the heavenly bodies were fixed in relation to Earth, and perfect.
Despite the opposition of the Church, a new approach to science
had emerged, based upon observation and experimentation. To
explain their data, scientists used reasoning to propose a logical
hypothesis, or possible explanation. This process became known as
the scientific method. The new scientific method was a revolution in
thought. Two giants of this revolution were the Englishman Francis
Bacon and the Frenchman René Descartes. Both were devoted to
understanding how truth is determined, but they differed in their
approaches. Bacon stressed experimentation and observation.
Descartes focused on reasoning.
The 1500s and 1600s saw dramatic changes in many branches of
science. English chemist Robert Boyle explained that matter is
composed of particles that behave in knowable ways. Isaac Newton
used mathematics to show that a single force keeps the planets in their
orbits around the sun. He called this force gravity. To help explain his
laws, Newton developed a branch of mathematics called calculus.

Lesson Vocabulary
heliocentric based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe
hypothesis an unproved theory accepted for the purpose of
explaining certain facts or to provide a basis for further investigations
scientific method careful, step-by-step process used to confirm
findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis
gravity force that pulls objects in Earth’s sphere to the center of Earth
calculus a branch of mathematics in which calculations are made
using special symbolic notations, developed by Isaac Newton
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Review Questions
4 THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION (1300–1650)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: The Italian Renaissance

1. What was significant about the discovery of perspective?

2. Identify Main Ideas Identify three of the main characteristics of the Renaissance.

Lesson 2: The Renaissance in Northern Europe

3. What changes did the invention of the printing press bring about?

4. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the northern European humanists
Desiderius Erasmus and Sir Thomas More.

Lesson 3: The Protestant Reformation

5. What factors encouraged the Protestant Reformation?

6. Identify Main Ideas What was one of the main beliefs at the heart of Luther’s doctrines?

Lesson 4: Reformation Ideas Spread

7. What caused Henry VIII to break with the Catholic Church and establish the
Church of England?

8. Identify Main Ideas How did Elizabeth restore unity to England?

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Review Questions
4 THE RENISSANCE AND REFORMATION (1300–1650) (continued)

Lesson 5: The Scientific Revolution

9. What assumption was at the heart of the Scientific Revolution?

10. Identify Main Ideas How did Copernicus’s proposed model of the solar system
differ from earlier beliefs?

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1 Note Taking Study Guide

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S
5
ECTION 1
67 NEW
PHILOSOPHY
GLOBAL IN
CONNECTIONS
THE AGE OF REASON
(1415–1796)

Focus Question: How did the European desire for trade connections in
Asia and Africa often result in the exploration of unexpected places and
the later colonization of North and South America?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to understand how trade became an important force for exploration and colonization.

Actual
Exploration Goal Accomplishment Significance
Prince Henry Trace with Africa Foothold in Led to further
(sponsor, not and reach Asia Africa exploration
explorer)

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Lesson Summary
EUROPEANS EXPLORE OVERSEAS

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES By the 1400s, Europe’s population and its demand for trade goods
from Asia were growing. Especially desirable were spices. The chief
source of spices was the Moluccas, an island chain in present-day
Indonesia. Arab and Italian merchants controlled most trade
between Asia and Europe. Europeans outside Italy wanted direct
access to Asia’s trade goods. They also desired to spread
Christianity, compete with other European countries, and gain glory
for their country.
In Portugal, Prince Henry encouraged sea exploration. He
believed that Africa was the source of the riches the Muslim traders
controlled. He also hoped to find a way to reach Asia by sailing
along the coast. Cartographers prepared maps for the voyages. Then
Henry’s ships sailed south to Africa. Soon, the Portuguese sailed
around the southern tip of the continent.
The Portuguese established footholds on the coast of Africa,
building small forts and trading posts. In addition, they attacked
coastal cities of East Africa, such as Mombasa and Malindi, which
were hubs of international trade. They also took over the Arabs’
thriving East African trade network. In 1497, Vasco da Gama led
four Portuguese ships around the tip of Africa, across the Indian
Ocean, and reached the great spice port of Calicut in India. Soon, the
Portuguese seized ports around the Indian Ocean, creating a vast
trading empire.
Portugal’s successes spurred others, including Christopher
Columbus, to look for a western sea route to Asia. Columbus
persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to finance his voyage. In
1492, Columbus sailed west with three small ships. When the crew
members spotted land, they thought they had reached the Indies.
What Columbus had actually found, however, were previously
unknown continents. The rulers of Spain appealed to the Spanish-
born Pope Alexander VI to support their claims to the lands of this
“new world.” The pope set the Line of Demarcation, which divided
the non-European world into two trading and exploration zones—
one for Spain and one for Portugal. The two nations agreed to these
terms in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
cartographer a person who makes maps

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Lesson Summary
EUROPEANS EXPLORE OVERSEAS (continued)

Although Europeans had claimed vast territories, they had not yet MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
found a western sea route to Asia. In 1519, a Portuguese nobleman
named Ferdinand Magellan set out west from Spain to find a way to
the Pacific Ocean. In 1520, he found a passageway at the southern tip
of South America. Survivors of the long voyage, who did not include
Magellan, finally returned to Spain nearly three years later. They
were hailed as the first to circumnavigate the world.
By the 1600s, several other European powers had established
forts along the west coast of Africa. In 1652, Dutch immigrants
arrived at the southern tip of the continent. They built Cape Town,
the first permanent European settlement in Africa, to supply ships
sailing to or from the East Indies. Dutch farmers, called Boers,
settled the lands around the port.

Lesson Vocabulary
circumnavigate to travel completely around the world

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Lesson Summary
EUROPEANS GAIN FOOTHOLDS IN ASIA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES After Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India, the Portuguese burst into
the Indian Ocean. Muslim rulers had established the Mughal empire
throughout much of India. The Portuguese gained footholds in
southern India, however, by promising local princes aid against
other European rulers. In 1510, the Portuguese seized the island of
Goa; then they took Malacca. The Portuguese built a trading empire
with military and merchant outposts. For most of the 1500s, they
controlled the spice trade between Europe and Asia.
The Dutch challenged Portuguese domination of Asian trade.
Dutch warships and trading vessels made the Netherlands a leader
in global commerce. The Dutch set up colonies and trading posts
around the world. In 1602, wealthy Dutch merchants formed the
Dutch East India Company, which had full sovereign powers. With
its power to wage war, negotiate treaties, and govern colonies, the
Dutch East India Company dominated Southeast Asia. Meanwhile,
Spain took over the Philippines, which became a key link in Spain’s
colonial empire.
When Europeans sought more trading rights in India, the once
powerful Mughal emperors saw no threat in granting them. The
Portuguese—and later the Dutch, British, and French—were
permitted to build forts and warehouses in coastal towns. Over time,
the Mughal empire weakened, and French and British traders fought
for power. Like the Dutch, both the British and the French
established East India companies. Each company organized its own
army of sepoys, or Indian troops. By the late 1700s, however, the
British East India Company controlled most of India.
Portuguese traders reached China in 1514 seeking Chinese silks
and porcelains. The Chinese considered European goods inferior
and therefore demanded payment in gold or silver. The Ming rulers
eventually allowed the Portuguese and other Europeans a trading
post at Macao. With the traders came Portuguese missionaries. The
brilliant Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci made a strong impression on the
Chinese, who welcomed learning about Renaissance Europe.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
outpost a distant military station or a remote settlement
sovereign having full, independent power
sepoy Indian soldier who served in an army set up by the French
or English trading companies

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EUROPEANS GAIN FOOTHOLDS IN ASIA (continued)

In 1644, the Manchus, who ruled Manchuria, succeeded in MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
seizing Beijing. They set up a new dynasty called the Qing. The
Chinese economy expanded. The Qing maintained the Ming policy
of restricting foreign traders, however. In 1793, Lord Macartney led
a British diplomatic mission to China, but his attempt to negotiate
for expanded trade failed.
Like China, Korea also restricted contacts with the outside
world. In the 1590s, a Japanese invasion devastated Korea. Then, in
1636, the Manchus conquered Korea. In response, the Koreans chose
isolation, excluding all foreigners except the Chinese and a few
Japanese.
The Japanese at first welcomed Westerners. Japanese warrior
lords quickly adopted Western firearms. Jesuit priests converted
many Japanese to Christianity. The Tokugawa shoguns, however,
worried that Japanese Christians owed their allegiance to the foreign
pope and that foreigners would try to dominate Japan. In response,
the shoguns expelled foreigners and barred all European merchants.
To keep informed about world events, however, they permitted just
one or two Dutch ships each year to trade at a small island in
Nagasaki harbor.

Lesson Vocabulary
dynasty a family of rulers who rule for a long time
shogun one of the military leaders who ruled Japan prior to 1868

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Lesson Summary
EUROPEAN CONQUESTS IN THE AMERICAS

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean islands now
called the West Indies. Columbus’s first meeting with Native
Americans there began a recurring cycle of encounter, conquest, and
death across the Western Hemisphere.
Columbus first encountered the Taíno people and claimed their
land for Spain, taking prisoners back with him. A wave of Spanish
conquistadors, or conquerors, followed. Ultimately, small armies of
Spanish, using superior weapons and horses, were able to
overpower millions of native people. Unknowingly, the Spanish also
brought diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza. This wiped
out village after village of Native Americans who had no immunity,
or resistance, to these diseases.
One of the earliest explorers, Hernán Cortés, reached Mexico in
1519 and moved toward the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán. Cortés was
aided by an Indian woman, Malinche, who helped him form
alliances with native peoples previously conquered by the Aztecs.
Aztec ruler Moctezuma tried but failed to keep Cortés from coming
to Tenochtitlán. Cortés later imprisoned Moctezuma and compelled
him to sign over lands and treasure to the Spanish. Cortés was
driven out, but he returned in 1521 and destroyed Tenochtitlán.
Another Spanish adventurer, Francisco Pizarro, sought riches
from Peru’s Incan empire. Pizarro reached Peru in 1532. The Incan
ruler, Atahualpa, had just won a civil war, or conflict between
people of the same nation. Pizarro captured Atahualpa and
demanded a huge ransom. This was paid, but Pizarro had the Incan
ruler killed anyway. Spanish forces overran Incan lands, adding
much of South America to the Spanish empire.
Soon, other European countries sent explorers and conquerors to
the Americas. Portugal established a large colony in Brazil. Portugal
granted land to nobles, who sent settlers to develop the area. As in
Spanish colonies, Native Americans in Brazil were nearly wiped out
from disease. Brazil’s rulers also used African slaves and forced
Native American labor. A new culture emerged, blending European,
Native American, and African traditions.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
conquistador “conqueror” in Spanish; a leader in the Spanish
conquests of America, Mexico, and Peru in the sixteenth century
immunity resistance, such as the power to keep from being
affected by a disease
alliance a relationship in which people agree to work together
civil war a war fought between groups of people in the same
nation

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EUROPEAN CONQUESTS IN THE AMERICAS (continued)

In the 1500s, wealth from the Americas made Spain and Portugal MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Europe’s most wealthy and powerful countries. Pirates often
attacked treasure ships from the colonies. Some pirates, called
privateers, even did so with the support of their nations’ monarchs.
Spain long remained the dominant European power in the
Americas. Spanish settlers and missionaries followed the explorers
and conquerors. They built colonies and created a culture that
blended European, Native American, and African traditions. By the
mid-1500s, Spain’s empire reached from modern California to South
America.
The Spanish monarch appointed viceroys, or representatives
who ruled in his name. They closely monitored Spanish colonies and
managed their valuable raw materials. Conquistadors received
encomiendas, or rights to demand work from Native Americans.
Under this system, Native Americans were forced to work under
brutal conditions. Disease, starvation, and cruel treatment caused
drastic declines in the Native American population. A priest,
Bartolomé de Las Casas, begged the Spanish king to end the abuse,
and laws were passed in 1542, banning enslavement and
mistreatment. But Spain was too far away to enforce the laws. Some
landlords forced people to become peons, paid workers who
labored to repay impossibly high debts created by their landlord.
To fill a labor shortage, colonists also brought in millions of Africans
as slaves.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
privateer Dutch, English, and French pirates who preyed on
treasure ships from the Americas in the 1500s, operating with the
approval of European governments
viceroy representative of the king of Spain who ruled colonies in
his name
encomienda the right, granted by Spanish monarchs to
conquistadors, to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in
a particular area
peon a worker forced to labor for a landlord to pay off a debt that
is impossible to pay off in his or her lifetime, which is incurred by
food, tool, or seeds the landlord has advanced to him or her

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Lesson Summary
EUROPEAN CONQUESTS IN THE AMERICAS (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES A blending of diverse cultures resulted. Native Americans

contributed building styles, foods, and arts. The Spanish brought
Christianity and the use of animals, especially horses. Africans
contributed farming methods, crops, and arts.
However, society in the colonies was strictly structured.
Peninsulares, or people born in Spain, filled the highest positions.
Next were creoles, or American-born descendants of Spanish
settlers. Lower groups included mestizos, people of Native
American and European descent, and mulattoes, people of African
and European descent. At the bottom were Native Americans and
African slaves.

Lesson Vocabulary
peninsular in Spanish colonial America, a person born in Spain
creole in Spanish colonial America, an American-born descendant
of Spanish settlers
mestizo in Spanish colonial America, a person of Native American
and European descent
mulatto in Spanish colonial America, a person of African and
European descent

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EUROPEAN COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA

In the 1600s, the French, Dutch, English, and Spanish competed for MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
lands in North America. By 1700, France and England dominated
large parts of the continent. Their colonies differed from one another
in terms of language, government, resources, and society.
In 1534, Jacques Cartier explored and claimed for the French
much of eastern Canada, called New France. However, a permanent
French settlement was not established until 1608 in Quebec.
Eventually, France’s empire stretched from Quebec to the Great
Lakes and down the Mississippi River to Louisiana. Harsh Canadian
winters discouraged settlers, and many abandoned farming for more
profitable fur trapping and fishing. In the late 1600s, the French king
Louis XIV wanted greater revenue, or income from taxes. He
appointed officials to manage economic activities in North America
and sent soldiers and more settlers.
In the early 1700s, while New France’s population remained
small, English colonies expanded along the Atlantic coast.
Jamestown in Virginia, the first permanent English colony, was
established in 1607. In 1620, Pilgrims, or English Protestants who
rejected the Church of England, landed at what became Plymouth,
Massachusetts. They wrote a compact, or agreement, called the
Mayflower Compact. It set guidelines for governing their colony.
In the 1600s and 1700s, the English created additional colonies.
Many were commercial ventures or havens for religious groups.
English monarchs exercised control through royal governors. Yet
English colonists enjoyed a greater degree of self-government than
French and Spanish colonists. They had their own representative
assemblies that could advise the governor and decide local issues.
During the 1700s, England and France emerged as powerful
rivals. In 1754, the French and Indian War erupted in North
America and then spread to other parts of the world by 1756, where
it became known as the Seven Years’ War. British and colonial
troops eventually captured New France’s capital city, Quebec.
Although the war dragged on, the British ultimately prevailed. The
1763 Treaty of Paris ended this worldwide conflict. France
surrendered Canada and other North American possessions to
Britain. Its Louisiana Territory passed to Spain.

Lesson Vocabulary
revenue money taken in through taxes
compact an agreement among people

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THE SLAVE TRADE AND ITS IMPACT ON AFRICA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Slavery had existed in Africa since ancient times. By the 1500s,
European participation had encouraged a much broader Atlantic
slave trade, and it grew into a huge and profitable business to fill the
need for cheap labor. Europeans especially needed workers on their
plantations in the Americas. Some African leaders tried to slow
down or stop the transatlantic slave trade. The ruler of Kongo,
Affonso I, who had been tutored by Portuguese missionaries,
wanted to maintain contact with Europe but end the slave trade.
The slave trade, however, continued.
The slave trade had major effects on African states. Because of the
loss of countless numbers of young Africans, some small states
disappeared forever. At the same time, new states arose, with ways of
life that depended on the slave trade. The Asante kingdom emerged
in the area occupied by present-day Ghana. In the late 1600s, an able
military leader, Osei Tutu, conquered neighboring peoples and
unified the Asante kingdom. Under Osei Tutu, the Asante kingdom
held a monopoly over both gold mining and the slave trade.
The Oyo empire arose from successive waves of settlement by
the Yoruba people in the region of present-day Nigeria. Its leaders
used wealth gained from the slave trade to build a strong army.
The trade of slaves became part of the trade network known as
the triangular trade, a series of Atlantic sea routes joining Europe,
Africa, and the Americas. On the first leg of the triangle, merchant
ships brought European goods, such as guns and cloth, to Africa,
where they were traded for slaves. On the second leg, known as the
Middle Passage, slaves were brought to the Americas, where they
were traded for sugar, molasses, and cotton from European-owned
plantations. On the final leg, these products were traded for other
colonial goods, such as furs and salt fish, which were then shipped
to Europe, where they were traded for European goods.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
plantation large estate run by an overseer with laborers working
and living there
missionary someone sent to do religious work in a territory or
foreign country
monopoly complete control of a product or business by one person
or group
triangular trade colonial trade routes among Europe and its
colonies, the West Indies, and Africa in which goods were
exchanged for slaves

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THE SLAVE TRADE AND ITS IMPACT ON AFRICA (continued)

During the Middle Passage, slaves were captured, bound, and MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
forced to walk as many as a thousand miles. Many died on the way.
Those who lived were restrained in holding pens in African port
cities until European ships arrived. Hundreds were crammed below
deck for the three-week to three-month voyages. Some committed
suicide. Many died from disease, brutality, or other dangers, like
storms; pirate raids; and mutinies, or revolts, by captives trying to
return home.
The triangular trade continued, in part, because it was so
profitable. It brought riches to merchants and traders, helped the
colonial economies succeed, and helped European and American
port cities grow. However, for Africans the outcome was
devastating. African societies were torn apart, and lives were cut
short or brutalized. By the mid-1800s, when the slave trade finally
ended, an estimated 11 million Africans had been brought to the
Americas, and another 2 million had died during the Middle
Passage.

Lesson Vocabulary
mutiny revolt, especially of soldiers or sailors against their officers

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Lesson Summary
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CONTACT

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES European exploration and expansion in the 1500s and 1600s led to
European domination of the globe. By the 1700s, worldwide contact
brought major changes to people in Europe, the Americas, Asia, and
Africa.
When Columbus returned to Europe in 1493, he brought back
American plants and animals. Later, he carried European plants,
animals, and settlers back to the Americas. This began a vast global
interchange named for Columbus, called the Columbian Exchange.
Sharing different food and livestock helped people around the
world. The dispersal of new crops from the Americas also
contributed to worldwide population growth by the 1700s.
Additionally, the Columbian Exchange started a migration to the
Americas, including the forcible transfer of millions of slaves.
The unintentional transfer of viruses and bacteria brought disease
and death to millions of Native Americans.
Another effect of global contact was great economic change. In
the 1500s, the pace of inflation increased in Europe, fueled by silver
and gold flowing in from the Americas. Inflation is a rise in prices
linked to sharp increases in the money supply. This period of rapid
inflation in Europe is known as the price revolution. Expanded
trade and an increased money supply spurred the growth of
capitalism, an economic system of private business ownership and
free competition with limited regulation by government. The key to
capitalism was entrepreneurs, or people who take financial risks for
profits. European entrepreneurs hired workers, paid production
costs, joined investors in overseas ventures, and ultimately helped
convert local economies into international trading economies.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
inflation economic cycle that involves a rapid rise in prices linked
to a sharp increase in the amount of money available
price revolution period in European history when inflation rose
rapidly
capitalism economic system in which the means of production are
privately owned and operated for profit
entrepreneur person who assumes financial risk in the hope of
making a profit

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Section Summary
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CONTACT (continued)

Fierce competition for trade and empires led to a new economic MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
system called mercantilism, which measured wealth by a nation’s
gold and silver. Mercantilists believed the nation must export more
than it imports. They also pushed governments to impose tariffs, or
taxes on foreign goods, giving an advantage to local goods over
imports that became costly because of the tariffs.
But by the 1700s, many social changes had taken place in Europe,
too. Nobles, whose wealth was in land, were hurt by the price
revolution. Merchants who invested in overseas ventures grew
wealthy, and skilled workers in Europe’s growing cities thrived.
A thriving middle class of entrepreneurs and business people also
developed.

Lesson Vocabulary
mercantilism policy by which a nation sought to export more than
it imported in order to build its supply of gold and silver
tariff tax on imported goods

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Review Questions
5 NEW GLOBAL CONNECTIONS (1415–1796)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Europeans Explore Overseas

1. What motivated Europeans to explore the seas?

2. Cause and Effect Identify two effects of Prince Henry’s encouragement of sea
exploration.

Lesson 2: Europeans Gain Footholds in Asia

3. How did the Dutch come to dominate trade in Southeast Asia?

4. Identify Causes and Effects Identify one cause and one effect of the Mughal
emperors’ decision to grant trading rights to Europeans.

Lesson 3: European Conquests in the Americas

5. Name two factors that helped hundreds of Spanish soldiers conquer millions of
Native Americans.

6. Recognize Sequence Sequence the following events: Spanish forces take over Inca
lands. Pizarro arrives in Peru. Columbus takes the Taínos as prisoners. Cortés
captures Tenochtitlán.

Lesson 4: European Colonies in North America

7. In what way did English colonists have a greater degree of self-government than
French or Spanish colonists?

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5 NEW GLOBAL CONNECTIONS (1415–1796) (continued)

8. Recognize Sequence What happened after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in
1763?

Lesson 5: The Slave Trade and Its Impact on Africa

9. Why did the triangular trade continue, even though it devastated the lives of
millions of people?

10. Recognize Sequence List the three “legs” of the triangular trade.

Lesson 6: Effects of Global Contact

11. Why did mercantilists push governments to impose tariffs?

12. Cause and Effect What happened in the 1500s that caused inflation in Europe?

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Note Taking Study Guide
6 82 ABSOLUTISM
MANY CULTURES
ANDMEET
REVOLUTION (1550–1850)

Focus Question: What forces did the Enlightenment release that

brought about major changes in Europe and the English colonies of
North America?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to help you explain how Enlightenment ideas sparked changes in Europe and the
Americas.

Cause Effect

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Lesson Summary
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY IN SPAIN AND FRANCE

Between 1500 and 1800, states in Europe were becoming more MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
unified. Their kings and queens ruled as absolute monarchs, with
complete authority over their government and the lives of their
people. These monarchs declared that they ruled by divine right.
This meant they believed that their authority to rule came directly
from God.
In 1519, Charles V, the king of Spain and ruler of the Spanish
colonies in the Americas, inherited the Hapsburg empire. This
included the Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands. Ruling two
empires involved Charles in constant religious warfare.
Additionally, the empire’s vast territory became too cumbersome for
Charles to rule effectively. Charles V abdicated the throne and
divided his kingdom between his brother Ferdinand and his son
Philip.
Under Philip II, Spanish power increased. Philip fought many
battles in the Mediterranean and the Netherlands to advance or
preserve Spanish Catholic power and defend the Catholic faith
against the Protestant Reformation.
To expand his empire, Philip II needed to eliminate his rivals. He
saw Elizabeth I of England as his chief Protestant enemy. Philip
prepared a huge armada, or fleet, to carry an invasion force to
England. However, several disasters led to the defeat of this
powerful Spanish fleet. This defeat marked the beginning of a
decline in Spanish power.
Wars were costly and contributed to Spain’s economic problems.
However, while Spain’s strength and wealth decreased, art and
learning took on new importance. The arts flourished between 1550
and 1650, during the Siglo de Oro, or “golden century.” Among the
outstanding artists of this period was a painter called El Greco. This
period also produced several remarkable writers, including Miguel
de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
absolute monarch a ruler who has complete authority over the
government and lives of the people he or she governs
divine right idea that a ruler’s authority came directly from God
armada fleet of ships

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Lesson Summary
6
LESSON 1
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY IN SPAIN
AND FRANCE (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the late 1500s, France was also torn apart by religious conflict.
Fighting between French Protestants, called Huguenots, and
Catholics led to the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, in which
thousands of Huguenots were slaughtered. In 1598, King Henry IV
issued the Edict of Nantes to protect Protestants and protect
religious toleration.
After Henry’s assassination in 1610, his nine-year-old son, Louis
XIII, inherited the throne. Louis appointed Cardinal Richelieu as his
chief minister. Richelieu sought to strengthen royal power by
crushing any groups that did not bow to royal authority. In 1643,
five-year-old Louis XIV inherited the French throne. Louis XIV later
took complete control of the government. He believed in his divine
right to rule and even called himself the Sun King to symbolize his
vital role within the nation.
Louis XIV expanded the royal government and appointed
intendants—royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers,
and carried out his policies in the provinces. Louis’s finance
minister, Jean Baptiste Colbert, expanded commerce and trade.
Taxes helped finance the king’s extravagant lifestyle.
Outside Paris, Louis XIV transformed a royal hunting lodge into
the grand palace of Versailles. The palace represented the king’s
great power and wealth. Elaborate court ceremonies were held to
emphasize the king’s importance. Under Louis XIV, France became
the strongest state in Europe.
However, the country’s prosperity began to erode. This loss of
wealth was caused by some of Louis’s decisions. He fought costly
wars to extend French borders, but rival rulers resisted in order to
maintain the balance of power. Louis also revoked the Edict of
Nantes, driving over 100,000 hard-working and prosperous
Huguenots out of France.

Lesson Vocabulary
intendant official appointed by French king Louis XIV to govern
the provinces, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers
balance of power distribution of military and economic power that
prevents any one nation from becoming too strong

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RISE OF AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, AND RUSSIA

By the seventeenth century, the Holy Roman Empire had become a MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
mix of several hundred small, separate states. The emperor had little
power over the many princes of the states. This power vacuum led
to a series of brutal wars that are together called the Thirty Years’
War, a widespread European war.
The war devastated the German states. Mercenaries, or soldiers
for hire, burned villages, destroyed crops, and murdered and
tortured villagers. This led to famine and disease, which caused
severe depopulation, or reduction in population.
In 1648, a series of treaties known as the Peace of Westphalia
were established. These treaties aspired to bring peace to Europe and
also settle other international problems.
Out of the chaos of war, two powerful new states emerged.
Austria, still ruled by the Hapsburg family, was becoming a strong
Catholic state. But a region within the German states called Prussia
emerged as a new Protestant power. The Prussian ruler Frederick
William I came to power in 1713. He created a new bureaucracy and
placed great emphasis on military values.
Maria Theresa became empress of Austria after her father’s death
in 1740. That same year, Frederick II of Prussia seized the Hapsburg
province of Silesia. This action sparked the eight-year War of the
Austrian Succession. Despite her efforts, Maria Theresa did not
succeed in forcing Frederick out of Silesia. However, she did
preserve her empire and won the support of most of her people. She
also strengthened Hapsburg power by reorganizing the bureaucracy
and improving tax collection. Frederick II continued to expand
Prussia’s military and make it a leading power.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
mercenary soldier serving in a foreign country for pay
depopulation reduction in the number of people in an area

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RISE OF AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, AND RUSSIA (continued)

In the early 1600s, Russia was isolated from the nations of

Western Europe and had remained a medieval state. It was not
MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
until the end of that century that a new tsar, Peter the Great,
transformed Russia into a leading power through a new policy of
westernization—the adoption of Western ideas, technologies, and
culture. He forced boyars to shave their traditional beards and wear
Western-style clothing. Many resisted change. To enforce his new
policy, Peter became an autocratic monarch—one who ruled with
unlimited authority.
Peter pushed through social and economic reforms. He also
increased Russia’s military power and extended its borders. Peter
waged a long war against Sweden to win territory along the Baltic
Sea. On this territory, he built a new capital city, St. Petersburg.
When Peter died in 1725, he left a mixed legacy. Although he had
modernized Russia, he had used terror to enforce his absolute
power.
In 1762, Catherine the Great ruled as an absolute monarch. She
followed Peter’s lead in embracing Western ideas and expanding
Russia’s borders. She was an efficient and energetic empress. Under
her rule, laws were codified, and state-supported education began
for both boys and girls. After waging war, she defeated the Ottoman
Empire and won a warm-water port on the Black Sea, a goal that had
been set under Peter the Great.
In the 1770s, Russia, Prussia, and Austria each wanted Poland as
part of their territory. In order to avoid war, the three kingdoms
agreed to partition, or divide up, Poland. In 1772, Russia gained part
of eastern Poland, while Prussia and Austria took over the West.
Poland vanished from the map.
By 1750, the great European powers included Austria, Prussia,
France, Britain, and Russia. These nations formed various alliances
to maintain the balance of power. Austria and Prussia were great
rivals, as were Britain and France.

Lesson Vocabulary
westernization adoption of western ideas, technology, and culture
boyar landowning noble in Russia under the tsars
autocrat leader with unlimited power
warm-water port port that is free of ice year round
partition a division into pieces

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Lesson Summary
TRIUMPH OF PARLIAMENT IN ENGLAND

From 1485 to 1603, England was ruled by the Tudors. While MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
believing in divine right, Tudor monarchs Henry VIII and Elizabeth I
also recognized the value of good relations with Parliament.
This was not the view of the first Stuart king, James I. He
inherited the throne after Elizabeth I died childless in 1603. He
claimed absolute power. Parliament, however, resisted the king’s
claim. James clashed often with Parliament over money. James was
also at odds with dissenters—Protestants who disagreed with the
Church of England. One such group, the Puritans, wanted simpler
services and a more democratic church with no bishops.
In 1625, Charles I inherited the throne. He too behaved like an
absolute monarch. Tensions between Charles and Parliament
escalated into civil war. The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to
1651. Supporters of Charles were called Cavaliers. The supporters of
Parliament were known as Roundheads. Oliver Cromwell, the leader
of the Parliament forces, guided them to victory. In January 1649,
Charles I was beheaded.
The House of Commons abolished the monarchy and declared
England a republic under Cromwell, called the Commonwealth.
Many new laws reflected Puritan beliefs. Cromwell did not tolerate
open worship for Catholics; however, he did respect the beliefs of
other Protestants and welcomed Jews back to England. Eventually
people tired of the strict Puritan ways. Cromwell died in 1658. Two
years later, Parliament invited Charles II to return to England as king.
Charles II’s successor, James II, was forced from the English
throne in 1688. Protestants feared that he planned to restore the
Roman Catholic Church to power in England. Parliament offered the
crown to James’s Protestant daughter Mary and her husband
William. However, William and Mary had to accept the English Bill
of Rights. This helped establish a limited monarchy. This bloodless
overthrow of James II was known as the Glorious Revolution.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
dissenter Protestant whose views and opinions differed from those
of the Church of England
limited monarchy government in which a constitution or
legislative body limits the monarch's powers

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TRIUMPH OF PARLIAMENT IN ENGLAND (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During the next century, Britain’s government became a
constitutional government, whose power was defined and limited
by law. A cabinet, or group of parliamentary advisors who set
policies, developed. In essence, British government was now an
oligarchy—a government that was run by a powerful few.

Lesson Vocabulary
constitutional government government whose power is defined
and limited by law
cabinet parliamentary advisors to the king who originally met in a
small room, or cabinet
oligarchy government in which the ruling power belongs to a few
people

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THE ENLIGHTENMENT

In the 1500s and 1600s, the Scientific Revolution changed the way MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
people looked at the world. They began to use reason and science to
learn how things worked. For example, they found that rules govern
natural forces such as gravity. Scientists and others began to call these
rules the natural law. They believed that natural law could be used to
solve society’s problems, too. In this way, the Scientific Revolution
sparked another revolution in thinking known as the Enlightenment.
Two important English thinkers of the Enlightenment were
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Hobbes argued that people were
naturally cruel and selfish. They needed to be controlled by a
powerful government, such as an absolute monarchy. According to
Hobbes, people in a society made an agreement, or social contract.
In this contract, people gave up their freedom in exchange for an
organized society. In contrast, Locke thought that people were
basically good. He believed that people had natural rights, or rights
that belonged to all humans. These are the right to life, liberty, and
property. Locke thought a government of limited power was best.
French Enlightenment thinkers, called philosophes, also believed
that people could use reason to improve government, law, and
society. These thinkers included Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire,
Denis Diderot, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Montesquieu, for
example, developed the ideas of separation of powers and checks
and balances. The Framers of the United States Constitution would
later use these ideas. In a set of books called the Encyclopedia,
Diderot explained the new ideas on the topics of government,
philosophy, and religion. Other thinkers, including Adam Smith,
focused on using natural law to reform the economy. Instead of
government control, they urged the policy of laissez faire. This
policy allowed the free market to regulate business.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
natural law unchanging principle, discovered through reason, that
governs human conduct
social contract an agreement by which people give up their
freedom to a powerful government in order to avoid chaos
natural rights rights that belongs to all humans from birth, such as
life, liberty, and property
philosophe French for philosopher; French thinker who desired
reform in society during the Enlightenment
laissez faire policy allowing business to operate with little or no
government interference
free market market regulated by the natural laws of supply and
demand

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THE ENLIGHTENMENT (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Enlightenment ideas flowed from France, across Europe and
beyond. The ideas of the Enlightenment, found in books such as
Diderot’s Encyclopedia, challenged traditional beliefs and customs.
In response, most government and church authorities waged a war
of censorship. Censorship, however, did not stop the spread of
ideas. Philosophes and others disguised their ideas in works of fiction.
In the 1600s and 1700s, the arts evolved to meet changing tastes
and reflect new Enlightenment ideals. In visual art and in music
there was a transition from the heavier splendor of the baroque style
to the lighter, more charming style of rococo. Ballets and operas—
plays set to music—were performed at royal courts. Opera houses
sprang up in Europe. Composers later created elegant works in a
style known as classical. A growing audience of middle-class readers
also led to the rise of a new type of literature—a prose form called
the novel.
The courts of Europe were also affected by the Enlightenment as
philosophes tried to persuade European rulers to make reforms. A few
European monarchs did accept Enlightenment ideas, but retained
their absolute control. These enlightened despots used their power
to bring about some political and social changes. In Prussia,
Frederick the Great kept tight control over his subjects yet allowed a
free press and religious tolerance. Catherine the Great of Russia
abolished torture and criticized the institution of serfdom. In
Austria, Joseph II traveled in disguise among his subjects to learn of
their problems. Despite the spread of Enlightenment ideas, however,
the lives of most regular Europeans changed slowly.

Lesson Vocabulary
censorship restriction on access to ideas and information
baroque ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s
and 1700s
rococo lighter, more personal, elegant, and charming style of art
and architecture popular in the mid-1700s
enlightened despot absolute ruler who used his or her power to
bring about political and social change

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Lesson Summary
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

In the mid-1700s, Britain was a formidable global power. Key MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
reasons for this status included its location, support of commerce,
and huge gains in territory around the world. Furthermore, the new
king, George III, began to assert his leadership and royal power.
Britain’s growing empire included prosperous colonies on the
east coast of North America. The colonists shared many values.
These included an increasing sense of their own destiny separate
from Britain. In some cases, Britain neglected to enforce laws dealing
with colonial trade and manufacturing.
Tensions between the colonists and Britain grew as Parliament
passed laws, such as the Stamp Act, that increased colonists’ taxes.
The colonists protested what they saw as “taxation without
representation.” A series of violent clashes with British soldiers
intensified the colonists’ anger. Finally, representatives from each
colony, including George Washington of Virginia, met in the
Continental Congress to decide what to do. Then in April 1775,
colonists fought British soldiers at Lexington and Concord, and the
American Revolution began.
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the
Declaration of Independence. Written primarily by Thomas
Jefferson, it reflects John Locke’s ideas about the rights to “life,
liberty, and property.” It also details the colonists’ grievances and
emphasizes the Enlightenment idea of popular sovereignty.
At first, chances for American success looked bleak. The colonists
struggled against Britain’s trained soldiers, huge fleet, and greater
resources. When the colonists won the Battle of Saratoga, other
European nations, such as France, joined the American side. With
the help of the French fleet, Washington forced the British to
surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. Two years later American,
British, and French diplomats signed the Treaty of Paris, ending
the war.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
popular sovereignty principle that asserts that the people are the
source of any and all governmental power, and government can
exist only with the consent of the governed

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THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES By 1789, leaders of the new United States, such as James Madison
and Benjamin Franklin, had established a federal republic under the
Constitution. The new government was based on the separation of
powers, an idea borrowed directly from Montesquieu. To prevent
any branch of government from becoming too powerful, the
Constitution established a system of checks and balances. The Bill of
Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, protected basic
rights. The United States Constitution put Enlightenment ideas into
practice and has become an important symbol of freedom.

Lesson Vocabulary
federal republic government in which power is divided between
the national, or federal, government and the states
checks and balances system in which each branch of a government
has the power to monitor and limit the actions of the other two

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION BEGINS

Under France’s ancien régime, there were three social classes, or MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
estates. This social system created much friction between the upper
and lower classes. At the top of this social and economic system was
the First Estate, made up of the clergy. At the time, the Church
exerted great influence throughout Christian Europe, specifically in
France where members of the church hierarchy enjoyed enormous
wealth and privilege. The Church owned about 10 percent of the
land, collected tithes, and paid no direct taxes to the state.
The Second Estate consisted of the titled nobility of French
society. Although its members had enjoyed numerous privileges and
benefits in the past, at the time just before the French Revolution, the
more ambitious nobles had to compete for royal appointments.
At the bottom of French society was the Third Estate, a diverse
social class that included the bourgeoisie, or the middle class. Much
of the Third Estate, however, consisted of rural peasants. Members
of the Third Estate resented the privileges enjoyed by their social
“betters.” The First and Second Estates, for example, were exempt
from most taxes, while peasants paid taxes on many things,
including necessities.
Economic troubles added to the social unrest. Deficit spending
had left France deeply in debt. In the 1780s, bad harvests sent food
prices soaring. King Louis XVI was ineffectual and did little to
reform the nation’s economy. The wealthy and powerful demanded
that the king do something. As a result, he summoned the Estates-
General, which consisted of representatives from the three estates,
before making any changes. A French king had not called the
Estates-General in session for 175 years.

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Lesson Vocabulary
ancien régime old order system of government in pre-
revolutionary France
estate social class
bourgeoisie the middle class
deficit spending situation in which the government spends more
money than it takes in

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION BEGINS (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES It was during this meeting that members of the Third Estate
called for significant reform. They were familiar with the ideals of
the Enlightenment and wanted to bring change. In June 1789,
claiming to represent the people of France, they declared themselves
to be the National Assembly. Fearing that the king planned to
dismiss them, the delegates moved to a nearby indoor tennis court
and took their famous Tennis Court Oath. They swore “never to
separate and to meet wherever the circumstances might require until
we have established a sound and just constitution.”
The growing political crisis coincided with a terrible famine.
Peasants were starving and unemployed. In such desperate times,
rumors ran wild. Inflamed by famine and fear, peasants unleashed
their fury on the nobles. On July 14, 1789, the streets of Paris buzzed
with rumors that royal troops were going to occupy the city. Then
800 Parisians assembled outside the Bastille, demanding weaponry
stored there. When the commander refused, the enraged mob
stormed the Bastille, sparking the French Revolution.
The storming of the Bastille and the peasant uprisings pushed
the National Assembly into action. In late August, the Assembly
issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. It
proclaimed that all male citizens were equal before the law. The
National Assembly also produced the Constitution of 1791. This
document reflected Enlightenment goals, set up a limited monarchy,
ensured equality before the law for all male citizens, and ended
Church interference in government.

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A RADICAL PHASE

The events of the French Revolution stirred debate all over Europe. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Some people applauded the reforms of the National Assembly.
Rulers of other nations, however, denounced the French Revolution.
Horror stories were told by émigrés who had fled France. Rulers of
neighboring monarchies increased border patrols to stop the spread
of the “French plague” of revolution.
In October 1791, the newly elected Legislative Assembly took
office, but falling currency values, rising prices, and food shortages
renewed turmoil. Working-class men and women, called sans-
culottes, pushed the revolution in a more radical direction, and
demanded a republic. The sans-culottes found support among other
radicals, especially the Jacobins. The radicals soon held the upper
hand in the Legislative Assembly. Eager to spread the revolution,
they declared war against Austria and other European monarchies.
In 1793, the revolution entered a frightening and bloody phase.
The war with Austria was not going well for France. Some felt the
king was in league with France’s enemies. Others wanted to restore
the king’s power. On August 10, 1792, a mob stormed the royal
palace. Radicals then took control of the Assembly and called for the
election of a new legislative body called the National Convention.
Suffrage was to be extended to all male citizens, not just to those
who owned property. The Convention that met in September 1792
was a more radical body than earlier assemblies. It voted to abolish
the monarchy and establish the French Republic. Louis XVI and his
queen were executed.
War with other European nations and internal rebellions
concerned the government. The Convention created the Committee
of Public Safety to deal with these issues. It had almost absolute
power. Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre led the Committee. He was
one of the chief architects of the Reign of Terror, which lasted from

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
émigré a person who flees his or her country for political reasons
sans-culottes members of the working class who made the French
Revolution more radical; called such because men wore long
trousers instead of the fancy knee breeches that the upper class wore
suffrage right to vote

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A RADICAL PHASE (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES September 1793 to July 1794. During that time, courts conducted
hasty trials for those suspected of resisting the revolution. Many
people were the victims of false accusations. About 17,000 were
executed by guillotine.
In reaction to the Terror, the revolution entered a third stage,
dominated by the bourgeoisie. It moved away from the excesses of
the Convention, and moderates created the Constitution of 1795.
This set up a five-man Directory to rule, and a two-house legislature.
However, discontent grew because of corrupt leaders. Also, war
continued with Austria and Britain. Politicians planned to use
Napoleon Bonaparte, a popular military hero, to advance their goals.
By 1799, the French Revolution had dramatically changed
France. It had dislodged the old social order, overthrown the
monarchy, and brought the Church under state control. Nationalism
spread throughout France. From the city of Marseilles, troops
marched to a rousing new song that would become the French
national anthem. Revolutionaries also made social reforms. They set
up systems to help the poor and abolished slavery in France’s
Caribbean colonies.

Lesson Vocabulary
guillotine device used during the Reign of Terror to execute
thousands by beheading
nationalism a strong feeling of pride and devotion to one's country

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THE AGE OF NAPOLEON

The last phase of the French Revolution is known as the Age of MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Napoleon. Napoleon Bonaparte started his rise to power as a young
officer. By 1804, he had become emperor of France. At each step on
his rise, Napoleon held a plebiscite. People voted to approve his
actions, but Napoleon always kept absolute power.
Napoleon made the central government stronger. All classes of
people supported his economic and social reforms. One of his most
lasting reforms was the Napoleonic Code. This new code of laws
embodied Enlightenment principles of equality, religious tolerance,
and the end of feudalism.
From 1804 to 1812, Napoleon fought to create a vast French
empire. Before each battle, he drafted a completely new plan.
Because of this, opposing generals could never anticipate what he
would do next. He rarely lost. Napoleon annexed, or added to his
empire, most European nations except Russia and Britain.
He tried to wage economic warfare against Britain through the
Continental System. This system closed European ports to British
goods. Many Europeans did not like this blockade, and the
Continental System failed. In Spain, patriots waged guerrilla
warfare, or hit-and-run raids, against the French. In 1812, Napoleon
invaded Russia. The Russians burned crops and villages. This
scorched-earth policy left the French without food or shelter. The
French retreated from Moscow through the Russian winter. Only
about 20,000 of 600,000 soldiers made it back to France alive.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
plebiscite a ballot in which voters have a direct say on an issue
annex add a territory to an existing state or country
guerrilla warfare fighting carried on through hit-and-run raids

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Section Summary
THE AGE OF NAPOLEON (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Russian disaster destroyed Napoleon’s reputation for
success. In 1815, British and Prussian forces crushed the French at
the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was forced to abdicate. After
Waterloo, European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna. The
Congress tried to create a lasting peace through the principle of
legitimacy, or restoring monarchies that Napoleon had unseated.
They also set up the Concert of Europe to try to solve conflicts.

Lesson Vocabulary
abdicate give up or step down from power

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Review Questions
6 ABSOLUTISM AND REVOLUTION (1550-1850)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Absolute Monarchy in Spain and France

1. How did Louis XIV strengthen the French monarchy?

2. Identify Main Ideas and Supporting Details What details support the main idea
that the period from 1550 to 1650 was a “golden century” in Spain?

Lesson 2: Rise of Austria, Prussia, and Russia

3. What did Peter the Great do to modernize Russia?

4. Identify Supporting Details List details to support this statement: The Thirty
Years’ War had a terrible effect on German states.

Lesson 3: Triumph of Parliament in England

5. How did the English government change under Cromwell’s leadership?

6. Identify Supporting Details Find two details in this Summary that support the
statement “Parliament triumphs in England.”

Lesson 4: The Enlightenment

7. How did the Scientific Revolution lead to the Enlightenment?

8. Summarize What ideas did Thomas Hobbes and John Locke have about human
nature and the role of government?

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6 ABSOLUTISM AND REVOLUTION (1550-1850) (continued)

Lesson 5: The American Revolution

9. What first caused tensions to rise between the colonists and Britain?

10. Recognize Sequence Place the events leading to the American Revolution in the
correct order.

Lesson 6: The French Revolution

11. What economic troubles did France face in the 1780s?

12. Recognize Multiple Causes Identify three causes of the French Revolution.

Lesson 7: A Radical Phase

13. Identify three changes that the French Revolution brought to France.

14. Recognize Sequence What occurred after the radicals took control of the
Assembly in 1792?

Lesson 8: The Age of Napoleon

15. How did the French respond to Napoleon’s economic and social reforms?

16. Identify Main Ideas Write a new title for this section to express the main idea in
another way.

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Note Taking Study Guide
7 101THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1750–1914)

Focus Question: What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution?

As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to help you understand the impact of the Industrial Revolution, including the problems
that were created and the proposed solutions to those problems.

Industrial Revolution
Textile Factories

New Manufacturing Processes

Pasteur’s Germ Theory

Advances in Medicine

Canals

New Transportation

Poor working conditions

Urbanization

Women’s Suffrage

New Ways of Thinking

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Lesson Summary
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Industrial Revolution started in Britain. Production shifted from
simple hand tools to complex machines, and sources of energy
shifted from human and animal power to steam and, later,
electricity. Like the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution was
partially an outgrowth of the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth
century, which created a mindset of scientific and technological
experimentation. In 1750, most people worked the land, using
handmade tools. They made their own clothing and grew their own
food. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the rural way of
life in Britain began to disappear. By the 1850s, many country
villages had grown into industrial towns and cities. New inventions
and scientific “firsts” appeared each year. Between 1830 and 1855,
for example, an American dentist first used an anesthetic during
surgery and a French physicist measured the speed of light.
A series of related causes helped spark the Industrial Revolution.
It was made possible, in part, by another revolution—in
agriculture—that greatly improved the quality and quantity of food.
Farmers mixed different kinds of soils and tried out new methods of
crop rotation to get higher yields. Meanwhile, rich landowners
pushed ahead with enclosure, the process of taking over and
consolidating land formerly shared by peasant farmers. As millions
of acres were enclosed, farm output and profits rose. The
agricultural revolution created a surplus of food, so fewer people
died from starvation. Therefore, the agricultural revolution
contributed to a rapid growth in population.
Agricultural progress, however, had a human cost. Many farm
laborers were thrown out of work. In time, jobless farm workers
migrated to towns and cities. There, they formed a growing labor
force that would soon operate the machines of the Industrial
Revolution.
Another factor that helped trigger the Industrial Revolution was
the development of new technology, aided by the Scientific
Revolution as well as new sources of energy and new materials. In
1764, Scottish engineer James Watt improved the steam engine to
make it more efficient. Watt’s engine became a key power source of
the Industrial Revolution. Coal powered the engine, creating steam
energy. Coal was also used in the production of iron, a material
needed for the construction of machines and steam engines. In 1709,

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
anesthetic drug that prevents pain during surgery
enclosure the process of taking over and consolidating land
formerly shared by peasant farmers

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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS (continued)

Adam Darby used coal to smelt iron, or separate iron from its ore. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Darby’s experiments led to the production of less expensive and
better-quality iron.
The start of the Industrial Revolution in Britain can be credited to
many factors, including population growth and plentiful natural
resources. Population was only one of the reasons that
industrialization started in Britain, however. All four factors of
production were available in a large supply in Britain. These factors
are natural resources, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. In
addition to having resources and plenty of labor, capital is needed to
invest in new businesses. Beginning with the slave trade, the
business class accumulated capital to invest in enterprises. An
enterprise is a business in areas such as shipping, mining, or
factories. Britain had a stable government that supported economic
growth. Entrepreneurs managed and assumed the financial risks of
starting new businesses.
The Industrial Revolution first took hold in Britain’s largest
industry—textiles. British merchants developed the putting-out
system, in which raw cotton was distributed to peasant families.
They spun it into thread and then wove the thread into cloth,
working in their own homes. Under the putting-out system,
production was slow. As demand for cloth grew, inventors came up
with new devices, such as the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny,
which revolutionized the British textile industry. Meanwhile, in the
United States, these faster spinning and weaving machines presented
a challenge—how to produce enough cotton to keep up with Britain.
Cleaning the raw cotton by hand was time-consuming. To solve this,
Eli Whitney invented a machine called the cotton gin. This greatly
increased the production of cotton. To house these machines,
manufacturers built the first factories, where spinners and weavers
came each day to work to produce large quantities of goods.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
smelt melt in order to get the pure matter away from its waste
matter
capital money or wealth used to invest in business or enterprise
enterprise business organization in such areas as shipping, mining,
railroads, or factories
entrepreneur person who assumes financial risk in the hope of
making a profit
putting-out system system developed in the 18th century in which
tasks were distributed to individuals who completed the work in
their own homes; also known as cottage industry

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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES As production increased, entrepreneurs needed faster and

cheaper methods of moving goods. Some capitalists invested in
turnpikes. Goods could be moved faster on these toll roads, and
turnpikes soon linked every part of Britain. Canals opened to
provide a cheaper way for factories to receive coal and raw
materials. The canals shortened the distance to ship goods. The great
revolution in transportation, however, occurred with the invention
of the steam locomotive, which made possible the growth of
railroads. The world’s first major rail line began operating between
the British industrial cities of Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. In
the following decades, railroad travel became faster and railroad
building boomed. The Industrial Revolution dramatically affected
the way people lived.
During the early Industrial Revolution, Britain was the world’s
industrial giant. Later, two new industrial powers emerged—
Germany and the United States. These nations had more abundant
supplies of coal, iron, and other resources than Britain. This helped
them become the new industrial leaders. These nations also had the
advantage of being able to follow Britain’s lead, borrowing its
experts and technology.
Other nations started to industrialize, although their progress
was slower. Russia moved toward industrialization more than 100
years after Britain’s success. In East Asia, Japan industrialized
quickly after 1886, in part because of a political revolution that made
modernizing a priority. The demands of an industrial society
brought about many social, economic, and political changes. The
living conditions in the rapidly developing urban centers were often
difficult. However, by 1900 steps were taken to make improvements.
Ordinary workers could buy goods that in earlier days only the
wealthy had been able to afford. Politics changed, too, as leaders had
to meet the needs of an industrial society. Globally, industrial
nations competed for world trade. Western industrial powers were
able to affect the world more than ever before. They had both the
technological and economic advantage.

Lesson Vocabulary
turnpike private road built by entrepreneurs who charged a toll to
travelers to use it
urban center large, crowded urban area

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SOCIAL IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISM

The Industrial Revolution brought rapid urbanization, or the MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
movement of people to cities. Changes in farming, soaring
population growth, and a demand for workers led masses of people
to migrate from farms to cities. Almost overnight, small towns that
were located around coal or iron mines grew into cities. Other cities
developed around the factories in once-quiet market towns.
Those who benefited most from the Industrial Revolution were
the entrepreneurs who set it in motion. The Industrial Revolution
created this new middle class, whose members included merchants,
artisans, and inventors, as well as entrepreneurs. While the wealthy
and the middle class lived in pleasant neighborhoods, vast numbers
of poor struggled to survive in slums. They were packed into tiny
rooms in tenements that had no running water and no sewage or
sanitation system. Sewage rotted in the streets or was dumped into
rivers, which created an overwhelming stench and contaminated
drinking water. This led to the spread of diseases such as cholera.
The heart of the new industrial city was the factory. Working in a
factory differed greatly from working on a farm. In rural villages,
people worked hard, but the work varied according to the season.
Some seasons were easier than others. The factory system imposed a
harsh new way of life on workers. Working hours were long, with
shifts lasting from twelve to sixteen hours, six or seven days a week.
Exhausted workers were injured by machines that had no safety
devices. Working conditions in the mines were even worse than in
the factories. Factories and mines also hired many boys and girls.
These children often started working at age seven or eight; a few
were as young as five. To combat the poor conditions of children
faced in factories, the Sadler Report was presented to Parliament. It
brought to light children’s working conditions and helped to pass
the Factory Act of 1833, which provided more regulations.
The early industrial age brought terrible hardships. In time,
however, reformers pressed for laws to improve working conditions.
Labor unions won the right to bargain with employers for better
wages, hours, and working conditions. Despite the social problems
created by the Industrial Revolution—low pay, dismal living
conditions—the industrial age did have some positive effects. Wages
rose. There were more job opportunities. A variety of goods were

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
urbanization movement of people from rural areas to cities
tenement multistory building divided into crowded apartments
labor union organization of workers who bargain for better pay
and working conditions

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SOCIAL IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISM (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES available in the marketplace for prices that more people could
afford. Slowly the standard of living rose for workers. Working-
class men gained the right to vote. People had opportunities that had
not been available before. The Industrial Revolution increased the
chances for social mobility, or the ability of individuals or groups to
move up the social scale.
Many thinkers tried to understand the staggering changes taking
place in the early Industrial Age. These thinkers looked for natural
laws that governed the world of business and economics that had
first been proposed by Adam Smith, author of The Wealth of Nations.
Middle-class business leaders embraced the laissez-faire, or “hands-
off” approach, believing that a free market would eventually help
everyone, not just the rich. However, one British laissez-faire
economist, Thomas Malthus, felt that the population would grow
faster than the food supply. As long as the population kept growing,
the poor would suffer. He opposed any government help, including
charity and vaccinations. He urged families to have fewer children.
Another British laissez-faire economist, David Ricardo, dedicated
himself to economics after studying Adam Smith. Like Malthus,
Ricardo suggested that poverty would be difficult to escape. In his
“Iron Law of Wages,” Ricardo said that wage increases would only
cover the cost of basic needs. He pointed out that when families had
more income, they had more children instead of increasing their
standard of living.
Other thinkers sought to modify laissez-faire ideas to justify
some government intervention. The British philosopher and
economist Jeremy Bentham advocated utilitarianism, or the idea
that the goal of society should be the “greatest happiness for the
greatest number” of citizens. Bentham’s ideas influenced the British
philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill. Although he strongly
believed in individual freedom, Mill wanted the government to step
in to improve the hard lives of the working class.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
standard of living the level of material goods and services
available to people in a society
social mobility the ability of individuals or groups to move up the
social scale
free market unregulated exchange of goods and services
utilitarianism idea that the goal of society should be to bring about
the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

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Lesson Summary
SOCIAL IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISM (continued)

To end poverty and injustice, others offered a radical solution— MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
socialism. Under socialism, the people, as a whole rather than as
individuals, would own and operate the means of production—the
farms, factories, railways, and other businesses that produced and
distributed goods. A number of early socialists, such as Robert
Owen, established communities where all work was shared and all
property was owned in common. These early socialists were called
Utopians.
Karl Marx, a German philosopher, formulated a new theory. His
theory predicted a struggle between social classes that would end in
a classless society that he called communist. In a classless,
communist society, the struggles of the proletariat, or working class,
would end because wealth and power would be equally shared. In
practice, communism later referred to a system in which a small elite
controlled the economy and politics. In the 1860s, German socialists
adapted Marx’s beliefs to form the idea of social democracy, which
called for a slow transition from capitalism to socialism.

Lesson Vocabulary
socialism system in which the people as a whole, rather than
private individuals, own all property and operate all businesses
means of production farms, factories, railways, and other large
businesses that produce and distribute goods
proletariat working class
communism form of socialism advocated by Karl Marx; According
to Marx, class struggle was inevitable and would lead to the creation
of a classless society in which all wealth and property would be
owned by the community as a whole.
social democracy political ideology in which there is a gradual
transition from capitalism into socialism instead of a sudden, violent
overthrow of the system

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Lesson Summary
THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Technology sparked industrial and economic growth. Henry
Bessemer patented the process for making steel from iron. Steel
became so important that industrialized countries measured their
success in steel output. Alfred Nobel earned enough money from his
invention of dynamite to fund today’s Nobel prizes. Electricity
replaced steam as the dominant industrial energy source. Michael
Faraday created the first simple electric motor, as well as the first
dynamo. In the 1870s, Thomas Edison made the first electric light
bulb. Soon, electricity lit entire cities, the pace of city life quickened,
and factories continued to operate after dark. Interchangeable parts
and the assembly line made production faster and cheaper.
Technology also transformed transportation and communication.
Steamships replaced sailing ships. Railroads connected cities,
seaports, and industrial centers. The invention of the internal
combustion engine sparked the automobile age. In the early 1900s,
Henry Ford developed an assembly line to produce cars, making the
United States a leader in the automobile industry. The air age began
when Orville and Wilbur Wright flew their airplane for a few
seconds in 1903. Communication advances included the telegraph
and telephone. Guglielmo Marconi’s radio became the cornerstone
of today’s global communication network.
New technologies needed investments of large amounts of
money. To get the money, owners sold stock to investors, growing
businesses into giant corporations. By the late 1800s, what we call
“big business” came to dominate industry. Corporations formed
cartels to control markets.
Between 1800 and 1900, the population of Europe more than
doubled. Advances in medicine slowed death rates and caused a
population explosion. In the fight against disease, scientists

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
dynamo a machine used to generate electricity
interchangeable parts identical components that can be used in
place of one another in manufacturing
assembly line a production method that breaks down a complex
job into a series of smaller tasks
stock shares in a company
corporation a business owned by many investors who buy shares
of stock and risk only the amount of their investment
cartel a group of companies that join together to control the
production and price of a product

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Lesson Summary
THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (continued)

speculated about a germ theory. They believed that certain germs MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
might cause specific diseases. In 1870, French chemist Louis Pasteur
showed that this link is real. Ten years later, German doctor Robert
Koch identified the bacteria that causes tuberculosis, a deadly
respiratory disease. As people began to understand how germs
cause diseases, they practiced better hygiene. This helped decrease
the number of deaths from disease. Better hygiene also led to
improvements in hospital care. British nurse and reformer Florence
Nightingale introduced sanitary measures in hospitals. The English
surgeon Joseph Lister discovered how antiseptics prevent infection.
As industrialization progressed, city life underwent dramatic
changes in Europe and the United States. The most extensive urban
renewal took place in Paris in the 1850s. Wide boulevards, paved
streets, and splendid public buildings replaced old streets full of
tenement housing. Architects used steel to build soaring buildings
called skyscrapers. Electric streetlights illuminated the night,
increasing safety. Massive new sewage systems in London and Paris
provided cleaner water and better sanitation, sharply cutting death
rates from disease.
Despite these efforts, urban life remained difficult for the poor.
In the worst tenements, whole families were often crammed into a
single room. Slums remained a fact of city life. Still, millions of
people were attracted to cities because of the promise of work,
entertainment, and educational opportunities.
However, industrialization and urban improvements did not
improve conditions for workers. Most experienced low wages, long
hours, unsafe environments, and the constant threat of
unemployment. Workers protested these terrible conditions. They
formed mutual-aid societies and organized unions. Pressured by
unions, reformers, and working-class voters, governments passed
laws to regulate working conditions. Wages varied, but overall,
many workers were able to buy more things because of rising wages.
Worker also benefited from the move to provide public education.

Lesson Vocabulary
germ theory the theory that infectious diseases are caused by
certain microbes
urban renewal the process of fixing up the poor areas of a city
mutual-aid society self-help group to aid sick or injured workers

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Lesson Summary
CHANGING WAYS OF LIFE AND THOUGHT

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the late 1800s, the social order in the Western world slowly
changed. Instead of nobles and peasants, a more complex social
structure emerged, made up of three classes. The new upper class
included very rich business families, as well as the old nobility.
Below this tiny elite were a growing middle class and a struggling
lower middle class. Workers and peasants were at the bottom of the
social ladder.
The middle class developed its own values and way of life,
which included a strict code of rules that dictated behavior for every
occasion. A cult of domesticity also emerged that idealized women
and the home.
Demands for women’s rights also challenged the traditional
social order. Across Europe and the United States, many women
campaigned for fairness in marriage, divorce, and property laws.
Many women’s groups also supported the temperance movement.
In the United States, reformers such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and
Sojourner Truth were dedicated to achieving women’s suffrage.
Industrialized societies recognized the need for a literate
workforce. Reformers persuaded many governments to require basic
education for all children and to set up public schools. More and
more children attended school, and public education improved.
At the same time, new ideas in science challenged long-held
beliefs. John Dalton developed the modern atomic theory. The most
controversial new idea, however, came from the British naturalist
Charles Darwin. His ideas upset those who debated the validity of
his conclusions. Darwin argued that all forms of life had evolved
over millions of years. According to his theory of natural selection,
members of each species compete to survive. Darwin’s theory
caused controversy, since his ideas seemed to contradict the Bible.
Unfortunately, other people applied Darwin’s theory of natural
selection to encourage racism. Others applied his ideas to economic
competition.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
cult of domesticity idealization of women and the home
temperance movement campaign to limit or ban the use of
alcoholic beverages
women’s suffrage right of women to vote
racism belief that one racial group is superior to another

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Lesson Summary
CHANGING WAYS OF LIFE AND THOUGHT (continued)

Religion continued to be a major force in Western society. The

grim realities of industrial life stirred feelings of compassion and
charity. For example, the social gospel urged Christians to push for
reforms in housing, healthcare, and education. The Salvation Army
both spread Christian teachings and provided social services.
From about 1750 to 1850, a cultural movement called
romanticism emerged in Western art and literature. The movement
was a reaction against the rationality and restraint of the
Enlightenment. Romanticism emphasized imagination, freedom,
and emotion. In contrast to Enlightenment literature, the works of
romantic writers included direct language, intense feelings, and a
glorification of nature.
Poets William Wordsworth, William Blake, and Lord Byron were
among the major figures of the Romantic Movement. Romantic
novelists, such as Victor Hugo, were inspired by history, legend, and
folklore. Romantic composers also tried to stir deep emotions. The
passionate music of Ludwig van Beethoven conveyed universal
themes that transcended his own time and place, themes such as the
emotions of love, loss, death, joy, and fear. Painters, too, broke free
from the formal styles of the Enlightenment. They sought to capture
the beauty and power of nature with bold brush strokes and colors.
By the mid-1800s, another new artistic movement, realism, took
hold in the West. Realists sought to represent the world as it was,
without romantic sentiment. Their works made people aware of the
grim conditions of the Industrial Age. Many realists wanted to
improve the lives of those they depicted. Charles Dickens, for
example, vividly portrayed in his novels the lives of slum dwellers
and factory workers. Some of his novels shocked middle-class
readers with images of poverty, mistreatment of children, and urban
crime. Painters such as Gustave Courbet also portrayed the realities
of the time.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
social gospel movement of the 1800s that urged Christians to do
social service
romanticism 19th-century artistic movement that appealed to
emotion rather than reason
realism 19th-century artistic movement whose aim was to
represent the world as it is

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CHANGING WAYS OF LIFE AND THOUGHT (continued)

By the 1840s, a new art form, photography, emerged. Louis

Daguerre produced some of the first successful photographs. Some
artists questioned the effectiveness of realism when a camera could
make such exact images. By the 1870s, one group had started a new
art movement, impressionism. Impressionists, such as Claude
Monet, sought to capture the first fleeting impression made by a
scene or object on the viewer’s eye. By concentrating on visual
impressions, rather than realism, artists created a fresh view of
familiar subjects. Later painters, called postimpressionists,
developed a variety of styles. Vincent van Gogh, for example,
experimented with sharp brush lines and bright colors.

Lesson Vocabulary
impressionism school of painting of the late 1800s and early 1900s
that tried to capture fleeting visual impressions

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7 Review Questions
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1750–1914)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous pages.

Lesson 1: The Industrial Revolution Begins

1. What factors contributed to the start of the Industrial Revolution in Britain?

2. Identify Causes and Effects Identify causes and effects of the great revolution in
transportation in England.

Lesson 2: Social Impact of Industrialism

3. What caused rapid urbanization to occur during the Industrial Revolution?

4. Understand Effects How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of the
working class?

Lesson 3: The Second Industrial Revolution

5. How did the development of electricity change life in cities?

6. Identify Main Ideas How was transportation transformed during the Industrial
Revolution?

Lesson 4: Changing Ways of Life and Thought

7. How did the Romantic Movement differ from the Enlightenment?

8. Identify Supporting Details Identify two supporting details for the following main
idea: The artists of the realism movement made people more aware of the harsh
conditions of life in the Industrial Age.

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Note Taking Study Guide
8 114NATIONALISM AND THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRACY (1790–1914)

Focus Question: How did nationalism shape the world of the late
19th century?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to recognize the leaders and peoples that tried to encourage nationalism and those that
tried to reverse it.

Against Nationalism For Nationalism

Action Result Action Result
Prince Metternich French and Revolts in Spain French and
of Austria opposes Austrian troops and Italy Austrian troops
revolts in Spain smash rebellions. smash rebellions.
and Italy.

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Lesson Summary
REVOLUTIONS SWEEP EUROPE

After the Congress of Vienna, people with opposing ideologies MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
plunged Europe into decades of turmoil. Conservatives, including
monarchs, nobles, and church leaders, favored a return to the social
order that had existed before 1789. They decided to work together
in an agreement called the Concert of Europe.
Conservatives wanted to restore the monarchies that Napoleon
had deposed. They supported a social hierarchy in which lower
classes respected and obeyed their social superiors. They also
backed established churches and opposed constitutional
governments. Conservative leaders such as Prince Metternich of
Austria sought to suppress revolutionary ideas.
Inspired by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution,
liberals and nationalists challenged conservatives. Liberals included
business owners, bankers, lawyers, politicians, and writers. They
wanted governments based on written constitutions. They opposed
established churches and divine-right monarchies. They believed
that liberty, equality, and property were natural rights. They saw
government’s role as limited to protecting basic rights, such as
freedom of thought, speech, and religion. Only later in the century
did liberals come to support universal manhood suffrage, giving all
men the right to vote. Liberals also strongly supported laissez-faire
economics.
Nationalism gave people with a common heritage a sense of
identity and the goal of creating their own homeland. In the 1800s,
national groups within the Austrian and Ottoman empires set out to
create their own states. Rebellions erupted in the Balkans, where
there were people of various religions and ethnic groups. The Serbs
were the first to revolt. By 1830, Russian support helped the Serbs
win autonomy, or self-rule, within the Ottoman empire. In 1821, the
Greeks revolted, and by 1830, Greece was independent from the
Ottomans.
Revolts spread to Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Metternich urged
conservative rulers to crush the uprisings. In response, French and
Austrian troops smashed rebellions in Spain and Italy.
In the next decades, sparks of rebellion would flare anew. Added
to liberal and nationalist demands were the goals of the new industrial
working class. By the mid-1800s, social reformers and agitators were
urging workers to support socialism or other ways of reorganizing
property ownership.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
ideology system of thought or belief
universal manhood suffrage right of all adult men to vote
autonomy self-rule

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Lesson Summary
REVOLUTIONS SWEEP EUROPE (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In 1824, Charles X inherited the French throne. In 1830, Charles
suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted
the press. Angry citizens, led by liberals and radicals, rebelled and
soon controlled Paris. Charles X abdicated. Radicals hoped to set up
a republic, but liberals insisted on a constitutional monarchy. Louis
Philippe was chosen king. As the “citizen king,” Louis favored the
bourgeoisie, or middle class, over the workers.
The Paris revolts inspired uprisings elsewhere in Europe. Most
failed, but the revolutions frightened rulers and encouraged reforms.
One notable success was in Belgium, which achieved its
independence from Holland in 1831. Nationalists also revolted in
Poland in 1830, but they failed to win widespread support. Russian
forces crushed the rebels.
In the 1840s, discontent began to grow again in France. Radicals,
socialists, and liberals denounced Louis Philippe’s government.
Discontent was heightened by a recession. People lost their jobs, and
poor harvests caused bread prices to rise. When the government
tried to silence critics, angry crowds took to the streets in February
1848. The turmoil spread, and Louis Philippe abdicated. A group of
liberals, radicals, and socialists proclaimed the Second Republic.
By June, the upper and middle classes had won control of the
government. Workers again took to the streets of Paris. At least 1,500
people were killed before the government crushed the rebellion. By
the end of 1848, the National Assembly had issued a constitution for
the Second Republic, giving the right to vote to all adult men. When
the election for president was held, Louis Napoleon, the nephew of
Napoleon Bonaparte, won. However, by 1852 he had proclaimed
himself Emperor Napoleon III. This ended the Second Republic.
The revolts in Paris in 1848 again led to revolutions across
Europe, especially in the Austrian empire. Revolts broke out in
Vienna, and Metternich resigned. In Budapest, Hungarian
nationalists led by Louis Kossuth demanded an independent
government. In Prague, the Czechs made similar demands. The
Italian states also revolted, and the German states demanded
national unity. While the rebellions had some short-term success,
most of them had failed by 1850.

Lesson Vocabulary
radical one who favors extreme changes
recession period of reduced economic activity

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LATIN AMERICAN NATIONS WIN INDEPENDENCE

By the late 1700s, revolutionary fever had spread to Latin America, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
where the social system had led to discontent. Spanish-born
peninsulares, the highest social class, dominated the government and the
Church. Many creoles—Latin Americans of European descent who
owned the haciendas, ranches, and mines—resented their second-class
status. Mestizos, people of Native American and European descent, and
mulattoes, people of African and European descent, were angry at being
denied the status, wealth, and power that the other groups enjoyed.
The Enlightenment and the French and American revolutions
inspired creoles, but they were reluctant to act. However, when
Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, Latin American leaders decided to
demand independence from Spain.
Revolution had already erupted in Hispaniola in 1791 when
Toussaint L’Ouverture led a slave rebellion there. The fighting cost
many lives, but the rebels achieved their goal of abolishing slavery
and taking control of the island. Napoleon’s army tried to reconquer
the island but failed. In 1804, the island declared itself independent
under the name Haiti.
In 1810, a creole priest, Father Miguel Hidalgo, called Mexicans
to fight for independence. After some successes, he was captured
and executed. Father José Morelos tried to carry the revolution
forward, but he too was captured and killed. Success finally came in
1821 when revolutionaries led by Agustín de Iturbide overthrew the
Spanish viceroy and declared independence. Central American
colonies soon declared independence, as well.
In the early 1800s, discontent spread across South America.
Simón Bolívar led an uprising in Venezuela. Conservative forces
toppled his new republic, but Bolívar did not give up. In a grueling
campaign, he marched his army across the Andes, swooping down
into Bogotá and taking the city from the surprised Spanish. Then he
moved south to free Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. There, he joined
forces with another great leader, José de San Martín. San Martín
helped Argentina and Chile win freedom from Spain.
The wars of independence ended in 1824, but power struggles
among South American leaders led to destructive civil wars. In
Brazil, Dom Pedro, the son of the Portuguese king, became emperor
and proclaimed independence for Brazil in 1822.

Lesson Vocabulary
peninsular member of the highest class in Spain’s colonies in the
Americas
creole person in Spain’s colonies in the Americas who was an
American-born descendent of Spanish settlers
mestizo person in Spain’s colonies in the Americas who was of
Native American and European descent
mulatto in Spain's colonies in the Americas, person who was of
African and European descent
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THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the early 1800s, German-speaking peoples lived in a number of
German states. Many also lived in Prussia and the Austrian empire.
There was no unified German nation. However, in the mid-
nineteenth century events unfolded that eventually led to a united
Germany.
Between 1806 and 1812, Napoleon invaded these lands. He
organized a number of German states into the Rhine Confederation.
After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna created the German
Confederation. This was a weak alliance of German states headed by
Austria. In the 1830s, Prussia created an economic union called the
Zollverein. This union removed tariff barriers between many German
states, yet they remained politically fragmented.
Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, led the drive to
unite the German states—under Prussian rule. Bismarck was a
master of Realpolitik, or realistic politics based on the needs of the
state. After creating a powerful military, he was ready to pursue an
aggressive foreign policy. Over the next decade, Bismarck led
Prussia into three wars. Each war increased Prussian power and
paved the way for German unity.
In 1866, Bismarck created an excuse to attack Austria. The
Austro-Prussian War lasted only seven weeks. Afterwards, Prussia
annexed several north German states. In France, the Prussian victory
angered Napoleon III. A growing rivalry between the two nations
led to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Bismarck created a crisis by
rewriting and releasing to the press a telegram that reported on a
meeting between William I of Prussia and the French ambassador.
Bismarck’s editing of the telegram made it seem that William I had
insulted the Frenchman. Furious, Napoleon III declared war on
Prussia, as Bismarck had hoped. The Prussian army quickly defeated
the French.
Delighted by the victory, German princes persuaded William
I to take the title kaiser of Germany. In January 1871, German
nationalists celebrated the birth of the Second Reich. Bismarck
drafted a constitution that created a two-house legislature. Even so,
the real power remained in the hands of the kaiser and Bismarck.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
chancellor the highest official of a monarch, prime minister
Realpolitik realistic politics based on the needs of the state
annex add a territory to an existing state or country
kaiser emperor of Germany
Reich German empire

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Lesson Summary
THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY (continued)

After unification in 1871, the new German empire emerged as MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
an industrial giant. Several factors, including ample iron and
coal resources, made industrialization in Germany possible. A
disciplined and educated workforce also spurred economic growth.
The German middle class created a productive and efficient society
that prided itself on its sense of responsibility. Additionally, a
growing population provided a huge home market for goods and a
large supply of industrial workers.
German industrialists recognized the value of applied science in
developing new products, such as synthetic chemicals and dyes.
Both industrialists and the government supported scientific research
and development. The government also promoted economic
development. It issued a single form of currency for Germany and
reorganized the banking system. The leaders of the new empire were
determined to maintain economic strength as well as military power.
Bismarck pursued several foreign-policy goals. He wanted to
keep France weak and build strong links with Austria and Russia.
On the domestic front, Bismarck, known as the “Iron Chancellor,”
targeted the Catholic Church and the Socialists. He believed
these groups posed a threat to the new German state. He thought
Catholics would be more loyal to the Church than to Germany. He
also worried that Socialists would undermine the loyalty of workers
and turn them toward revolution.
Bismarck tried to repress both groups, but his efforts failed. For
example, the Kulturkampf was a set of laws intended to weaken the
role of the Church. Instead, the faithful rallied to support the
Church. When repressing the Socialists failed to work, Bismarck
changed course and pioneered social reform.
In 1888, William II became the kaiser. He believed that his right
to rule came from God, and he shocked Europe by asking Bismarck
to resign. Not surprisingly, William II resisted efforts to introduce
democratic reforms. However, his government provided many
social welfare programs to help certain groups of people. The
government also provided services such as cheap transportation
and electricity.

Lesson Vocabulary
Kulturkampf Bismarck's “battle for civilization,” intended to make
Catholics put loyalty to the state above their allegiance to the Church
social welfare programs provided by the state for the benefit of its
citizens

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THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The peoples of the Italian peninsula had not been unified since
Roman times. By the early 1800s, however, patriots were determined
to build a new, united Italy. As in Germany, Napoleon’s invasions
had sparked dreams of nationalism.
In the 1830s, the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded
Young Italy. The goal of this secret society was “to constitute Italy,
one, free, independent, republican nation.” To nationalists like
Mazzini, establishing a unified Italy made sense because of
geography and a common language and history. It also made
economic sense because it would end trade barriers among Italian
states. Unification would stimulate industry, too.
Victor Emmanuel II, the constitutional monarch of Sardinia,
hoped to join other states with his own and increase his power. In
1852, he made Count Camillo Cavour his prime minister. Cavour’s
long-term goal was to end Austrian power in Italy. Cavour
provoked a war with Austria, and with the help of France, defeated
Austria and annexed Lombardy.
Meanwhile, nationalist groups overthrew Austrian-backed
leaders in other northern Italian states. In the south, Giuseppe
Garibaldi had recruited a force of 1,000 red-shirted volunteers. He
and his “Red Shirts” quickly won control of Sicily. Then they crossed
to the mainland and marched triumphantly to Naples. Garibaldi
turned over both regions to Victor Emmanuel. In 1861, Victor
Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy.
Only Rome and Venetia remained outside the new Italian nation.
However, Italy formed an alliance with Bismarck during the Austro-
Prussian War and won the province of Venetia. Then, during the
Franco-Prussian War, France was forced to withdraw its troops from
Rome. For the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire, Italy was
a united land.
However, Italy faced many problems as anarchists and radicals
struggled against the conservative government. Tensions grew
between the north and south. The north was richer and had more
cities. The south was poor and rural. Still, Italy developed economically
and the population grew. For many, however, emigration offered a
chance to improve their lives. Large numbers of Italians left for the
United States, Canada, and Latin America.

Lesson Vocabulary
anarchist a person who wants to abolish all government
emigration movement away from one’s homeland

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DEMOCRATIC REFORMS IN BRITAIN

In 1815, Britain was governed by a constitutional monarchy with a MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Parliament and two political parties. But it was far from democratic.
The House of Lords was controlled by wealthy nobles and squires.
The House of Lords could veto any bill passed by the House of
Commons. Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants could not vote.
Rotten boroughs still sent members to Parliament, while new
industrial cities had no seats allocated in Parliament. The Great
Reform Act of 1832 redistributed seats in the House of Commons,
giving representation to new cities and eliminating rotten boroughs.
From 1837 to 1901, the great symbol in British life was Queen
Victoria. She set the tone for the Victorian age that was named for
her. She embodied the values of duty, thrift, honesty, hard work,
and respectability. Under Victoria, the middle class felt confident,
and that confidence grew as the British empire expanded.
In the 1860s, a new era dawned in British politics. Benjamin
Disraeli and William Gladstone alternated as prime minister and
fought for important reforms. The Reform Bill of 1867 gave the vote
to many working-class men, and in the 1880s, the vote was extended
to farm workers and most other men. By the century’s end, Britain
had transformed from a constitutional monarchy to a parliamentary
democracy. In 1911, measures were passed that restricted the power
of the House of Lords, and it eventually became a largely ceremonial
body.
Also during this time, Parliament passed important laws
enacting economic and social reforms. The Corn Laws imposed high
tariffs that benefited farmers and landowners, but made bread more
expensive for consumers. In 1846, Parliament repealed the Corn
Laws. Gradually, Parliament passed laws to regulate conditions in
factories and mines. Trade unions became legal in 1825 and worked
to improve the lives of their members. Both the Liberal and
Conservative parties enacted reforms to benefit workers.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
rotten borough rural town in England that sent members to
Parliament despite having few or no voters
parliamentary democracy a form of government in which the
executive leaders (usually a prime minister and cabinet) are chosen
by and responsible to the legislature (parliament), and are also
members of it
repeal cancel

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DEMOCRATIC REFORMS IN BRITAIN (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During this time, women struggled for the right to vote. When
mass meetings and other peaceful efforts brought no results,
Emmeline Pankhurst and other suffragists turned to more drastic,
violent protest. They smashed windows, burned buildings, and went
on hunger strikes. Not until 1918 did Parliament finally grant
suffrage to women over 30.
Throughout the 1800s, Britain faced the “Irish Question.” The
Irish resented British rule. Many Irish peasants lived in poverty
while paying high rents to absentee landlords living in England.
Irish Catholics also had to pay tithes to the Church of England. The
potato famine made problems worse. Under Gladstone, the
government finally ended the use of Irish tithes to support the
Church of England and passed laws to protect the rights of Irish
tenant farmers.

Lesson Vocabulary
absentee landlord one who owns a large estate but does not live
there

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Lesson Summary
DIVISIONS AND DEMOCRACY IN FRANCE

After the revolution of 1848, Napoleon III established the Second MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Empire in France. At first, he ruled like a dictator. In the 1860s,
however, he lifted some censorship and gave the legislature more
power. He promoted investment in industry and ventures such as
railroad building. During this period, a French entrepreneur
organized the building of the Suez Canal in Egypt.
However, Napoleon III had major failures in foreign affairs. He
tried to put the Austrian archduke Maximilian on the throne of
Mexico, but Maximilian was overthrown and killed. France and
Britain won the Crimean War, but France suffered terrible losses and
few gains. The Franco-Prussian War was a disaster, ending in a
harsh defeat for France.
Following that defeat, republicans established a provisional, or
temporary, government. In 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, and
rebels set up the Paris Commune. Its goal was to save the Republic
from royalists. When the rebels did not disband, the government
sent in troops and 20,000 rebels were killed.
The provisional government soon became the Third Republic.
Although the legislature elected a president, the premier had the
real power. There were many political parties, but none were
strong enough to take control. Because of this, parties had to form
coalitions, or alliances, to govern. Coalition governments are often
unstable, and France had 50 different coalition governments in the
first 10 years of the Third Republic.
A series of political scandals in the 1880s and 1890s shook public
trust in the government. The most divisive scandal was the Dreyfus
affair. Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish army officer wrongly accused
and convicted of spying for Germany. Author Émile Zola was
convicted of libel when he charged the army and government
with suppressing the truth. The affair revealed strong anti-Semitic
feelings in France and led Theodor Herzl to launch Zionism, a
movement to establish a Jewish state.
France achieved serious democratic reforms in the early 1900s.
It passed labor laws regulating wages, hours, and safety conditions.
Free public elementary schools were established. The French
government tried to repress church involvement in their government.
In 1905, the government passed a law to separate church and state.
Women made some gains, but they did not win the right to vote
until after World War II.

Lesson Vocabulary
provisional temporary
premier prime minister
coalition temporary alliance of various political parties
libel knowing publication of false and damaging statements

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Lesson Summary
GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the 1800s, the United States followed a policy of expansionism, or
extending the nation’s boundaries. In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase
nearly doubled the size of the country. More territory was soon
added in the West and South. Americans believed in Manifest
Destiny, or the idea that their nation was destined to spread across
the entire continent.
Voting, slavery, and women’s rights were important issues at
this time. In 1800, only white men who owned property could vote.
By the 1830s, most white men had the right to vote. William Lloyd
Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and other abolitionists called for an
end to slavery. Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B.
Anthony, and others began to seek equality for women.
Economic differences, as well as slavery, divided the country
into the North and the South. When Abraham Lincoln was elected in
1860, most southern states seceded, or withdrew, from the Union.
The American Civil War soon began. Southerners fought fiercely,
but the North had more people, more industry, and more resources.
The South finally surrendered in 1865.
During the war, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation,
which declared that the slaves in the South were free. After the war,
slavery was banned throughout the nation, and African Americans
were granted some political rights. However, African Americans still
faced restrictions, including segregation, or legal separation, in public
places. Some state laws prevented African Americans from voting.
After the Civil War, the United States became the world leader in
industrial and agricultural production. By 1900, giant monopolies
controlled whole industries. For example, John D. Rockefeller’s Standard
Oil Company dominated the world’s petroleum industry. Big business
enjoyed huge profits, but not everyone shared in the prosperity.
Reformers tried to address this problem. Unions sought better
wages and working conditions for factory workers. Farmers and city
workers formed the Populist Party to seek changes. Progressives
sought to ban child labor, limit working hours, regulate monopolies,
and give voters more power. Progressives also worked to get women
the right to vote, which they did in 1920.

Lesson Vocabulary
expansionism policy of increasing the amount of territory a
government holds
secede withdraw
segregation forced separation by race, sex, religion, or ethnicity

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Lesson Summary
NATIONALISM IN EASTERN EUROPE AND RUSSIA

In 1800, the Hapsburgs of Austria, the oldest ruling house in Europe, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
presided over a multinational empire. The emperor, Francis I,
upheld conservative goals against growing liberal forces. He
could not, however, hold back the changes that were happening
throughout Europe. By the 1840s, Austria was facing the problems
of industrial life, including growth of cities, worker discontent, and
socialism. Nationalists were threatening the old order.
The Hapsburgs ignored these demands for change and crushed
revolts. Amid the turmoil, 18-year-old Francis Joseph inherited the
Hapsburg throne. He granted some limited reforms, such as
adopting a constitution that set up a legislature. However, these
reforms only satisfied German-speaking Austrians. The reforms did
not satisfy the other national groups within the empire.
Austria’s defeat in the 1866 war with Prussia brought even more
pressure for change, especially from the Hungarians. Ferenc Deák
helped work out a compromise known as the Dual Monarchy.
Under this agreement, Austria and Hungary became separate states.
Each had its own constitution, but Francis Joseph ruled both—as
emperor of Austria and king of Hungary.
However, other groups within the empire resented this
arrangement. Restlessness increased among various Slavic groups.
Some nationalist leaders called on Slavs to unite in “fraternal
solidarity.” By the early 1900s, nationalist unrest left the government
paralyzed in the face of pressing political and social problems.
Like the Hapsburgs, the Ottomans ruled a multinational empire. It
stretched from Eastern Europe and the Balkans to the Middle East and
North Africa. As in Austria, nationalist demands tore at the fabric of
the Ottoman Empire. During the 1800s, various peoples revolted,
hoping to set up their own independent states. With the empire
weakened, European powers scrambled to divide up Ottoman lands.
A complex web of competing interests led to a series of crises
and wars in the Balkans. Russia fought several wars against the
Ottomans. France and Britain sometimes joined the Russians, and
sometimes the Ottomans. By the early 1900s, observers were
referring to the region as the “Balkan powder keg.” The “explosion”
came in 1914 and helped set off World War I.
By 1815, Russia was the largest, most populous nation in Europe.
The Russian colossus had immense natural resources. Reformers
hoped to free Russia from autocratic rule, economic backwardness,
and social injustice. One of the obstacles to progress was the rigid
social structure. Another was the absolute power that tsars had
wielded for centuries, while the majority of Russians were poor serfs.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
colossus giant

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NATIONALISM IN EASTERN EUROPE AND RUSSIA (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Alexander II became tsar in 1855 during the Crimean War.
Events in his reign represent the pattern of reform and repression of
previous tsars. The war, which ended in a Russian defeat, revealed
the country’s backwardness and inefficient bureaucracy. People
demanded changes, so Alexander II agreed to some reforms. He
ordered the emancipation of the serfs. He also set up a system of
local, elected assemblies called zemstvos. Then he introduced legal
reforms, such as trial by jury. These reforms, however, failed to
satisfy many Russians. Radicals pressed for even greater changes
and more reforms. The tsar then backed away from reform and
moved toward repression.
This sparked anger among radicals. In 1881, terrorists
assassinated Alexander II. In response, Alexander III revived harsh,
repressive policies. He also suppressed the cultures of non-Russian
peoples, which led to persecution. Official persecution encouraged
pogroms, or violent mob attacks on Jewish people. Many left Russia
and became refugees.
Russia began to industrialize under Alexander III and his son
Nicholas II. However, this increased political and social problems.
Industrialization led to poor working and living conditions. Nobles
and peasants feared the changes industrialization brought. News of
military losses to Japan added to the unrest.
On Sunday, January 22, 1905, a peaceful protest calling for
reforms turned deadly when the tsar’s troops killed and wounded
hundreds of people. In the months that followed this “Bloody
Sunday,” discontent exploded across Russia. Nicholas was forced to
make sweeping reforms. He agreed to summon a Duma. He then
appointed a new prime minister, Peter Stolypin. Stolypin realized
Russia needed reform, not repression. Unfortunately, the changes he
introduced were too limited, and he was assassinated in 1911. By
1914, Russia was still an autocracy, but the nation was simmering
with discontent.

Lesson Vocabulary
emancipation granting of freedom to serfs or slaves
zemstvos local elected assembly set up in Russia under Alexander II
pogrom violent attack on a Jewish community
refugee a person who flees from home or country to seek refuge
elsewhere, often because of political upheaval or famine

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Review Questions
8 NATIONALISM AND THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRACY (1790–1914)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Revolutions Sweep Europe

1. What caused the rebellion in France in 1830?

2. Identify Main Ideas What two groups generally struggled for political control
during the early nineteenth century?

Lesson 2: Latin American Nations Win Independence

3. Why were creoles ready to revolt by 1808?

4. Identify Main Ideas In the first paragraph of the Summary, most of the sentences
are supporting details. Which sentence states the main idea of that paragraph?

Lesson 3: The Unification of Germany

5. How did Bismarck use war to create a united Germany under Prussian rule?

6. Recognize Sequence What events led Napoleon III to declare war on Prussia?

Lesson 4: The Unification of Italy

7. Why did nationalists feel that a unified Italy made sense?

8. Recognize Sequence What events took place between Garibaldi’s recruitment of

the “Red Shirts” and Victor Emmanuel II’s crowning as king of Italy?

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8 128NATIONALISM AND THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRACY (1790–1914) (continued)

Lesson 5: Democratic Reforms in Britain

9. How is a parliamentary democracy organized?

10. Cause and Effect What were the effects of the Great Reform Act of 1832?

Lesson 6: Divisions and Democracy in France

11. What failures in foreign affairs took place under Napoleon III?

12. Recognize Sequence List, in chronological order, the three French governments
described in this section.

Lesson 7: Growth of the United States

13. How were African Americans deprived of equality after the Civil War?

14. Categorize Categorize the reforms discussed in this Summary by the group that
did or would benefit from them.

Lesson 8: Nationalism in Eastern Europe and Russia

15. What effect did the Crimean War have on Russia?

16. Recognize Sequence What are two events that led to the decline of the Austrian
empire in the late 1800s?

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CHAPTER

1 Note Taking Study Guide

TOPIC

S 9
129THE
MANYAGE
CULTURES
OF IMPERIALISM
MEET (1800–1914)
ECTION 1

Focus Question: How did the economic success of industrialized nations

lead them on imperialist adventures in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific
realm?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to identify the economic concerns that spurred imperialism and the impact imperialism
had on the countries involved.

Cause (Economic Need/Want) Effect (Imperialist Action)

Gold and diamonds in South Africa British claimed Boer land and later
moved farther north from South Africa

Oil in Iran (Persia)

British East India Company needed

money

British needed to control India after

Sepoy revolt

Opium War lost by China, which granted

economic concessions to Britain

China was pressured to sign treaties

opening more ports and allowing
Christian missionaries in China

Western powers needed Japanese

ports open for trade.

American sugar growers wanted to

control Hawaii.

U.S. invested in many Latin American

countries

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Lesson Summary
THE NEW IMPERIALISM

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Many western countries built overseas empires in the late 1800s.
This expansion, referred to as imperialism, is the domination by one
country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country
or region. In the 1800s, Europeans embarked on a path of aggressive
expansion called the “new imperialism.” There were several causes.
The Industrial Revolution was one. Manufacturers wanted access to
natural resources and markets for their goods. Colonies were also
an outlet for Europe’s growing population. Leaders claimed that
colonies were needed for national security. Industrial nations seized
overseas islands and harbors as bases to supply their ships.
Nationalism played an important role, too. When one European
country claimed an area, rival nations would move in and claim
nearby areas. Europeans felt that ruling a global empire increased a
nation’s prestige. Missionaries, doctors, and colonial officials
believed that they had a duty to spread Western civilization. Behind
the idea of the West’s civilizing mission was a growing sense of
racial superiority. Many Westerners used the idea of social
Darwinism to justify their domination of non-Western societies. As a
result, millions of non-Westerners were robbed of their cultural
heritage.
Europeans had the advantages of strong economies, well-
organized governments, and powerful armies and navies. Superior
technology, such as riverboats, the telegraph, and the Maxim
machine gun, enhanced European power. Africans and Asians tried
to resist Western expansion. Some people fought the invaders.
Others tried to strengthen their societies by maintaining their
traditions. Many organized nationalist movements to expel the
imperialists.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
imperialism domination by one country of the political, economic,
or cultural life of another country or region

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THE NEW IMPERIALISM (continued)

The leading imperial powers developed several systems to MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
control colonies. The French practiced direct rule. They sent officials
and soldiers from France to run the colony. Their goal was to
impose French culture on the natives. The British, by contrast, often
used indirect rule, governing through local rulers. In a protectorate,
local rulers were left in place but were expected to follow the advice
of European advisors on issues such as trade or missionary activity.
In a sphere of influence, an outside power claimed exclusive
investment or trading privileges but did not rule the area.
Imperialism had several consequences. Since Western powers
sought to teach Christianity and their own languages to colonized
people, local traditions faded. Western powers often also imposed
their own political power structures without understanding the pre-
existing structures. Finally, Western powers were usually interested
in a specific economic resource, such as a cash crop. Colonized
people were encouraged to work to produce that resource, which
disrupted existing local industries.

Lesson Vocabulary
protectorate country with its own government but under the
control of an outside power
sphere of influence area in which an outside power claims
exclusive investment or trading privileges

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EUROPEAN COLONIES IN AFRICA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Before the scramble for colonies began in the 1800s, North Africa
was under the rule of the declining Ottoman empire. West Africa
experienced an Islamic revival inspired by Usman dan Fodio. In East
Africa, port cities carried on a profitable trade. Zulus were a major
force in southern Africa. A brilliant Zulu leader, Shaka, conquered
nearby peoples. Groups driven from their homelands by the Zulus
migrated north, conquering other peoples and creating powerful
states. Meanwhile, European nations started to outlaw the
transatlantic slave trade, but the slave trade to Asia continued.
For many years, Europeans had been trading along the African
coasts. In the 1800s, contact increased as European explorers began
pushing into the interior of Africa. One of the best-known was the
missionary explorer Dr. David Livingstone. In 1869, the journalist
Henry Stanley trekked into Africa to find Livingstone, who had not
been heard from for years. Other missionaries followed explorers
such as Livingstone. They built schools, churches, and medical
clinics, often taking a paternalistic view of Africans.
About 1871, King Leopold II of Belgium hired Stanley to arrange
trade treaties with African leaders. Leopold’s actions prompted
Britain, France, and Germany to join in a scramble for African land.
Eventually, without consulting any Africans, European leaders met
in Berlin to divide the continent of Africa among themselves. In the
following years, Europeans expanded further into Africa, often
exploiting African people and resources. In southern African, the
Boer War began when Britain wanted to claim Boer land. The Boers
were descendants of Dutch farmers. The British wanted the land
because gold and diamonds had been discovered there.
Africans fought back against European imperialism. In West
Africa, Samori Touré fought French forces. Yaa Asantewaa was an
Asante queen who led the fight against the British in West Africa.
Another female leader was Nehanda of the Shona in Zimbabwe. In
most cases resistance was not successful. However, Ethiopia was
able to keep its independence. Earlier, Ethiopia had been divided
up among a number of rival princes who then ruled their own
domains. Menelik II modernized his country and trained an army,
successfully resisting Italian invaders.
The Age of Imperialism caused a Western-educated African
elite to emerge. Some admired Western ways. Others sought
independence through nationalist movements.

Lesson Vocabulary
paternalistic the system of governing a country as a father would a
child
elite upper class

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EUROPE AND THE MUSLIM WORLD

In the 1500s, three giant Muslim empires ruled large areas of the MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
world—the Ottomans in the Middle East, the Safavids in Persia, and
the Mughals in India. By the 1700s, all three Muslim empires were in
decline, in part because of corruption and discontent. Reform
movements arose, stressing religious piety and strict rules of
behavior. For example, in the Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad
announced that he was the Mahdi, the long-awaited savior of the
faith. The Mahdi and his followers fiercely resisted British expansion
into the region.
At its height, the Ottoman empire extended across North Africa,
southeastern Europe, and parts of the Middle East. Ambitious
pashas and economic problems added to the Ottoman decline. As
ideas of nationalism spread from Western Europe, internal revolts
by subject peoples weakened the empire. European states took
advantage of this weakness to grab Ottoman territory. Some
Ottoman leaders saw the need for reform. They looked to the West
for ideas on reorganizing the government and its rigid rules. In the
early 1700s, they reorganized the bureaucracy and system of tax
collection. However, sultans usually rejected reform, adding to the
tension. Tension between Ottoman Turkish nationalists and minority
groups led to a brutal genocide of Christian Armenians. Turks
accused Christian Armenians of supporting Russia against the
Ottoman empire.
In the early 1800s, Egypt was a semi-independent province of the
Ottoman empire. Muhammad Ali is sometimes called the “father of
modern Egypt” because he introduced a number of political and
economic reforms. He also conquered the neighboring lands of
Arabia, Syria, and Sudan. Before he died in 1849, he had set Egypt
on the road to becoming a major Middle Eastern power. His
successors were less skilled, however, and in 1882 Egypt became a
protectorate of Britain.
Like the Ottoman empire, Persia—now Iran—faced major
challenges. The Qajar shahs exercised absolute power. Foreign
nations, especially Russia and Britain, wanted to control Iran’s oil
fields. They were granted concessions and sent troops to protect
their interests. These actions outraged Iranian nationalists.

Lesson Vocabulary
Mahdi a Muslim savior of the faith
pasha provincial ruler in the Ottoman empire
sultan Muslim ruler
genocide deliberate attempt to destroy an entire religious or ethnic
group
concession special economic right given to a foreign power

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Lesson Summary
INDIA BECOMES A BRITISH COLONY

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Mughal rulers governed a powerful Muslim empire in India. The
British East India Company had trading rights on the fringes of the
Mughal empire. The main goal of the East India Company was to
make money. As Mughal power declined, the East India Company
extended its power. By the mid-1800s, it controlled three fifths of
India. The British were able to conquer India by exploiting its
diversity and by encouraging competition and disunity among rival
princes. When necessary, the British also used force. However,
British officials worked to end slavery and the caste system. They
banned sati, a custom that called for a widow to throw herself on her
husband’s funeral fire. In the 1850s, the East India Company made
several unpopular moves. The most serious brought about the Sepoy
Rebellion. Indian soldiers, or sepoys, were told to bite off the tips of
their rifle cartridges. This order caused a rebellion because the
cartridges were greased with animal fat, violating local religious
beliefs. The British crushed the revolt, killing thousands of unarmed
Indians. The rebellion left a legacy of mistrust on both sides.
After the rebellion, Parliament ended the rule of the East India
Company. Instead, a British viceroy governed India in the name of
the monarch. In this way, all of Britain could benefit from trade with
India as Britain incorporated India into the overall British economy.
However, it remained an unequal partnership, favoring the British.
Although the British built railroads and telegraph lines, they
destroyed India’s hand-weaving industry. Encouraging Indian
farmers to grow cash crops led to massive deforestation and
famines.
Some educated Indians urged India to follow a Western model of
progress. Others felt they should keep to their own Hindu or Muslim
cultures. In the early 1800s, Ram Mohun Roy combined both views.
Roy condemned rigid caste distinctions, child marriage, sati, and
purdah, or the isolation of women in separate quarters. He also set
up educational societies to help revive pride in Indian culture. Most
British disdained Indian culture and felt that Western-educated
Indians would support British rule. Instead, Indians dreamed of
ending British control. In 1885, Indian nationalists formed the Indian
National Congress and began pressing for self-rule.

Lesson Vocabulary
sati Hindu custom that called for a widow to join her husband in
death by throwing herself on his funeral pyre
sepoy Indian soldier who served in an army set up by the English
trading company
viceroy one who governed in India in the name of the British
monarch
deforestation the destruction of forest land
purdah isolation of women in separate quarters

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Lesson Summary
CHINA AND THE WEST

For centuries, China had a favorable balance of trade because of a MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
trade surplus. Westerners had a trade deficit with China, buying
more from the Chinese than they sold to them. This changed in the
late 1700s when the British began trading opium grown in India in
exchange for Chinese tea. The Chinese government outlawed opium
and called on Britain to stop this drug trade. The British refused,
leading to the Opium War in 1839. With outdated weapons and
fighting methods, the Chinese were easily defeated. Under the Treaty
of Nanjing, which ended the war, Britain received a huge indemnity
and British citizens gained the right of extraterritoriality. About a
decade later China lost another war. France, Russia, and the United
States then each made specific demands on China. China was
pressured to sign treaties stipulating the opening of more ports and
allowing Christian missionaries into China.
China also faced internal problems. Peasants hated the Qing
government because of corruption. The resulting Taiping Rebellion
against this government led to an estimated 20 million to 30 million
deaths. However, the Qing government survived. In addition, the
Chinese were divided over the need to adopt Western ways. Some felt
Western ideas and technology threatened Confucianism. Reformers
who wanted to adopt Western ways in the “self-strengthening
movement” did not have government support.
Meanwhile, China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894
encouraged European nations to carve out spheres of influence in
China. The United States feared that American merchants might be
shut out. Eventually, without consulting the Chinese, the United States
insisted that Chinese trade should be open to everyone on an equal
basis as part of an Open Door Policy. Chinese reformers blamed
conservatives for not modernizing China. In 1898, the emperor, Guang
Xu, launched the Hundred Days of Reform. Conservatives opposed
this reform effort and the emperor was imprisoned.
Many Chinese, including a secret society known to Westerners as
the Boxers, were angry about the presence of foreigners. Anti-foreign
feeling exploded in the Boxer Uprising in 1900. Although the Boxers
failed, nationalism increased. Reformers called for a republic. One of
them, Sun Yixian, became president of the new Chinese republic
when the Qing dynasty fell in 1911.

Lesson Vocabulary
balance of trade difference between how much a country imports
and how much it exports
trade surplus situation in which a country exports more than it imports
trade deficit situation in which a country imports more than it exports
indemnity payment for losses in war
extraterritoriality right of foreigners to be protected by the laws of
their own nation

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Lesson Summary
THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In 1603, the Tokugawa shoguns seized power in Japan and closed it
to foreigners. For more than 200 years, Japan was isolated from
other nations. Over time, unrest grew among many Japanese as
they suffered financial hardship and lack of political power. The
government responded by trying to revive old ways, emphasizing
farming over commerce. These efforts had little success, and the
shoguns’ power weakened.
Then, in 1853, a fleet of well-armed U.S. ships led by
Commodore Matthew Perry arrived. He demanded that Japan open
its ports. Unable to defend itself, Japan was forced to sign treaties
giving the United States trading and other rights. Humiliated by the
terms of these unequal treaties, discontented daimyo and samurai
led a revolt that unseated the shogun and placed the emperor
Mutsuhito in power. Mutsuhito moved to the shogun’s palace in the
city of Edo, which was renamed Tokyo, and began a long reign
known as the Meiji Restoration. This was a turning point in Japan’s
history.
The Meiji reformers wanted to create a new political and social
system and build a modern industrial economy. The Meiji
constitution gave all citizens equality before the law. A legislature,
or Diet, was formed, but the emperor held absolute power. With
government support, powerful banking and industrial families,
known as zaibatsu, soon ruled over industrial empires. By the 1890s,
industry was booming. Japan, a homogeneous society, modernized
with amazing speed, partly due to its strong sense of identity.
As a small island nation, Japan lacked many resources essential
for industry. Spurred by the need for natural resources and a strong
ambition to equal the Western imperial nations, Japan sought to
build an empire. In 1876, Japan forced Korea to open its ports to
Japanese trade. In 1894, competition between Japan and China in
Korea led to the First Sino-Japanese War, which Japan easily won.
Japan gained ports in China, won control over Taiwan, and joined
the West in the race for an empire. Ten years later, Japan successfully
fought Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. By the early 1900s, Japan
was the strong power in Asia.

Lesson Vocabulary
zaibatsu since the late 1800s, powerful banking and industrial
families in Japan
homogeneous society society that has common culture and
language

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

In the 1700s, most of Southeast Asia was still independent. By the MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
1800s, however, Westerners had colonized much of Southeast Asia.
The Dutch expanded to dominate the Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia). The British expanded from India into Burma and
Malaya. The French invaded Vietnam, seeking more influence and
trade markets. The Vietnamese fought fiercely but lost to superior
European firepower. The French eventually took over all of Vietnam,
Laos, and Cambodia and referred to these holdings as French
Indochina. By the 1890s, Europeans controlled most of Southeast
Asia.
The Philippines had been under Spanish rule since the 1500s. In
1898, the Spanish-American War broke out. Filipino rebel leaders
declared independence and helped the Americans win the war
against Spain, expecting independence. Instead, in the treaty that
ended the war, the United States gave Spain $20 million for control
of the Philippines. Bitterly disappointed, Filipinos renewed their
struggle for independence, but the United States crushed the
rebellion.
In the 1800s, the industrialized powers also began to take an
interest in the Pacific islands. American sugar growers, for example,
pressed for power in the Hawaiian Islands. When the Hawaiian
queen Liliuokalani tried to reduce foreign influence, American
planters overthrew her. In 1898, the United States annexed Hawaii.
By 1900, the United States, Britain, France, or Germany had claimed
nearly every island in the Pacific.
In 1770, Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Britain. When
white settlers arrived, the indigenous people known as Aborigines
suffered. Britain made Australia into a penal colony and also
encouraged free citizens to emigrate to Australia. As the newcomers
settled in, they thrust aside or killed the Aborigines. Like Canada,
Australia was made up of separate colonies. To counter interference
from other European powers and to boost development, Britain
agreed to demands for self-rule. In 1901, the colonies became the
Commonwealth of Australia.
Captain James Cook also claimed New Zealand for Britain. In
1840, Britain annexed New Zealand. The indigenous people of New
Zealand are the Maori. As colonists poured in, they took more and
more land, leading to fierce wars with the Maori. By the 1870s,
resistance crumbled. Like settlers in Australia and Canada, white
New Zealanders sought self-rule. In 1907, New Zealand won
independence.

Lesson Vocabulary
indigenous original or native to a country or region
penal colony place where people convicted of crimes are sent

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE AMERICAS IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Many factors undermined democracy in the newly independent
nations of Latin America. Constitutions in these nations guaranteed
equality before the law, but inequalities remained. With no tradition
of unity, regionalism also weakened the new nations. Local
strongmen, called caudillos, assembled private armies to resist the
central government.
Mexico is an example of the challenges faced by many Latin
American nations. Large landowners, army leaders, and the Catholic
Church dominated Mexican politics. The ruling elite was divided
between conservatives and liberals. Bitter battles between these two
groups led to revolts and the rise of dictators. When Benito Juárez
and other liberals gained power, they began an era of reform known
as La Reforma. After Juárez died, however, General Porfirio Díaz
ruled as a harsh dictator. Many Indians and mestizos fell into
peonage to their employers.
Under colonial rule, Latin America was economically dependent
on Spain and Portugal. After independence, the new Latin American
republics adopted free trade, but Britain and the United States
replaced Spain as Latin America’s chief trading partners.
To discourage any new European colonization of the Americas,
the United States issued the Monroe Doctrine and established
“international police power” in the Western Hemisphere. U.S.
companies continued to invest in the countries of Latin America. To
protect these investments, the United States sent troops to many of
these countries, which made the United States a target of increasing
resentment. When the United States built the Panama Canal, it was
an engineering marvel that boosted shipping worldwide. To people
in Latin America, however, the canal was another example of
“Yankee imperialism.”

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
regionalism loyalty to a local area
caudillo military dictator in Latin America
peonage system by which workers owe labor to pay their debts

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
THE AMERICAS IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM (continued)

In Canada, Britain created two provinces: English-speaking MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES

Upper Canada and French-speaking Lower Canada. When unrest
grew in both colonies, Parliament joined the two Canadas into one
colony in 1840. As the country grew, Canadian leaders urged
confederation of Britain’s North American colonies. They felt that
confederation would strengthen the new nation and help Canada’s
economic development. Britain finally agreed, and Parliament
passed a law that created the Dominion of Canada. As a dominion,
Canada had its own parliament. As the growing country expanded
westward, the way of life of Native Americans was destroyed.
Métis, people of French Canadian and Native American descent,
resisted but were put down.

Lesson Vocabulary
confederation unification
dominion self-governing nation
métis people of mixed Native American and French Canadian
descent

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Review Questions
9 140THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM (1800–1914)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: The New Imperialism

1. Which aspect of the new imperialism led to non-Westerners being robbed of their
cultural heritage?

2. Multiple Causes List the multiple causes of imperialism mentioned in this

summary.

Lesson 2: European Colonies in Africa

3. What set off a European scramble for African territories?

4. Cause and Effect What caused groups of Africans in southern Africa to migrate
north? What was the effect of this?

Lesson 3: Europe and the Muslim World

5. Why is Muhammad Ali sometimes called the “father of modern Egypt”?

6. Understanding Effects What was the effect of the concessions granted to Britain
and Russia in Iran?

Lesson 4: India Becomes a British Colony

7. How were the British able to conquer India?

8. Identify Causes and Effects What caused the sepoys to rebel? What were two
effects of the rebellion?

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9 THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM (1800–1914) (CONTINUED)

Lesson 5: China and the West

9. What were the results of the Opium War?

10. Recognize Multiple Causes What brought about the Open Door Policy in China?

Lesson 6: The Modernization of Japan

11. How did the Meiji reformers try to modernize Japan?

12. Identify Causes and Effects What were the causes and effects of the Meiji
Restoration?

Lesson 7: Southeast Asia and the Pacific

13. Why did Britain agree to demands for self-rule in Australia?

14. Identify Causes and Effects Identify the causes and effects of Liliuokalani’s
attempts to reduce foreign influence in Hawaii.

Lesson 8: The Americas in the Age of Imperialism

15. What limited democracy in the independent nations of Latin America?

16. Identify Causes and Effects Identify what caused the United States to issue the
Monroe Doctrine and what its effects were on Latin America.

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TOPIC

S101
142
WORLD WAR I AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1914–1924)
ECTION

Focus Question: Why was World War I so devastating, and what was the
impact of the destruction and death toll?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to help you evaluate the impact modern technology had on World War I, including the
resulting devastation and the impact its destruction had on morale.
Impact on
morale
Devastation of World War I

devastation
Extent of
New technology
and methods
of fighting

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1 11
ECTION
ESSON
Lesson Summary
WORLD WAR I BEGINS

Although powerful forces were pushing Europe toward war, the MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
great powers had formed alliances, also called ententes, to try to
keep the peace. The Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria-
Hungary, and Italy. Russia, France, and Britain formed the Triple
Entente. During World War I, Germany and Austria would fight
together as the Central Powers, while Italy would remain neutral for
a time. Russia, France, and Britain, meanwhile, would become
known as the Allies.
In the decades before 1914, European powers had competed to
protect their power. Overseas rivalries divided them, as they raced
to acquire new colonies in Africa and elsewhere. They also began to
build up their armies and navies. The rise of militarism helped to
feed this arms race. At the same time, sensational journalism stirred
the public against rival nations.
Nationalism also increased tensions. Germans were proud of
their military and economic might. The French yearned for the
return of Alsace and Lorraine. Russia supported a powerful form of
nationalism called Pan-Slavism. This led Russia to support
nationalists in Serbia. Austria-Hungary worried that nationalism
might lead to rebellions within its empire, while Ottoman Turkey
felt threatened by nearby new nations in the Balkans, such as Serbia
and Greece. Serbia’s dreams of a South Slav state could take land
away from both Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Soon, unrest made
the Balkans a “powder keg.” Then, in 1914, a Serbian nationalist
assassinated the heir to the Austrian throne at Sarajevo, Bosnia.
Some Austrian leaders saw this as an opportunity to crush
Serbian nationalism. They sent Serbia an ultimatum, which Serbia
refused to meet completely. Austria, with the full support of
Germany, declared war on Serbia in July 1914.
Soon, the network of alliances drew other great powers into the
conflict. Russia, in support of Serbia, began to mobilize its army.
Germany declared war on Russia. France claimed it would honor its
treaty with Russia, so Germany declared war on France, too. When
the Germans violated Belgian neutrality to invade France, Britain
declared war on Germany. World War I had begun.

Lesson Vocabulary
entente nonbinding agreement to follow common policies
militarism glorification of the military
ultimatum final set of demands
mobilize prepare military forces for war

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
FIGHTING THE GREAT WAR

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Great War was the largest conflict in history up to that time.
Millions of French, British, Russian, and German soldiers mobilized
for battle. German forces fought their way toward France, but
Belgian resistance foiled Germany’s plans for a quick victory. Both
sides dug deep trenches along the battlefront to protect their armies
from enemy fire. The fighting on this Western Front turned into a
long, deadly stalemate, a deadlock that neither side could break.
Technology made World War I different from earlier wars.
Modern weapons caused high casualties. In 1915, first Germany then
the Allies began using poison gas. Advances in technology brought
about the introduction of tanks, airplanes, and modern submarines.
Germany used zeppelins to bomb the English coast. Both sides
equipped airplanes with machine guns. Pilots known as “flying
aces” confronted each other in the skies, but these “dog fights” had
little effect on the ground war. German submarines, called U-boats,
did tremendous damage to the Allied ships. To defend against them,
the Allies organized convoys, or groups of merchant ships protected
by warships.
On Europe’s Eastern Front, battle lines shifted back and forth,
sometimes over large areas. Casualties rose higher than on the
Western Front. Russia was ill prepared and suffered a disastrous
defeat when pushing into eastern Germany. In 1915, Italy declared
war on Austria-Hungary and Germany. In 1917, the Austrians and
Germans launched a major offensive against the Italians.
Although most of the fighting took place in Europe, World War I
was a global conflict. Japan used the war to seize German outposts in
China and islands in the Pacific. The Ottoman empire joined the
Central Powers. Its strategic location enabled it to cut off Allied
supply lines to Russia through the Dardanelles, a vital strait. The
Ottoman Turks were hit hard in the Middle East, however. Arab
nationalists revolted against Ottoman rule. The British sent T.E.
Lawrence, or “Lawrence of Arabia,” to aid the Arabs. European
colonies in Africa and Asia were also drawn into the war.

Lesson Vocabulary
stalemate deadlock in which neither side is able to defeat the other
zeppelin large, gas-filled balloon
U-boat German submarine
convoys group of merchant ships protected by warships

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
WORLD WAR I ENDS

World War I was a total war, in which the participants channeled all MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
their resources into the war effort. They set up systems to recruit,
arm, transport, and supply their armies. Nations imposed universal
military conscription, or “the draft,” requiring all young men to be
ready to fight. As millions of men left to fight, women took over
their jobs and kept national economies going.
International law allowed wartime blockades to confiscate
contraband, but the British blockaded all ships in and out of Germany.
In retaliation, Germany used U-boats to impose its own blockade. In
1915, a U-boat torpedoed the British passenger liner Lusitania. Both
sides used propaganda to control public opinion, circulating tales of
atrocities, some true and others completely made up.
As time passed, war fatigue set in. High casualties, food
shortages, and a stalemate caused the morale of both troops and
civilians to plunge. In Russia, stories of incompetent generals and
corruption eroded public confidence and led to revolution.
In 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. By 1918,
about two million fresh American soldiers had joined the war-weary
Allied troops on the Western Front. President Wilson issued his
Fourteen Points, his terms for resolving this and future wars. Among
the most important was self-determination for peoples in Eastern
Europe.
With American troops, the Allies drove back German forces. In
September 1918, the German kaiser stepped down and the new
German government sought an armistice with the Allies. In
November 1918, the Great War at last came to an end.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
total war channeling of a nation’s entire resources into a war effort
conscription “the draft,” which required all young men to be
ready for military or other service
contraband during wartime, military supplies and raw materials
needed to make military supplies that may legally be confiscated by
any belligerent
propaganda spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage
an opposing cause
atrocities horrible act committed against innocent people
self-determination right of people to choose their own form of
government
armistice agreement to end fighting in a war

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Lesson Summary
WORLD WAR I ENDS (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The human, material, and political costs of World War I were
staggering. The huge loss of life was made even worse in 1918 by a
deadly pandemic of influenza. Reconstruction costs and war debts
would burden an already battered world. Governments had
collapsed in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman
empire. Out of the chaos, political radicals dreamed of building a
new social order.
The victorious Allies met at the Paris Peace Conference to discuss
the fate of Europe, the former Ottoman empire, and various colonies
around the world. The Central Powers and Russia were not allowed
to participate. The three main Allied leaders had conflicting goals.
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George focused on rebuilding
Britain. French leader Georges Clemenceau wanted to punish
Germany severely. American President Wilson insisted on the
creation of an international League of Nations, based on the idea of
collective security. In this system, a group of nations acts as one to
preserve the peace of all.
In June 1919, the Allies ordered representatives of the new
German Republic to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty forced
Germany to assume full blame for the war, imposed huge
reparations that would burden the German economy, and limited
the size of Germany’s military. The Allies also drew up treaties with
the other Central Powers.
All these treaties left widespread dissatisfaction. New nations
emerged where the German, Austrian, and Russian empires had
once ruled, but many nationalities did not gain their own countries.
Outside Europe, the Allies added to their overseas empires. Colonies
that had hoped for an end to imperial rule were disappointed. The
treaties also created a system of mandates, territories administered
by Western powers. The one ray of hope was the establishment of
the League of Nations. The failure of the United States to support the
League, however, weakened the League’s power.

Lesson Vocabulary
pandemic spread of a disease across a large area, such as a
country, a continent, or the entire world
radical one who favors extreme changes
collective security system in which a group of nations acts as one
to preserve the peace of all
reparations payment for war damage or damage caused by
imprisonment
mandate after World War I, a territory administered by a Western
power

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA

At the beginning of the 1900s, Russia had many political, economic, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
and social problems. Tsar Nicholas II resisted change. Marxists tried
to ignite revolution among the proletariat. World War I quickly
strained Russian resources. By March 1917, disasters on the
battlefield and shortages at home brought the monarchy to collapse,
and the tsar abdicated. While politicians set up a temporary
government, revolutionary socialists set up soviets, or councils of
workers and soldiers. These radical socialists were called Bolsheviks
and were led by V. I. Lenin.
Lenin believed revolution could bring change. Leon Trotsky,
another Marxist leader, helped Lenin lead the fight. To the weary
Russian people, Lenin promised “Peace, Land, and Bread.” In
October 1917, Lenin and the Bolsheviks, renamed Communists,
overthrew the government and seized power.
After the Bolshevik Revolution, events in Russia led to the
nation’s withdrawal from World War I. After the withdrawal, civil
war raged for three years between the Communist “Reds” and the
“White” armies of tsarist imperial officers. The Russians now fought
only among themselves.
The Communists shot the former tsar and his family. They
organized the Cheka, a brutal secret police force, to control their
own people. Trotsky kept Red Army officers under the close watch
of commissars—Communist Party officials. The Reds’ position in
the center of Russia gave them a strategic advantage, and they
defeated the White armies.
After the civil war, Lenin had to rebuild a shattered state and
economy. The new nation was called the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union. The Communist constitution set
up an elected legislature. All political power, resources, and means
of production would now belong to workers and peasants. In reality,
however, the Communist Party, not the people, had all the power.
Lenin did, however, allow some capitalist ventures that helped the
Soviet economy recover. After Lenin’s death, party leader Joseph
Stalin took ruthless steps to win total control of the nation.

Lesson Vocabulary
proletariat working class
commissars Communist party official assigned to the army to
teach party principles and ensure party loyalty during the Russian
Revolution

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Review Questions
Study Guide
TOPIC

S101
148WORLD
MANY CULTURES
WAR I AND
MEET
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1914–1924)
ECTION

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: World War I Begins

1. Which countries made up the Central Powers?

2. Summarize Describe the events that led Austria to declare war on Serbia.

Lesson 2: Fighting the Great War

3. What were the two battlefronts in Europe called?

4. Identify Supporting Details Identify important details that show the differences
between the course of the war on these two battlefronts.

Lesson 3: World War I Ends

5. Why did women take on new jobs during the war?

6. Summarize Describe what made World War I a total war.

Lesson 4: Revolution in Russia

7. What was the name of the new Communist nation?

8. Summarize Describe the events that led to Communist control of Russia.

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S111
149
THE WORLD BETWEEN THE WARS (1910–1939)
ECTION

Focus Question: How did disillusionment over war, social inequalities,

and failures in political leadership give rise to authoritarian states?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to identify the events and circumstances that led to the rise of radical groups, and the
ways these new groups and their leaders addressed the problems besetting these nations.
• Warlords and

divide China
imperialists
Western
China

•
Germany

Socialism
• National

(Nazis)
Rise of the Authoritarian State

•
• Fascism
Italy

•
• Ultranationalists
Japan

•
Latin America

• One-party rule
in Mexico

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Lesson Summary
REVOLUTION AND NATIONALISM IN LATIN AMERICA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the early 1900s, exports kept Latin America’s economy booming.
Even though foreign investors controlled much of the natural
resources, stable governments helped keep economies strong. Yet
turmoil brewed because military leaders and wealthy landowners
held most of the power. Workers and peasants had no say in
government. These differences led to increasing unrest.
Dictator Porfirio Díaz had ruled Mexico for nearly 35 years.
During this time, the nation enjoyed peace and success, but only the
wealthy benefited. Peasants lived in desperate poverty while
working on haciendas, large farms owned by the rich. A growing
middle class wanted more say in government. In 1910, Francisco
Madero, a reformer from a rich family, called for change. Faced with
rebellion, Díaz stepped down, and a violent struggle for power—the
Mexican Revolution—began.
The people fought for years before Venustiano Carranza was
elected president, and a new constitution was approved. It
addressed some of the issues that caused the revolution, such as land
reform, religion, and labor. The Constitution of 1917 allowed
nationalization of natural resources. In 1929, the Mexican
government organized what later became the Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI). This political party brought stability to
Mexico by carrying out some reforms, but kept the real power in its
hands.
During the 1920s and 1930s, the Great Depression caused Latin
American exports to drop and import prices to rise. As a result,
economic nationalism became popular. Latin Americans wanted to
develop their own industries. Some Latin American nations took
over foreign-owned companies. The governments became more
powerful when people accepted authoritarian leaders, hoping that
they could improve the economy. Along with economic nationalism,
there was a growth in cultural nationalism. Artists such as Diego
Rivera painted murals or large images of Mexico’s history, culture,
and the people’s struggles. The United States also became more
involved in Latin America, often intervening to protect U.S. interests
or troops. This led to anti-American feelings. Under the Good
Neighbor Policy, the United States promised less interference in
Latin American affairs.

Lesson Vocabulary
hacienda a large plantation
nationalization takeover of property or resources by the
government
economic nationalism takeover of property or resources by the
government
cultural nationalism pride in the culture of one’s country

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Lesson Summary
11
LESSON 2
NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS IN AFRICA AND
THE MIDDLE EAST

Europe ruled over most of Africa during the early 1900s. Improved MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
farming methods meant more exports; however, this mostly
benefited colonial rulers. Europeans kept the best lands, and African
farmers were forced to grow cash crops instead of food. They also
were forced to work in mines and then pay taxes to the colonial
governments. Many Africans began criticizing imperial rule, but
their freedoms only eroded further. An example was the system of
apartheid in South Africa. Under this policy, black Africans were
denied many of their previous rights, such as the right to vote.
During the 1920s, the Pan-Africanism movement called for the
unity of Africans and people of African descent around the world.
During the first Pan-African Congress, delegates asked world
leaders at the Paris Peace Conference to approve a charter of rights
for Africans. Their request was ignored. The members of the
négritude movement in West Africa and the Caribbean protested
colonial rule while expressing pride in African culture. These
movements, however, brought about little real change.
In Asia Minor, Mustafa Kemal overthrew the Ottoman ruler and
established the republic of Turkey. He changed his name to Atatürk
(father of the Turks), and his government promoted industrial
expansion by building factories and railroads. Inspired by Atatürk’s
successes, Reza Khan overthrew the shah of Persia. Khan sought to
turn Persia into a modern country. He, too, built factories and
railroads. Khan also demanded a bigger portion of profits for Persia
from British-controlled oil companies. Both leaders pushed aside
Islamic traditions, replacing them with Western alternatives.
Pan-Arabism was a movement based on a shared history of
Arabs living from the Arabian Peninsula to North Africa. Leaders of
Arab nations and territories had hoped to gain independence after
World War I, but felt betrayed when the Allies signed the Treaty of
Versailles, which divided Ottoman territories and turned them into
mandates under the control of two Allied nations: France and
Britain. Tensions in the Palestine Mandate grew due to conflicting
promises made by the Allies. Arabs believed they were to be given
independence, including the land known as Palestine. The Balfour
Declaration stated that Britain supported the idea of a “national
home for Jewish people” in the Palestine Mandate, on the historic
homeland of the Jews that they called Israel. The conflicting
promises led to conflict between Arabs and Jews.

Lesson Vocabulary
apartheid a policy of rigid racial segregation in the Republic of
South Africa
négritude movement movement in which writers and artists of
African descent expressed pride in their African heritage
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ESSON
Lesson Summary
INDIA SEEKS SELF RULE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During World War I, more than a million Indians served in the
British armed forces. Because the British were pressured by Indian
nationalists, they promised more self-government for India. After
the war they failed to keep their promise. The Congress Party of
India had been pressing for self-rule since 1885. In 1919, it began to
call for full independence. However, the party had little in common
with the masses of Indian peasants. A new leader, Mohandas
Gandhi, united Indians. Gandhi had a great deal of experience
opposing unjust government. He had spent 20 years fighting laws in
South Africa that discriminated against Indians.
In 1919, Indian protests against colonial rule led to riots and
attacks on British residents. The British then banned public
meetings. On April 13, 1919, a peaceful crowd of Indians gathered in
an enclosed field in Amritsar. As Indian leaders spoke, British
soldiers fired on the unarmed crowd. Nearly 400 people were killed,
and more than 1,100 were wounded. The Amritsar massacre
convinced many Indians that independence was necessary. This
incident led Gandhi and many others to join the nationalist
movement.
Gandhi inspired people of all religions and backgrounds. He
preached ahimsa, a belief in nonviolence and respect for all life. For
example, he fought to end the harsh treatment of untouchables, the
lowest group of society. Henry David Thoreau’s idea of civil
disobedience influenced Gandhi. This was the idea that one should
refuse to obey unfair laws. Gandhi proposed civil disobedience and
nonviolent actions against the British. For example, he called for a
boycott of British goods, especially cotton textiles.
Gandhi’s Salt March was an example of civil disobedience in
action. The British had a monopoly on salt. They forced Indians to
buy salt from British producers even though salt was available
naturally in the sea. As Gandhi walked 240 miles to the sea to collect
salt, thousands joined him. He was arrested when he reached the
water’s edge and picked up a lump of salt. Newspapers worldwide
criticized Britain for beating and arresting thousands of Indians
during the Salt March. That protest forced Britain to meet some of
the demands of the Congress Party. Slowly, Gandhi’s nonviolent
campaign forced Britain to hand over some power to Indians.

Lesson Vocabulary
ahimsa Hindu belief in nonviolence and reverence for all life
untouchables in India, a member of the lowest caste
civil disobedience the refusal to obey unjust laws
boycott refuse to buy

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ESSON
Lesson Summary
NEW FORCES IN CHINA AND JAPAN

Sun Yixian hoped to rebuild China when he became president of MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
China’s new republic in 1911, but he made little progress. The
country fell into chaos when local warlords seized power and the
economy fell apart. Sun Yixian stepped down as president in 1912.
Amid the upheaval, foreign imperialism increased in China. During
World War I, Japan presented Chinese leaders with the Twenty-One
Demands, which were intended to give Japan control over China,
and the Chinese gave in to some of those demands. This infuriated
Chinese nationalists, and some students led a cultural and
intellectual rebellion known as the May Fourth Movement. Leaders
of this movement rejected tradition and looked to Western
knowledge and learning. Other Chinese embraced Marxism as a
solution instead. The Soviet Union trained Chinese students and
military officers, hoping they would become the vanguard of a
communist revolution in China.
In 1921, Sun Yixian led the Guomindang, or Nationalist party, as
it established a government in south China. To defeat the warlords
he joined forces with the Chinese communists. After Sun’s death,
Jiang Jieshi assumed leadership of the party. Jiang felt that the
Communists threatened his power. He ordered his troops to
slaughter Communists and their supporters. Led by Mao Zedong,
the Communist army escaped north in what became known as the
Long March.
While Jiang pursued the Communists across China, the Japanese
invaded Manchuria, adding it to their growing empire. Then, in
1937, Japanese planes bombed Chinese cities and Japanese soldiers
marched into Nanjing, killing hundreds of thousands of people. In
response, Jiang and Mao formed an alliance to fight the invaders.
The alliance held up until the end of the war with Japan.
The Japanese economy had grown during World War I, and in
the 1920s, the Japanese government moved toward greater
democracy. However, peasants and factory workers did not share in
the nation’s prosperity. Also, there was tension between the
government and the military.

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Lesson Vocabulary
vanguard group of elite leaders

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Lesson Summary
NEW FORCES IN CHINA AND JAPAN (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Great Depression fed the discontent of the military and the
ultranationalists. As the economic crisis worsened, the
ultranationalists set their sights on Manchuria in northern China.
When the League of Nations condemned the invasion, Japan
withdrew from the organization.
Militarists and ultranationalists increased their power in the
1930s. Extremists killed some politicians and business leaders who
opposed expansion. To please the ultranationalists, the government
suppressed most democratic freedoms. Japan planned to take
advantage of China’s civil war and conquer the country. In 1939,
World War II broke out and the fighting quickly spread to Asia.
Earlier, Japan had formed an alliance with Germany and Italy. In
September 1940, Japan’s leaders signed the Tripartite Pact linking
the three nations. Together, the three nations formed the Axis
Powers.

Lesson Vocabulary
ultranationalist extreme nationalist

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Lesson Summary
THE WEST AFTER WORLD WAR I

In reaction to World War I, society and culture in the United States MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
and elsewhere underwent rapid changes. During the 1920s, new
technologies helped create a mass culture and connect people
around the world. One symbol of this new age was jazz, with its
original sound and improvisations, and it gave the age its name—the
Jazz Age. In this new era of emancipation, women pursued careers.
Not everyone approved of the freer lifestyle of the Jazz Age,
however. Prohibition was meant to keep people from the negative
effects of drinking. Instead, it brought about organized crime and
speakeasies.
New literature reflected a powerful disgust with war. To some
postwar writers, the war symbolized the moral breakdown of
Western civilization. Writers and artists explored new ways of
expressing their ideas. Some writers experimented with stream of
consciousness. In the cultural movement called the Harlem
Renaissance, African American artists and writers expressed pride in
their culture and explored their experiences in their work.
<insert>Many Western artists, such as Dada artists, rejected
traditional styles that tried to reproduce the real world. New
scientific discoveries challenged long-held ideas. Marie Curie and
others found that atoms of certain elements spontaneously release
charged particles. Albert Einstein argued that measurements of
space and time are not absolute.
After World War I, Britain, France, and the United States
appeared powerful. However, postwar Europe faced grave
problems. The most pressing issues were finding jobs for veterans
and rebuilding war-ravaged lands. The three democracies also faced
international issues. Concern about a strong Germany led France to
build the Maginot Line and insist on strict enforcement of the
Versailles treaty. Many nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact,
promising to “renounce war as an instrument of national policy.”
The great powers also pursued disarmament. Unfortunately,
neither the Kellogg-Briand Pact nor the League of Nations had the
power to stop aggression. Ambitious dictators in Europe noted this
weakness.

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Lesson Vocabulary
speakeasy illegal bar
disarmament reduction of armed forces and weapons

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Lesson Summary
THE WEST AFTER WORLD WAR I (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The war affected economies all over the world. Both Britain and
France owed huge war debts to the United States and relied on
reparation payments from Germany to pay their loans. Britain was
deeply in debt, with high unemployment and low wages. In 1926, a
general strike lasted nine days and involved three million workers.
On the other hand, the French economy recovered fairly quickly,
and the United States emerged as the world’s top economic power.
In the affluent 1920s, middle-class Americans enjoyed the benefits of
capitalism, buying cars, radios, and refrigerators.
Better technologies allowed U.S. factories to make more products
faster, leading to overproduction. Factories then cut back, and many
workers lost jobs. A crisis in finance led the Federal Reserve to raise
interest rates. This made people even more nervous about the
economy. In the autumn of 1929, financial panic set in. Stock prices
crashed. The United States economy entered the Great Depression,
which soon spread around the world.
Governments searched for solutions. In the United States,
President Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced the programs of the
New Deal. Although the New Deal failed to end the Depression, it
did ease much suffering. However, as the Depression wore on, it
created fertile ground for extremists.

Lesson Vocabulary
general strike strike by workers in many different industries at the
same time
overproduction condition in which production of goods exceeds
the demand for them
finance the management of money matters, including the
circulation of money, loans, investment, and banking

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Lesson Summary
FASCISM EMERGES IN ITALY

After World War I, Italian nationalists were outraged when Italy MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
received just some of the territories promised by the Allies. Chaos
ensued as peasants seized land, workers went on strike, veterans
faced unemployment, trade declined, and taxes rose. The
government could not end the crisis. Into this turmoil stepped
Benito Mussolini, the organizer of the Fascist party. Mussolini’s
supporters, the Black Shirts, rejected democratic methods and
favored violence for solving problems. In the 1922 March on Rome,
tens of thousands of Fascists swarmed the capital. Fearing civil war,
the king asked Mussolini to form a government as prime minister.
Mussolini soon suppressed rival parties, muzzled the press,
rigged elections, and replaced elected officials with Fascists. Critics
were thrown into prison, forced into exile, or murdered. Secret
police and propaganda bolstered the regime. In 1929, Mussolini also
received support from the pope. Mussolini brought the economy
under state control, but basically preserved capitalism. His system
favored the upper class and industry leaders. Workers were not
allowed to strike, and their wages were kept low. In Mussolini’s new
system, loyalty to the state replaced conflicting individual goals.
Loudspeakers blared and posters proclaimed the message “Believe!
Obey! Fight!”. Fascist youth groups marched in parades chanting
slogans.
Mussolini built the first modern totalitarian state. In this form of
government, a one-party dictatorship attempts to control every
aspect of the lives of its citizens. Today, we usually use the term
fascism to describe the underlying ideology of any centralized,
authoritarian governmental system that is not communist. Fascism is
rooted in extreme nationalism. Fascists believe in action, violence,

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Lesson Vocabulary
totalitarian state government in which a one-party dictatorship
regulates every aspect of citizens’ lives
fascism any centralized, authoritarian government system that is
not communist, whose policies glorify the state over the individual
and are destructive to basic human rights

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Lesson Summary
FASCISM EMERGES IN ITALY (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES discipline, and blind loyalty to the state. They praise warfare. They
are anti-democratic, rejecting equality and liberty. Fascists oppose
communists on important issues. Communists favor international
action and the creation of a classless society. Fascists are nationalists
who support a society with defined classes. Both base their power on
blind devotion to a leader or the state. Both can become popular
during economic hard times.
Fascism appealed to Italians because it restored national pride,
provided stability, and ended the political feuding that had
paralyzed democracy in Italy.

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Lesson Summary
THE SOVIET UNION UNDER STALIN

Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Union grew into a totalitarian state, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
controlling all aspects of life, including agriculture, culture, art, and
religion. The state also developed a command economy, in which it
made all economic decisions. Stalin’s five-year plans set high
production goals. Despite great progress in some sectors, products
such as clothing, cars, and refrigerators were scarce. Stalin forced
changes in agriculture, too. He wanted peasants to farm on either
state-owned farms or collectives, large farms owned and operated
by groups of peasants. Some peasants balked. Stalin believed that
wealthy farmers called kulaks were behind the resistance. He took
their land and sent them to labor camps, where many died. In 1932,
Stalin’s policy of confiscating grain to punish protesting peasants led
to a famine that caused millions to starve.
The ruling Communist party used secret police, torture, and
bloody purges to force people to obey. Those who opposed Stalin
were rounded up and sent to the Gulag, a system of brutal labor
camps. Fearing that rival party leaders were plotting against him,
Stalin launched the Great Purge in 1934. Among the victims of this
and other purges were some of the brightest and most talented
people in the country.
Stalin demanded that artists and writers create works in a style
called socialist realism. If they refused to conform to government
expectations, they faced persecution. Another way Stalin controlled
cultural life was to promote russification. The goal was to force
people of non-Russian nationalities to become more Russian. The
official Communist party belief in atheism led to the cruel treatment
of religious leaders.

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Lesson Vocabulary
command economy system in which government officials make all
basic economic decisions
collective large farm owned and operated by peasants as a group
kulak wealthy peasant in the Soviet Union in the late 1930s
Gulag in the Soviet Union, a system of forced labor camps in
which millions of criminals and political prisoners were held under
Stalin
socialist realism artistic style whose goal was to promote socialism
by showing Soviet life in a positive light
russification Stalin’s policy of imposing Russian culture on the
Soviet Union
atheism belief that there is no god

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Lesson Summary
THE SOVIET UNION UNDER STALIN (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Communists destroyed the old social order. Instead of
creating a society of equals, Communist party members became the
heads of society. Still, under communism most people enjoyed free
medical care, day care for children, cheaper housing, and public
recreation. Women had equal rights by law.
Soviet leaders had two foreign policy goals. They hoped to
spread world revolution through the Comintern, or Communist
International. At the same time, they wanted to ensure their nation’s
security by winning the support of other countries. These
contradictory goals caused Western powers to distrust the Soviet
Union.

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Lesson Summary
RISE OF NAZI GERMANY

After World War I, German leaders set up a democratic government MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
known as the Weimar Republic. The Weimar constitution
established a parliamentary system led by a chancellor. It gave
women the right to vote and included a bill of rights. However, the
new republic faced severe problems. When Germany could not
make its war reparations, France seized the coal-rich Ruhr Valley.
Government actions led to inflation and skyrocketing prices. The
German mark was almost worthless. Many middle-class families lost
their savings.
Many Germans believed that energetic leader Adolf Hitler
would solve Germany’s problems. As head of the Nazi party, Hitler
promised to end reparations, create jobs, and rearm Germany. He
was elected chancellor in 1933, and within a year he was dictator
over the new fascist state in Germany.
To appeal to nationalism and recall Germany’s glorious past,
Hitler called his government the Third Reich. To combat the
Depression, Hitler launched public works programs. In violation of
the Versailles treaty, he rearmed Germany. Hitler relied on his secret
police, the Gestapo, to root out opposition. He organized a brutal
system of terror, repression, and totalitarian rule. A fanatical anti-
Semite, Hitler set out to drive the Jews from Germany. In 1935, the
Nazis passed the Nuremberg Laws, which deprived Jews of
German citizenship and placed severe restrictions on them. The
Nazis indoctrinated German youth and rewrote textbooks to reflect
Nazi racial views.
Hitler also limited women’s roles and encouraged “pure-blooded
Aryan” women to bear many children. He sought to purge German
culture of what he believed were corrupt influences. Nazis
denounced modern art and jazz, but glorified German artists and
myths. Hitler despised Christianity as “weak.” He combined all
Protestant sects into a single state church. Although many clergy
either supported the new regime or remained silent, some
courageously spoke out against Hitler’s government.
Like Germany, most new nations in Eastern Europe slid from
systems of democratic to authoritarian rule. Economic problems and
ethnic tensions contributed to instability and helped fascist rulers to
gain power. The new dictators promised to keep order, and won the
backing of the military and the wealthy. They also supported the
growth of anti-Semitism.

Lesson Vocabulary
chancellor the highest official of a monarch, prime minister

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Review Questions
11 THE WORLD BETWEEN THE WARS (1910–1939)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Revolution and Nationalism in Latin America

1. What was the PRI, and what was its impact on Mexico?

2. Identify Causes and Effects What were two effects of United States involvement
in Latin America?

Lesson 2: Nationalist Movements in Africa and the Middle East

3. What was the négritude movement?

4. Identify Causes and Effects What was one effect of the Balfour Declaration?

Lesson 3: India Seeks Self Rule

5. What had Gandhi done before becoming a leader for Indian independence?

6. Identify Causes and Effects What caused the Amritsar massacre? What effect did
it have on the independence movement?

Lesson 4: New Forces in China and Japan

7. What group of people spearheaded the May Fourth Movement?

8. Recognize Multiple Causes Why did Chinese peasants support the Communists?

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11 THE WORLD BETWEEN THE WARS (1910–1939) (continued)

Lesson 5: The West After World War I

9. What did Prohibition bring about?

10. Identify Supporting Details What were three aspects of postwar literature?

Lesson 6: Fascism Emerges in Italy

11. Who were the Black Shirts?

12. Identify Main Ideas How did Mussolini’s Fascists take over Italy?

Lesson 7: The Soviet Union Under Stalin

13. What is a command economy?

14. Identify Main Ideas Reread the last paragraph in the Summary. Write a sentence
that expresses the main idea of that paragraph.

Lesson 8: Rise of Nazi Germany

15. What was the purpose of the Nuremberg Laws?

16. Identify Main Ideas Reread the last paragraph in the Summary. Write the main
idea of that paragraph on the lines below.

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Note Taking Study Guide
12 164WORLD WAR II (1930–1945)

Focus Question: How did the Allies turn away from appeasement,
respond to Axis aggression, and win World War II?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to understand why the Allies changed their policy of appeasement to Axis aggression to
a policy of fighting back and how they won World War II.

World War II

Allied appeasement Axis aggression Allied response

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

• •

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Lesson Summary
AGGRESSION, APPEASEMENT, AND WAR

Throughout the 1930s, dictators took aggressive action. Yet they MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
met only verbal protests and pleas for peace from Western powers.
For example, when the League of Nations condemned Japan’s
invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japan simply withdrew from the
League. A few years later, Japanese armies invaded China, starting
the Second Sino-Japanese War. Meanwhile, Mussolini invaded
Ethiopia in 1935. The League of Nations voted sanctions against
Italy, but the League had no power to enforce its punishment of
Mussolini. Hitler, too, defied the Western democracies by building
up the German military and sending troops into the “demilitarized”
Rhineland. This action went against the Treaty of Versailles. The
Western democracies denounced Hitler but adopted a policy of
appeasement. Appeasement developed for a number of reasons,
including widespread pacifism. The United States responded with
a series of Neutrality Acts. The goal was to avoid involvement in a
war, rather than to prevent one. While the Western democracies
sought to avoid war, Germany, Italy, and Japan formed an alliance.
It became known as the Axis powers.
In Spain, a new, more liberal government passed reforms that
upset conservatives. General Francisco Franco, who was opposed
to the new government, started a rebellion that led to a civil war.
Hitler and Mussolini supported Franco, their fellow fascist. The
Soviet Union sent troops to support the anti-Fascists, or Loyalists.
The governments of Britain, France, and the United States remained
neutral, although individuals from these countries fought with the
Loyalists. By 1939, Franco had triumphed.
German aggression continued. In 1938, Hitler forced the
Anschluss, or union with Austria. Next, Hitler set his sights on the
Sudetenland. This was a part of Czechoslovakia where three million
Germans lived. At the Munich Conference, which was held to
discuss the situation, British and French leaders chose appeasement
and allowed Hitler to annex the territory.

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Lesson Vocabulary
appeasement policy of giving in to an aggressor’s demands in
order to keep the peace
pacifism opposition to all war
Axis powers group of countries led by Germany, Italy, and Japan
that fought the Allies in World War II

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Lesson Summary
AGGRESSION, APPEASEMENT, AND WAR (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In March 1939, Hitler took over the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Months later, Hitler and Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact. They
agreed not to fight each other if one of them went to war. This paved
the way for Germany’s invasion of Poland in September of 1939,
which set off World War II.

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Lesson Summary
AXIS POWERS ADVANCE

In September 1939, Nazi forces launched a blitzkrieg against MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Poland. First, the Luftwaffe, the German air force, bombed. Then
tanks and troops pushed their way in. At the same time, Stalin
invaded from the east, grabbing land. Within a month, Poland
ceased to exist.
Then, in early 1940, Hitler conquered Norway, Denmark, the
Netherlands, and Belgium. By May, German forces had bypassed
France’s Maginot Line. British forces that had been sent to help the
French were trapped. In a desperate scheme, the British rescued
their troops from Dunkirk. However, in June, the French were
forced to surrender. Germany occupied northern France and set up a
puppet state, the Vichy government, in the south.
The British, led by Winston Churchill, remained defiant against
Hitler. In response, Hitler launched bombing raids over British cities
that lasted from September 1940 until June 1941. Despite this blitz,
Hitler was not able to take Britain. Meanwhile, Hitler sent one of his
best commanders, General Erwin Rommel, to North Africa. Rommel
had a string of successes there. In the Balkans, German and Italian
forces added Greece and Yugoslavia to the growing Axis territory.
At the same time, the Japanese were occupying lands in Asia and the
Pacific.
In June 1941, Hitler nullified the Soviet Union. Stalin was
unprepared, and the Soviet army suffered great losses. The Germans
advanced toward Moscow and Leningrad. During a lengthy siege of
Leningrad, more than a million Russians died. The severe Russian
winter finally slowed the German army.
As they marched across Europe, the Nazis sent millions to
concentration camps to work as slave laborers. Even worse, Hitler
established death camps to kill those he judged racially inferior.
Among many others, some six million Jews were killed in what
became known as the Holocaust.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
Blitzkrieg lightning war
nullify cancel, annul

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Lesson Summary
AXIS POWERS ADVANCE (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The United States declared neutrality at the beginning of the war.
Yet many Americans sympathized with those who fought the Axis
powers. Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act of 1941, allowing the
United States to sell or lend war goods to foes of the Axis. Franklin
Roosevelt and Winston Churchill also agreed on the Atlantic
Charter, which set goals for the defeat of Nazi Germany and for the
postwar world. On December 7, 1941, under the direction of General
Hideki Tojo, the Japanese bombed the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Four days later, Congress declared war on Japan.

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Lesson Summary
THE HOLOCAUST

When Hitler came to power, he brought his anti-Semitic beliefs with MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
him. Hitler’s campaign against the Jews worsened over time as he
expanded Nazi control over Europe. As the Nazi army marched
across Europe, the German government sent millions to
concentration camps to work as slave laborers. Further into the war,
Hitler established death camps to kill those he judged racially
inferior. In 1941, Hitler devised the “Final Solution,” or the
extermination of all European Jews. Hitler’s acts of genocide led to
the deaths of more than six million Jews and others and became
known as the Holocaust.
In the death camps such as Auschwitz in southern Poland, Jews
were stripped of their belongings, and their heads were shaved.
They were sent to “showers,” where they were gassed to death.
Their bodies were burned in crematoriums. Others were worked to
death or used in medical experiments, many supervised by Josef
Mengele.
Jewish people resisted the Nazis even though they knew their
efforts could not succeed. The Warsaw Ghetto uprising was one of
the largest acts of Jewish resistance. The uprising inspired others to
resist. They worked in underground networks or secretly celebrated
their religion and culture to keep their faith alive. Some people
helped hide or move Jewish people to safe havens. Some Jews hid in
the forests and joined Soviet forces, who sabotaged the German
military. Jewish resistance lasted until 1945, when the concentration
camps were liberated.
Although the Allies were alerted to the horrors of concentration
camps before liberation, they did little to end Hitler’s actions. Many
Allied countries turned down refugees or limited immigration
numbers. In 1945, the Allies and Soviets liberated concentration
camps, and the horrors of the Holocaust became public. Many
survivors were forced to live in displaced persons camps while
trying to start new lives. In 1946, the new nation of Israel was
created to provide a home for Jews of every nation.

Lesson Vocabulary
concentration camps detention center for civilians considered
enemies of the state
crematorium a place used to burn corpses

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Lesson Summary
THE ALLIES TURN THE TIDE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES To defeat the Axis powers in World War II, the Allies devoted all
their resources to the war effort. Governments took a greater role in
the economy. For example, governments ordered factories to make
tanks instead of cars. Consumer goods were rationed, and wages
and prices were regulated. A positive result was that the increase in
production ended the Great Depression. However, governments also
limited citizens’ rights, censored the press, and resorted to
propaganda. In the United States and Canada, racial prejudice and
concerns about security led to the internment, or confinement
during wartime, of citizens of Japanese descent. At the same time,
women, symbolized by “Rosie the Riveter,” replaced men in
factories. Women also played a more direct role in some military
operations.
The years 1942 and 1943 marked the turning point of the war. In
the Pacific, Allied forces won the battles of the Coral Sea and
Midway. In both battles, attacks were launched from enormous
aircraft carriers. In North Africa, British and American forces, led by
General Dwight Eisenhower, soon trapped Rommel’s army, and he
surrendered in May 1943. With North Africa under their control, the
Allies crossed the Mediterranean and landed in Sicily. Allied
victories in Italy led to the overthrow of Mussolini, but fighting
continued in Italy for another 18 months. On the Eastern front, a key
turning point was the Battle of Stalingrad. After a German advance
on the city and brutal house-to-house fighting, the Soviet army
encircled the German troops. Without food or ammunition, the
Germans surrendered.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
internment confinement during wartime
aircraft carrier ship that accommodates the taking off and landing
of airplanes, and transports aircraft

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Lesson Summary
THE ALLIES TURN THE TIDE (continued)

On June 6, 1944, the Allies launched the D-Day invasion of MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
France. Allied troops faced many obstacles, but the Germans finally
retreated. As the Allies advanced, Germany reeled from incessant,
around-the-clock bombing. A German counterattack, the Battle of
the Bulge, resulted in terrible losses on both sides. However, with
Germany’s defeat seeming inevitable, the “Big Three”—Franklin
Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin—met to plan for
the end of the war. Key features of this Yalta Conference were the
Soviet agreement to enter the war against Japan and the division of
Germany into four zones of occupation. However, growing mistrust
at Yalta foreshadowed a split among the Allies.

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Lesson Summary
VICTORIES FOR THE ALLIES

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In Europe, World War II officially ended on May 8, 1945, or
V-E Day. The Allies were able to defeat the Axis powers for many
reasons. Because of their location, the Axis powers had to fight on
several fronts at the same time. Hitler also made some poor military
decisions. For example, he underestimated the Soviet Union’s ability
to fight. The huge productive capacity of the United States was
another factor. At the same time, Allied bombing hindered German
production and caused oil to become scarce. This nearly grounded
the Luftwaffe.
Although Germany was defeated, the Allies still had to defeat
the Japanese in the Pacific. By May 1942, the Japanese had gained
control of the Philippines, killing thousands during the Bataan
Death March. However, after the battles of Midway and the Coral
Sea, the United States took the offensive. General Douglas
MacArthur began an “island-hopping” campaign to recapture
islands from the Japanese. The captured islands served as
steppingstones to the next objective—Japan. The Americans
gradually moved north and were able to blockade Japan. Bombers
pounded Japanese cities and industries. At the same time, the British
pushed Japanese forces back into the jungles of Burma and Malaya.
In early 1945, bloody battles on Iwo Jima and Okinawa showed
that the Japanese would fight to the death rather than surrender.
Some young Japanese became kamikaze pilots who flew their
planes purposefully into U.S. ships. While Allied military leaders
planned to invade, scientists offered another way to end the war.
They had conducted research, code-named the Manhattan Project,

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
“island-hopping” during World War II, Allied strategy of
recapturing some Japanese-held islands while bypassing others
kamikaze Japanese pilot who undertook a suicide mission

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Lesson Summary
VICTORIES FOR THE ALLIES (continued)

that led to the building of an atomic bomb for the United States. The MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
new U.S. president, Harry Truman, decided that dropping the bomb
would save American lives. The Allies first issued a warning to the
Japanese to surrender or face “utter and complete destruction,” but
the warning was ignored. On August 6, 1945, a U.S. plane dropped
an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, instantly killing more
than 70,000 people. Many more died from radiation sickness. When
the Japanese did not surrender, another bomb was dropped on
Nagasaki on August 9. The next day, Japan finally surrendered,
ending World War II.
While the Allies enjoyed their victory, the huge costs of World
War II began to emerge. As many as 50 million people had been
killed. The Allies also learned the full extent of the horrors of the
Holocaust. War crimes trials, such as the Nuremberg Trials in
Germany, held leaders accountable for their wartime actions. To
ensure tolerance and peace, the Western Allies set up democratic
governments in Japan and Germany.
In 1945, delegates from 50 nations convened to form the United
Nations. Under the UN Charter, each member nation has one vote in
the General Assembly. A smaller Security Council has greater
power. It has five permanent members: the United States, the Soviet
Union (today Russia), Britain, France, and China. UN agencies have
tackled many world problems, from disease to helping refugees.

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Review Questions
12 WORLD WAR II (1930–1945)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Aggression, Appeasement, and War

1. Who were the members of the Axis powers?

2. Recognize Sequence What happened in Spain before Francisco Franco started a

civil war there?

Lesson 2: Axis Powers Advance

3. What was the name of the German government in southern France?

4. Sequence Events When did the United States declare neutrality?

Lesson 3: The Holocaust

5. Which new country was created to provide a home for Jews of every nation?

6. Identify Supporting Details What were some of the atrocities the Nazis
committed against Jews at death camps such as Auschwitz?

Lesson 4: The Allies Turn the Tide

7. Who were the “Big Three”?

8. Recognize Sequence List the sequence of events in 1942–1943 that gave the Allies
control of North Africa.

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Review Questions
12 WORLD WAR II (1930–1945) (continued)

Lesson 5: Victories for the Allies

9. What was the “island-hopping” campaign?

10. Recognize Sequence Create a timeline of the events that took place in Japan from
August 6 to August 10, 1945.

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Note Taking Study Guide
13 176THE COLD WAR ERA (1945–1991)

Focus Question: What were the circumstances that led to the East-West
tensions known as the Cold War, and what events brought about its
end?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below to identify events or circumstances that led to the escalation and decline of the Cold War.

Escalation of the Cold War Decline of the Cold War

• •

• •

• •

• •

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Lesson Summary
A NEW GLOBAL CONFLICT

Disagreements began to grow between the Allies not long after MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
World War II ended. Conflicting ideologies soon led to a Cold War.
This refers to the state of tension and hostility between the United
States and the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1990. Soviet leader Stalin
wanted to spread communism into Eastern Europe. He also wanted
to create a buffer zone of friendly countries as a defense against
Germany. By 1948, pro-Soviet communist governments were in
place throughout Eastern Europe, behind what Winston Churchill
referred to as the “Iron Curtain.”
When Stalin began to threaten Greece and Turkey, the United
States outlined a policy called the Truman Doctrine. This policy
meant that the United States would resist the spread of communism
throughout the world. To strengthen democracies in Europe, the
United States offered a massive aid package, called the Marshall
Plan. Western attempts to rebuild Germany triggered a crisis over
the city of Berlin. The Soviets controlled East Germany, which
surrounded Berlin. To force the Western Allies out of Berlin, the
Soviets blockaded West Berlin, but a year-long airlift forced them to
end the blockade.
However, tensions continued to mount. In 1949, the United
States and nine other nations formed a new military alliance called
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Soviets
responded by forming the Warsaw Pact, which included the Soviet
Union and seven Eastern European nations.
After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union
emerged as superpowers. They each created military alliances made
up of nations they protected or occupied. The United States helped
form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an alliance of
Western European allies. The Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact
with Eastern European countries. The line between the democratic
West and communist East was called the Iron Curtain. Many revolts
challenging Soviet domination were suppressed with military force.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
superpower a nation stronger than other powerful nations

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A NEW GLOBAL CONFLICT (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The superpowers also engaged in a weapons race—both

developed nuclear weapons. To reduce the threat of war, the two
sides held several disarmament talks. Agreements limited the
number of nuclear weapons that nations could maintain, which
eased Cold War tensions. This period was called the era of détente.
It ended, however, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in
1979.
During the 1950s, Fidel Castro led a revolution in Cuba and
became its leader. To bring down Castro’s communist regime, U.S.
President John F. Kennedy supported an invasion of Cuba, but the
attempt failed. One year later, the Soviets sent nuclear missiles to
Cuba. Many feared a nuclear war. After the United States blockaded
Cuba, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the
missiles.
The Soviets wanted to spread communist ideology around the
globe. When Khrushchev came to power, he eased censorship and
increased tolerance. However, repression returned under Leonid
Brezhnev. American leaders followed a policy of containment. This
was a strategy of keeping communism from spreading to other
nations. In addition, a “red scare” in the United States resulted in
Senator Joseph McCarthy leading an internal hunt for communists in
the government and military. The House Un-American Activities
Committee (HUAC) also sought out communist sympathizers.

Lesson Vocabulary
détente the relaxation of Cold War tensions during the 1970s
ideology system of thought and belief
containment the U.S. strategy of limiting communism to the areas
already under Soviet control

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Lesson Summary
THE WESTERN DEMOCRACIES AND JAPAN

During the postwar period, U.S. businesses expanded into the global MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
marketplace, and interdependence increased. Other nations needed
goods and services to rebuild. This led to a period of economic
success that changed life in the United States. During the 1950s and
1960s, recessions were brief and mild. As Americans prospered,
they left the cities to live in the suburbs. This trend is called
suburbanization. Also, job opportunities in the Sunbelt attracted
many people to that region. By the 1970s, however, a political crisis
in the Middle East made Americans aware of their dependence on
imported oil. The price of oil and gas rose substantially, which
meant that people had less money to buy other products. The
decades of prosperity ended in 1974 with a serious recession.
During the period of prosperity, African Americans and other
minorities faced segregation in housing and education. They
suffered from discrimination in jobs and voting. Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr., emerged as the main civil rights leader in the 1960s. The
U.S. Congress passed some civil rights legislation. Other minority
groups were inspired by the movement’s successes. For example, the
women’s rights movement helped to end much gender-based
discrimination.
Western Europe rebuilt after World War II. The Marshall Plan
helped restore European economies by providing U.S. aid. After the
war, Germany was divided between the communist East and the
democratic West, but reunited at the end of the Cold War in 1990.
Under Konrad Adenauer, West Germany’s chancellor from 1949 to
1963, Germany built modern cities and re-established trade.
European governments also developed programs that increased

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
interdependence mutual dependence of countries on goods,
resources, labor, and knowledge from other parts of the world
recession period of reduced economic activity
suburbanization the movement to build up areas outside of
central cities
segregation forced separation by race, sex, religion, or ethnicity
discrimination unequal treatment or barriers

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Lesson Summary
THE WESTERN DEMOCRACIES AND JAPAN (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES government responsibility for the needs of people. These welfare
states required high taxes to pay for their programs. During the
1980s, some leaders, such as Britain’s Margaret Thatcher, reduced
the role of the government in the economy. Western Europe also
moved closer to economic unity with the European Union, an
organization dedicated to establishing free trade among its
members.
Japan also prospered after World War II. Its gross domestic
product (GDP) soared. Like Germany, Japan built factories. The
government protected industries by raising tariffs on imported
goods. This helped create a trade surplus for Japan.

Lesson Vocabulary
welfare state a country with a market economy but with increased
government responsibility for the social and economic needs of its
people
gross domestic product the total value of all goods and services
produced in a nation within a particular year

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Lesson Summary
COMMUNISM IN EAST ASIA

After World War II, Mao Zedong led communist forces to victory MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
over Jiang Jieshi’s Nationalists, who fled to Taiwan. Then Mao began
to reshape China’s economy. First, he gave land to peasants, but then
called for collectivization. Under this system, Mao moved people
from their small villages and individual farms into communes of
thousands of people on thousands of acres. Known as the Great
Leap Forward, the program was intended to increase farm and
industrial production. Instead, it produced low-quality, useless
goods and less food. Bad weather also affected crops, and many
people starved.
To remove bourgeois tendencies from China, Mao began the
Cultural Revolution. Skilled workers and managers were removed
from factories and forced to work on farms or in labor camps. This
resulted in a slowed economy and a threat of civil war.
At first, the United States supported the Nationalist government
in Taiwan. The West was concerned that the Soviet Union and China
would become allies, but border clashes led the Soviets to withdraw
aid and advisors from China. U.S. leaders thought that by “playing
the China card,” or improving relations with the Chinese, they
would further isolate the Soviets. In 1979, the United States
established diplomatic relations with China.
Korea was an independent nation until Japan invaded it in
World War II. After the war, American and Soviet forces agreed to
divide the Korean peninsula at the 38th parallel. Kim Il Sung, a
communist, ruled the North; and Syngman Rhee, allied with the
United States, controlled the South. In 1950, North Korean troops
attacked South Korea. The United Nations forces stopped them
along a line known as the Pusan Perimeter, then began advancing
north. Mao sent troops to help the North Koreans. UN forces were
pushed back south of the 38th parallel.
In 1953, both sides signed an armistice to end the fighting, but
troops remained on both sides of the demilitarized zone (DMZ).
Over time, South Korea enjoyed an economic boom and a rise in
living standards, while communist North Korea’s economy declined.
Kim Il Sung’s emphasis on self-reliance kept North Korea isolated
and poor.

Lesson Vocabulary
collectivization the forced joining together of workers and
property into collectives, such as rural collectives that absorb
peasants and their land
bourgeois characteristic of the middle class
demilitarized zone (DMZ) a thin band of territory across the
Korean peninsula separating North Korean forces from South
Korean forces; established by the armistice of 1953

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Lesson Summary
WAR IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES In the 1800s, the French ruled the area in Southeast Asia called French
Indochina. During World War II, Japan invaded that region, but
faced resistance from guerrillas. After the war, the French tried to
reestablish authority in Vietnam. However, forces led by communist
leader Ho Chi Minh fought the colonialists. The French left Vietnam
in 1954, after a Vietnamese victory at Dienbienphu. After that, Ho
controlled the northern part of Vietnam while the United States
supported the noncommunist government in the south.
Ho wanted to unite Vietnam. He provided aid to the National
Liberation Front, or Viet Cong, a communist guerrilla organization
in the south. American leaders saw Vietnam as an extension of the
Cold War and developed the domino theory. This was the belief
that if communists won in South Vietnam, then communism could
spread to other governments in Southeast Asia. After a North
Vietnamese attack on a U.S. Navy destroyer, Congress authorized
the president to take military measures to prevent further
communist aggression in Southeast Asia.
Despite massive American support, the South Vietnamese failed
to defeat the Viet Cong and their North Vietnamese allies. During
the Tet Offensive, the North Vietnamese attacked cities all over the
south. Even though the communists were not able to hold any cities,
it marked a turning point in U.S. public opinion. Upset by civilian
deaths from the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam, as well as growing
American casualties, many Americans began to oppose the war.
President Nixon came under increasing pressure to terminate the
conflict. The Paris Peace Accord of 1973 established a ceasefire, and
American troops began to withdraw. Two years later, communist
North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam.
Neighboring Cambodia and Laos also ended up with communist
governments. In Cambodia, guerrillas called the Khmer Rouge
came to power. Led by the brutal dictator Pol Pot, their policies led
to a genocide that killed about one third of the population. When
Vietnam invaded Cambodia, the genocide ended. Pol Pot and the
Khmer Rouge were forced to retreat. Communism did not spread
any farther in Southeast Asia.

Lesson Vocabulary
guerrilla a soldier in a loosely organized force making surprise
raids
domino theory the belief that a communist victory in South
Vietnam would cause noncommunist governments across Southeast
Asia to fall to communism, like a row of dominoes

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Lesson Summary
THE COLD WAR ENDS

The Soviet Union emerged from World War II as a superpower, with MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
control over many Eastern European countries. For many people, the
country’s superpower status brought few rewards. Consumer goods
were inferior and workers were poorly paid. Because workers had
lifetime job security, there was little incentive to produce high-
quality goods. Still, there were some important technological
successes. One example was Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite.
Keeping up with the United States in an arms race also strained the
economy. Then, in 1979, Soviet forces invaded Afghanistan and
became involved in a long war. The Soviets had few successes
battling the mujahedin, or Muslim religious warriors, creating a
crisis in morale in the USSR.
New Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev urged reforms. He called
for glasnost. He ended censorship and encouraged people to
discuss the country’s problems. Gorbachev also called for
perestroika, or a restructuring of the government and economy. His
policies, however, fed unrest across the Soviet empire.
Eastern Europeans demanded an end to Soviet rule. Previous
attempts to defy the Soviets had failed. When Hungarians and
Czechs challenged the communist rulers, military force subdued
them. By the end of the 1980s, a powerful democracy movement was
sweeping the region. In Poland, Lech Walesa led Solidarity, an
independent, unlawful labor union demanding economic and
political changes. When Gorbachev declared he would not interfere
in Eastern European reforms, Solidarity was legalized. A year later,
Walesa was elected president of Poland.
Meanwhile, East German leaders resisted reform, and thousands of
East Germans fled to the West. In Czechoslovakia, Václav Havel, a
dissident writer, was elected president. One by one, communist
governments fell. Most changes happened peacefully, but Romanian
dictator Nicolae Ceausescu refused to step down and he was executed.
The Baltic States regained independence. By the end of 1991, the
remaining Soviet republics had all formed independent nations. The
Soviet Union ceased to exist after 69 years of communist rule.
In 1992, Czechoslovakia was divided into Slovakia and the Czech
Republic. Additionally, some communist governments in Asia, such
as China, instituted economic reforms.

Lesson Vocabulary
mujahedin Muslim religious warriors
glasnost “openness” in Russian; a Soviet policy of greater freedom
of expression introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s
perestroika a Soviet policy of democratic and free-market reforms
introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s

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Review Questions
13 184THE COLD WAR ERA (1945–1991)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: A New Global Conflict

1. Who were the two superpowers during the Cold War?

2. Summarize What was the United States policy known as containment?

Lesson 2: The Western Democracies and Japan

3. What is suburbanization?

4. Categorize In what ways were minorities denied equality and opportunity?

Lesson 3: Communism in East Asia

5. What is the significance of the 38th parallel?

6. Summarize Summarize the effects of the Great Leap Forward on the Chinese
people.

Lesson 4: War in Southeast Asia

7. What was significant about the Tet Offensive?

8. Summarize Summarize U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

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Review Questions
13 THE COLD WAR ERA (1945–1991) (continued)

Lesson 5: The Cold War Ends

9. How did the arms race affect the Soviet economy?

10. Categorize Which leaders mentioned in the summary supported reform and
which leaders opposed reform?

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Note Taking Study Guide
14 186NEW NATIONS EMERGE (1945–PRESENT)

Focus Question: What events followed independence in the former

European colonies of Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle
East?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer to
identify the divisions between rival groups in the Indian subcontinent, Africa, and the
Middle East and the impact of these divisions.

Clashes in Africa, Middle East, and Indian subcontinent

Indian Africa Middle

subcontinent East

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Lesson Summary
NEW NATIONS IN SOUTH ASIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

In the 1940s, tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India led to MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
violence. The ruling British decided that the only solution was a
partition, or division, into a Muslim-majority Pakistan and a Hindu-
majority India. After Pakistan and India gained their independence
in 1947, Hindus in Pakistan fled to India, while Muslims in India fled
to Pakistan. As they fled, Muslims, Hindus, and another religious
group called Sikhs slaughtered one another.
In 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first prime minister.
He tried to improve living conditions and end discrimination against
dalits, or outcasts. Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, became prime
minister in 1966. While she was in office, Sikhs pressed for
independence for the state of Punjab. In 1984, Sikh separatists
occupied the Golden Temple, the holiest Sikh shrine. Gandhi sent
troops to the temple, and thousands of Sikhs were killed. A few
months later, Gandhi’s Sikh bodyguards assassinated her.
In 1947, Pakistan was a divided country. A thousand miles
separated West Pakistan from East Pakistan. West Pakistan
dominated the nation’s government. Most people in East Pakistan
were Bengalis. They felt their government neglected their region. In
1971, Bengalis declared independence for East Pakistan under the
name of Bangladesh. Pakistan tried to crush the rebels, but was
eventually compelled to recognize the independence of Bangladesh.
Despite their differences, India and Pakistan helped organize a
conference of newly independent states in 1955. This marked the
birth of nonalignment, or political and diplomatic independence
from the United States or the Soviet Union.
Mainland Southeast Asia is a region of contrasts. Thailand and
Malaysia have prospered as market economies. In Malaysia, people
of Chinese and Indian descent have made the nation a leader in
profitable industries. However, the government has also tried to
include the Malay majority in the country’s prosperity. By contrast,
Myanmar, or Burma, has suffered under an autocratic
government—a government that has unlimited power. The
government has limited foreign trade, and living standards remain
low. In 1990, elections were held in Myanmar, and a party that
opposed military rule won. It was led by Aung San Suu Kyi.
However, the military rejected the election results, and Suu Kyi was
put under house arrest. She was not released until November 2010.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
partition a division into pieces
dalits outcast or member of India’s lowest caste
nonalignment political and diplomatic independence from both
Cold War powers
autocratic having unlimited power
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Lesson Summary
NEW NATIONS IN SOUTH ASIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES After World War II, Indonesia, formerly the Dutch East Indies,
achieved its independence. Indonesia faced many obstacles to its
unity. It consists of more than 13,000 islands. Javanese make up
almost half of the population, but there are hundreds of ethnic
groups. After independence, Indonesia formed a democratic,
parliamentary government under its first president, Sukarno. In
1966, an army general, Suharto, seized power and ruled as a dictator
until 1998.
In the Philippines, Catholics are the predominant religious
group, but there is a Muslim minority in the south. In 1946, the
Philippines gained freedom from United States control. Although
the Filipino constitution established a democratic government, a
wealthy elite controlled politics and the economy. Ferdinand
Marcos, elected president in 1965, became a dictator and cracked
down on basic freedoms. He even had Benigno Aquino, a popular
rival, murdered. When Corazon Aquino was elected in 1986,
Marcos tried to deny the results, but the people forced him to resign.
Since then, democracy has struggled to survive in the Philippines.
Communist and Muslim rebels continue to fight across the country.

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Lesson Summary
AFRICAN NATIONS WIN INDEPENDENCE

Africa is a diverse continent. Vast savannas, or tree-dotted grasslands, MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
cover much of it, but there are also rain forests and deserts. The
continent also has diverse peoples, languages, and traditions. After
World War II, many Africans demanded freedom from European
powers. European powers had drawn colonial boundaries without
regard for Africa’s ethnic groups. This led to ethnic conflict in many
new nations once colonial powers withdrew.
In 1957, Gold Coast gained its freedom from Britain and took the
name Ghana. The government of its first president, Kwame
Nkrumah, became corrupt, and Nkrumah was overthrown in a
military coup d'état. In Kenya, rebels turned to guerrilla warfare,
but the British crushed the rebellion. Kenya finally gained its
independence in 1963. Jomo Kenyatta, a prominent independence
leader, became the first president of the new country.
Algeria achieved independence from France in 1962. A coup in
1965 began a long period of military rule. When the government
held free elections in 1992, an Islamist party won. The military
rejected the results, and seven years of civil war followed. After
Congo became independent from Belgium, Joseph Mobutu ruled as
a harsh military dictator from 1965 to 1997. Civil war then raged, as
rivals fought to control mineral resources.
Nigeria won its independence in 1960. However, Nigeria faced
ethnic, religious, and regional conflict, including a war to end a
rebellion in oil-rich Biafra. A series of military dictators then ruled
the country, but Nigeria returned to democracy in 1999. Angola and
Mozambique fought Portugal until granted independence in 1975. In
Rwanda, one of Africa’s deadliest ethnic conflicts occurred. There,
the extremist Hutu slaughtered about 800,000 Tutsis and moderate
Hutus. Millions of Rwandans lost their homes.
In Sudan, non-Muslim peoples in the south fought Arab Muslims
from the north. This, along with drought and famine, killed millions.
By 2005, there was peace in the south. However, a new ethnic
conflict had emerged. In Darfur, in western Sudan, government-
backed Arabs attacked non-Arab Muslim villagers and drove them
off their land. Deprived of the land that fed them, the villagers faced
possible starvation in refugee camps. Signs of war crimes and
genocide brought calls for UN peacekeepers.

Lesson Vocabulary
coup d'état the forcible overthrow of a government

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Lesson Summary
THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST TAKES SHAPE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Most of the people in the Middle East are Muslims, but there are also
Christian communities and the predominantly Jewish nation of
Israel. Most countries also have many ethnic groups. Arabs are a
majority in some countries, such as Egypt. Non-Arab Muslims are
the majority in others, such as Turkey.
After World War I, Britain and France were given mandates over
large parts of the Middle East. Under the mandate system, territories
taken from the defeated Ottoman empire were administered, or run,
by Europeans. Arabs resisted the mandate system. By the late 1940s,
the mandates had been divided up into independent countries.
The Holocaust created support for a Jewish state after World
War II. In 1947, the UN drew up a plan to divide Palestine into an
Arab and a Jewish state. In 1948, Jews proclaimed the independent
state of Israel. Arab rejection of the state of Israel led to war. Despite
the conflicts, Israel has developed rapidly. Kibbutzim work on what
is called a kibbutz, or collective farm, and produce crops for export.
An early Israeli leader was Golda Meir, who became Israel’s first
woman prime minister in 1969.
After achieving independence, Middle Eastern nations set out to
build strong modern economies. Only a handful of nations in the
region had rich oil reserves. Most Middle Eastern nations were poor.
In some countries, authoritarian military leaders seized power. In
others, such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia, hereditary monarchs
controlled the government. Only Israel and Turkey had stable
multiparty systems.
Egypt, the most populous Arab country, controls the Suez
Canal. Under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt fought two unsuccessful
wars against Israel. Nasser’s successor, Anwar Sadat, made peace
with Israel. Islamists were angry about government corruption and
the failure to end poverty. In 1981, Sadat was assassinated by
Muslim fundamentalists.
In 2011, popular unrest swept across the Middle East, launching
pro-democracy movements, known as the "Arab Spring." Frustration
with corrupt and dictatorial governments along with high
unemployment fed demands for change. The "Arab Spring," which
started in Tunisia, spread to Egypt and other nations.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
mandate after World War I, a territory administered by a Western
power
kibbutz a collective farm in Israel

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THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST TAKES SHAPE (continued)

In Iran, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi ruled with the support of MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
the United States, which helped oust one of his opponents,
Mohammad Mosaddeq. In the 1970s, the shah’s enemies rallied
behind Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Protests forced the shah out
of power, and Khomeini established an Islamic theocracy, or
government ruled by religious leaders.
Turkey became a republic in the 1920s under Ataturk. Although
it is a Muslim country, most of its people are Turks, not Arabs.
Turkey has served as a link between Europe and the Middle East
and has also sought closer ties with its Middle Eastern neighbors.
Today, Turkey is a multiparty democracy with a market economy.
Clashes erupted in 2013, however, that pitted the moderate Islamist
government against protesters who opposed Islamic reforms.
The Middle East has the world’s largest oil and gas reserves. In
1960, the oil-producing nations of the Middle East, along with
Venezuela, set up the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC). Middle Eastern members of OPEC have used oil
as a political weapon. Other countries have tried to develop other
sources of oil as a result. Saudi Arabia has the world’s largest oil
reserves. Oil wealth allowed Saudi Arabia to modernize.
Some Middle Eastern countries have adopted secular, or non-
religious, government and laws. However, many Muslim leaders
argue that a renewed commitment to Islamic doctrine is needed.
Some reformers are fundamentalist extremists who believe in using
violence to achieve their goals.
Conditions for women vary greatly across the Middle East. Some
have greater rights, but many still face legal and social hurdles.
In Iran and Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear hejab, the
traditional Muslim garments. In others, women have given up the
traditional dress. With the “Arab Spring,” more women are
demanding reform and opportunity.

Lesson Vocabulary
secular having to do with worldly, rather than religious, matters;
nonreligious
hejab headscarves and loose-fitting, ankle-length garments meant
to conceal the body; traditionally worn by many Muslim women

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CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The Middle East has seen many conflicts. Modern Israel was created
in 1948. Palestinian Arabs claimed the same land. Arab countries
attacked Israel in 1967. Israel fought for its right to exist, and in the
process of turning back Arab forces, it gained control of the West
Bank, East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula.
The Palestine Liberation Organization, led by Yasir Arafat,
fought against the Israelis. Some Palestinians took part in uprisings
called intifadas, and suicide bombers spread terror inside Israel.
The Israelis responded with armed force, and Palestinian bitterness
increased. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasir Arafat
signed a peace accord in 1993. There were many stumbling blocks,
however, such as disagreements over Jerusalem, a city sacred to
Jews, Christians, and Muslims. In recent years, new conflicts flared
between Israel and the Palestinians that set back hopes for peace.
Lebanon is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups. There is
a delicate balance among Arab Christians, Sunni Muslims, Shiite
Muslims, and Druze. Tensions among the diverse groups erupted
into civil war that lasted from 1975 to 1990. Christian and Muslim
militias, or armed groups of citizen soldiers, battled each other.
Later, Israel and Syria were drawn into the fighting. Sectarian
divisions remained even after a fragile peace was restored. By 2012,
the civil war in neighboring Syria threatened renewed violence
among rival militias in Lebanon. In addition, a huge number of
refugees fled the civil war in Syria, straining Lebanon’s resources.
Conflicts also plagued Iraq. Iraq’s Sunni Arab minority had long
dominated the country. Iraq’s Kurdish minority and Shiite Arab majority
were excluded from power. In 1980, Iraq’s dictator Saddam Hussein
fought a prolonged war against neighboring Iran. In 1990, Iraq invaded
Kuwait. In response, the United States led a UN coalition that liberated
Kuwait and crushed Iraqi forces in 1991. Saddam Hussein remained in
power. The UN set up no-fly zones to protect the Kurds and Shiites.
In 2003, the United States led a coalition that invaded Iraq and
overthrew Saddam Hussein because U.S. leaders believed Hussein
to be building biological, nuclear, or chemical weapons, called
weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), though no WMDs were
ultimately found. In 2005, national elections were held for the first
time. However, insurgents and ethnic division were still obstacles.
In 2011, the last American troops withdrew, leaving a Shiite-led
government in control, but ongoing violence remained a problem.
Lesson Vocabulary
intifada Palestinian Arab uprising against Israel
militia armed group of citizen soldiers
no-fly zone in Iraq, area where the United States and its allies
banned flights by Iraqi aircraft after the 1991 Gulf War
weapon of mass destruction (WMDs) nuclear, biological, or
chemical weapon
insurgent rebel
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Review Study Guide
Questions
14 MANYNATIONS
NEW CULTURES MEET (1945–PRESENT)
EMERGE

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: New Nations in South Asia and Southeast Asia

1. What is nonalignment?

2. Identify Causes and Effects What caused the British to partition India? What
were some of the effects the partition had on Muslims and Hindus?

Lesson 2: African Nations Win Independence

3. What is a coup d'état?

4. Identify Causes and Effects How did past decisions made by European powers
cause ethnic conflict in many new African nations?

Lesson 3: The Modern Middle East Takes Shape

5. What is a secular government?

6. Identify Causes and Effects What effect did the Holocaust have on support for a
Jewish state?

Lesson 4: Conflicts in the Middle East

7. What are the four major groups of people in Lebanon?

8. Summarize Summarize the events that happened in Iraq in 1990 and 1991.

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Note Taking Study Guide
15 194THE WORLD TODAY (1980–PRESENT)

Focus Question: How have developing nations attempted to solve the

economic problems of their regions?
As you read the Lesson Summaries on the following pages, complete the graphic organizer
below. Choose a difficult economic problem faced by developing nations in a particular region
(Africa, Asia, or Latin America). Identify the problem and describe why it exists. Then note
attempted solutions and the results of those attempts. Finally, describe the end or current
result of efforts to overcome that economic problem.

Problem What

Why

Solution Attempted Solutions Results

1. 1.

2. 2.

End Result

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CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT

After World War II, a central goal in Africa, Asia, and Latin America MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
was development, or creating a more advanced economy and
higher living standards. Nations that are working toward this are
referred to as the developing world. They are also called the global
South, because most of these nations are south of the Tropic of
Cancer. Most industrialized nations are north of the Tropic of
Cancer, so they are sometimes called the global North. Nations of
the global South have tried to develop economically by improving
their agriculture and industry. They have also built schools to
increase literacy.
To pay for development, many countries in the global South
procured large loans from industrialized nations. For centuries,
most people in the global South had lived and worked in traditional
economies. After gaining independence from European colonists,
some of these countries experimented with government-led
command economies. However, when these countries had trouble
paying off their loans, lenders from the global North required many
of them to change to market economies. Now many developing
nations depend on the global North for investment and exports.
Beginning in the 1950s, improved seeds, pesticides, and
mechanical equipment led to a Green Revolution in many parts of the
developing world. This increased agricultural production, feeding
many more people. It also benefited large landowners at the expense
of small farmers. These farmers sold their land and moved to cities.
The global South still faces many challenges. Some developing
nations produce only one export product. If prices for that product
drop, their economies suffer. Also, the population in many of these
countries has grown rapidly. Many people are caught in a cycle of
poverty. When families are forced to move to cities, they often find
only low-paying jobs. As a result, many children must work to help
support their families. With so many moving to cities, many people
are forced to live in crowded and dangerous shantytowns.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
development the process of building stable governments,
improving agriculture and industry, and raising the standard of
living
developing world nations working toward development in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America
literacy the ability to read and write
traditional economy economy that relies on habit, custom, or
ritual and tends not to change over time
shantytown slum of flimsy shacks

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CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Economic development has brought great changes to the
developing world. In many countries, women have greater equality.
However, some religious fundamentalists oppose these changes and
have called for a return to the basic values of their faiths.

Lesson Vocabulary
fundamentalist religious leader who calls for a return to what he
or she sees as the fundamental, or basic, values of his or her faith

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CHALLENGES FOR AFRICAN NATIONS

A close look at South Africa reveals the problems that many African MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
countries have faced with building national unity. After South Africa
achieved self-rule in 1910, the white minority controlled the
government and the economy. During the period of apartheid, the
white-minority government passed laws that severely restricted the
black majority. The African National Congress (ANC), with Nelson
Mandela as one of its leaders, opposed apartheid and led the struggle
for majority rule. A massacre by government troops at Sharpeville in
1960 brought world condemnation, and the work of Anglican bishop
Desmond Tutu helped rally opposition. After sanctions by many
world countries, South African president F.W. deKlerk ended
apartheid in 1990 and released Nelson Mandela from prison. Mandela
was then elected president in the country’s first multiracial elections.
After World War II, African nations had little capital to invest, so
they had to make difficult economic choices. Some nations chose
socialism, a system in which the government controls parts of the
economy. The leaders of these governments hoped to end foreign
influence in their countries and to close the gap between the rich and
the poor. However, socialism sometimes led to large, inefficient
bureaucracies. Other nations relied on capitalism, or market
economies. These economies were often more efficient, but foreign
owners of businesses took profits out of the country. Some
governments tried to fund development by growing crops for
export, rather than food crops. However, this forced them to import
food to replace the food crops. Governments then had to subsidize
part of the cost of importing food from overseas.
African nations faced many obstacles to development. Droughts
led to famine in parts of Africa. This was especially true in the Sahel,
where overgrazing and farming led to desertification. People in
African nations also faced the devastating disease AIDS. Since the
1980s, millions of children in Africa have been orphaned by AIDS.
Urbanization has also created problems in Africa. This shift from
rural areas to cities has meant hardship for many and has weakened
traditional cultures and ethnic ties. However, in West Africa, the
growth of urban markets has increased opportunities for women.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
apartheid a policy of rigid segregation of nonwhite people in the
Republic of South Africa
socialism system in which people as a whole, rather than private
individuals, own all property and operate all businesses
desertification process by which fertile or semidesert land becomes
desert
urbanization movement of people from rural areas to cities

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CHALLENGES FOR AFRICAN NATIONS (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Another concern in Africa is environmental threats. Many of

Africa’s animal habitats have been destroyed, causing many animals
to become endangered species. Other animal species are being killed
for their tusks or fur. One environmental activist, Wangari Maathai,
has fought back by starting the Green Belt Movement. This
organization promotes reforestation. It also helps local women with
projects of sustainable development that aim to provide lasting
benefits for future generations.

Lesson Vocabulary
endangered species species threatened with extinction
sustainable development development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs

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RAPID DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA AND INDIA

After Mao Zedong died, moderate leaders took control of China. MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
Deng Xiaoping began a program called the Four Modernizations,
which allowed some features of a free-market economy. Some
private ownership of property was permitted, and entrepreneurs
could set up businesses. Farmers were allowed to sell surplus
produce and keep the profits. Foreign investment was also
welcomed. These reforms brought a surge of economic growth,
although a gap developed between poor farmers and wealthy city
dwellers. After 30 years of reforms, China’s economic output
quadrupled.
Despite these economic reforms, however, Communist leaders
refused to allow more political freedom. Demonstrators seeking
democratic reforms occupied Tiananmen Square in Beijing in May
1989. When the demonstrators refused to disperse, the government
sent in troops and tanks. Thousands were killed or wounded.
China continues to face many challenges. Its population is the
largest in the world. Many rural workers have moved to cities, but
they often live in poverty there. Pollution and HIV/AIDS are also
problems. Critics of the government are jailed, and human rights
abuses continue. The government started the one-child policy to
prevent population growth from hurting economic development.
Population growth slowed.
By contrast, India has a democratic government. After gaining
independence, India’s government adopted a socialist model, but
development was uneven. The Green Revolution in the 1960s
improved crop output, but most farmers continued to use traditional
methods. Since the 1980s, India has shifted to a free-market system.
Despite setbacks, it has grown greatly in industry and technology.
Despite these improvements, India’s population growth has hurt
efforts to improve living conditions. The Indian government backed
family planning, but it had limited success. More than one third of
Indians live below the poverty line. Many rural families moved to
overcrowded cities like Kolkata and Mumbai. To help the urban
poor, Mother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity.
Changes in India have brought improvements for India’s lowest
social castes and women. India’s constitution bans discrimination
against dalits, people in the lowest caste, but prejudice persists. The
constitution also grants equal rights to women.

Lesson Vocabulary
one-child policy a Chinese government policy limiting urban
families to a single child
dalits member of India’s lowest caste

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15
LESSON 4
LATIN AMERICAN NATIONS MOVE TOWARD
DEMOCRACY

In the 1950s and 1960s, many governments in Latin America

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES encouraged industries to manufacture goods that had previously
been imported. This is called import substitution. More recently,
government policies have focused on producing goods for export.
Governments have also tried to open more land to farming, but much
of the best land belongs to large agribusinesses. In many countries, a
few people control the land and businesses, and wealth is distributed
unevenly. Another problem is population growth, which has
contributed to poverty. Many religious leaders have worked for
justice and an end to poverty in a movement known as liberation
theology. One reformer, Archbishop Oscar Romero of El Salvador,
preached liberation theology until he was assassinated in 1980.
Because of poverty and inequality, democracy has been difficult to
achieve in Latin America. Between the 1950s and 1970s, military
leaders seized power in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and other countries.
From the 1960s to the 1990s, civil wars shook parts of Central America.
In Guatemala, the military targeted the indigenous population and
slaughtered thousands of Native Americans. When socialist rebels
called Sandinistas came to power in Nicaragua, the United States
supported the contras, guerrillas who fought the Sandinistas.
By the 1990s, democratic reforms led to free elections in many
countries. In Mexico, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) had
dominated the government since the 1920s. In 2000, an opposition
candidate was elected president. However, PRI candidate Enrique
Peña Nieto was elected in 2012, and his administration pledged
numerous reforms and promised to improve the economy and fight
organized crime.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
import substitution manufacturing goods locally to replace
imports
agribusiness giant commercial farm, often owned by a
multinational corporation
liberation theology movement within the Catholic Church that
urged the church to become a force for reform and social justice and
to put an end to poverty
indigenous original or native to a country or region
contra guerrilla who fought the Sandinistas in Nicaragua

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15
LESSON 4
LATIN AMERICAN NATIONS MOVE TOWARD
DEMOCRACY (continued)

The United States has had a powerful influence in Latin America.

It has dominated the Organization of American States (OAS). During MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
the Cold War, the United States backed dictators who were anti-
communist. The United States has also pressed Latin American
governments to help stop the drug trade. Many Latin Americans
alleged that the problem was not in Latin America but was based on
the demand for drugs in the United States.
Argentina experienced years of political upheavals beginning in
the 1930s. Juan Perón, Argentina’s president from 1946 to 1955,
enjoyed great support from workers but was ousted in a military
coup. The military seized control again in 1976 and murdered or
kidnapped thousands. Mothers whose sons and daughters were
missing protested and became known as the Mothers of the Plaza de
Mayo. By 1983, the military was forced to allow elections.

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THE INDUSTRIALIZED WORLD

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES The end of the Cold War brought major changes to the world
economy and balance of power. The division between communist
Eastern and democratic Western Europe crumbled. At the same
time, new challenges emerged, including a rise in unemployment
and in immigration from the developing world. One exciting change
was the reunification of Germany. However, East Germany’s
economy was weak and had to be modernized. Another change was
that NATO became more of a peacekeeping organization with an
emphasis on protecting human rights.
In the 1990s, the European Economic Community became the
European Union (EU). The euro soon became the common currency
for most of Western Europe. More than a dozen new countries have
joined the EU, including some Eastern European nations. The
expanded EU allowed Europe to compete economically with the
United States and Japan. However, older members of the EU worried
that the weak economies of Eastern European nations might harm the
EU. Northern Ireland and Ireland also became politically linked
when Protestants and Catholics in different parts of the country
agreed to a power-sharing agreement.
One long-standing conflict in Europe has been mostly resolved.
Britain kept control of Northern Ireland. After violence that lasted for
three decades, both sides signed a peace accord, known as the Good
Friday Agreement in 1998. There is now a power-sharing government.
After the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia struggled to forge
a market economy. In 1998, Russia defaulted on much of its foreign
debt. High inflation and the collapse of the Russian currency forced
banks and businesses to close. When Vladimir Putin became
president in 2000, he promised to end corruption and strengthen
Russia’s economy. However, he also increased government power at
the expense of civil liberties. In 2008, Putin stepped down as
president, but in 2012 he was elected to another six-year term.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
euro common currency used by most member nations of the
European Union
default fail to make payments

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THE INDUSTRIALIZED WORLD (continued)

After the Cold War, the United States became the world’s only MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
superpower. It waged wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. An economic
boom in the 1990s produced a budget surplus in the United States.
Within a decade, however, slow economic growth and soaring
military expenses led to huge budget deficits. In 2008, a financial
crisis shook the American economy, sparking a global recession.
President Obama responded with a multi-billion-dollar economic
stimulus package to revive the economy. In addition, the federal
government provided financial support for banks and car
manufacturers. By 2013, the stock market had recovered, but
unemployment remained high.
The former Soviet republics have struggled to find their way
after independence. Ethnic and religious tensions have fueled
tensions both internally and with Russia. In 1994, separatists in
Chechnya tried to break away from Russian rule, but the revolt was
crushed. Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia all had difficulties
during their struggles for independence.
Yugoslavia had been a multi-ethnic country, made up of Serbs,
Montenegrins, and Macedonians. Ethnic, nationalist, and religious
tensions tore Yugoslavia apart during the 1990s. Yugoslavia was
made up of six republics, but the fall of communism fed nationalist
unrest. Republics broke away and declared independence. Civil war
erupted in Bosnia when it declared independence. Serbian president
Slobodan Milosevic supported Bosnian Serbs in their attempt to set
up their own government. War broke out in Kosovo as well. Ethnic
cleansing was carried out during these wars.
The Pacific Rim nations have become a rising force in the global
economy. Following World War II, Japan became an economic
powerhouse and dominated this region. However, by the 1990s,
Japan’s economy began to suffer, while China’s economy boomed.
Other powerhouses include the “Asian tigers”—Taiwan, Hong Kong,
Singapore, and South Korea—which are known for their electronics
exports. All of these economies suffered during the global recession
that began in 2008, but all have recovered and continue to grow.

Lesson Vocabulary
surplus an amount that is more than needed; excess
deficit gap between what a government spends and what it takes
in through taxes and other sources
multi-ethnic made up of several ethnic groups
ethnic cleansing the killing or forcible removal of people of
different ethnicities from an area by aggressors so that only the
ethnic group of the aggressors remains

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GLOBALIZATION AND TRADE

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Globalization defines the post–Cold War world. It is the process by
which national economies, politics, and cultures become integrated
with those of other nations. One effect of globalization is economic
interdependence. This means that countries depend on one another
for goods, resources, knowledge, and labor.
Improvements in transportation and communication, the spread
of democracy, and the rise of free trade have made the world more
interdependent. Developed nations control much of the world’s
capital, trade, and technology. Yet they rely on workers in
developing countries, to which they outsource jobs to save money or
increase efficiency. Globalization has also encouraged the rise of
multinational corporations that have branches and assets in many
countries.
One effect of interdependence is that an economic crisis in one
region can have a worldwide impact. For example, any change to the
global oil supply affects economies all around the world. Another
example is debt. Poor nations need to borrow capital from rich
nations in order to modernize. When poor nations cannot repay their
debts, both poor nations and rich nations are hurt.
Many international organizations and treaties make global trade
possible. The United Nations deals with a broad range of issues. The
World Bank gives loans and advice to developing nations. The
International Monetary Fund promotes global economic growth. The
World Trade Organization (WTO) tries to ensure that trade flows
smoothly and freely. It opposes protectionism—the use of tariffs to
protect a country’s industries from competition. Regional trade
blocs, such as the EU in Europe, NAFTA in North America, and
APEC in Asia, promote trade within regions.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
globalization the process by which national economies, politics,
cultures, and societies become integrated with those of other nations
around the world
interdependence mutual dependence of countries on goods,
resources, labor, and knowledge from other parts of the world
outsource the practice of sending work to companies in the
developing world in order to save money or increase efficiency
multinational corporation company with branches in many
countries
protectionism the use of tariffs and other restrictions to protect a
country’s home industries against competition
bloc a group of nations acting together in support of one another

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GLOBALIZATION AND TRADE (continued)

Global trade has many benefits. It brings consumers a greater MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
variety of goods and services. It generally keeps prices lower. It also
exposes people to new ideas and technology. However, some people
oppose globalization of trade. They claim that rich countries exploit
poor countries and that the emphasis on profits encourages too-
rapid development. This endangers sustainability, thereby
threatening future generations.

Lesson Vocabulary
sustainability balances people’s needs today with the need to
preserve the environment for future generations

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SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Poverty, disasters, and disease are still challenges today. The gap
between rich and poor nations is growing. Half the world’s
population earns less than $2 a day. Poverty is a complex issue with
many causes. Many poor nations owe billions in debt and have little
money to spend to improve living conditions. Political upheavals,
civil war, corruption and poor planning inhibit efforts to reduce
poverty. Rapid population growth and urbanization also contribute
to poverty.
Natural disasters cause death and destruction around the world.
One example is the tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004. Other
natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, avalanches, droughts,
fires, hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions. Natural disasters can cause
unsanitary conditions that lead to disease. Global travel makes it
possible for diseases to spread quickly. When a disease spreads
rapidly, it is called an epidemic. HIV/AIDS is an epidemic that has
killed millions. Natural disasters can also cause famine. Wars and
problems with food distribution also contribute to famine. Poverty,
disasters, and wars have forced many people to become refugees.
International agreements, such as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the Helsinki Accords, have tried to guarantee
basic human rights around the world. However, human rights
abuses continue. Women in both the developed and developing
world often lack equal rights. Worldwide, children suffer terrible
abuses. In some nations, they are forced to serve as soldiers or
slaves. Indigenous people around the world also face discrimination
and exploitation.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
tsunami very large, damaging wave caused by an earthquake or
very strong wind
epidemic outbreak of a rapidly spreading disease
famine a severe shortage of food in which large numbers of people
starve
refugee a person who flees from home or country to seek refuge
elsewhere, often because of political upheaval or famine
indigenous peoples term generally used to describe the
descendants of the earliest inhabitants of a region

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SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (continued)

Industrialization and the world population explosion have MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
caused damage to the environment. Strip mining, chemical
pesticides and fertilizers, and oil spills are all environmental threats.
Gases from power plants and factories produce acid rain. Pollution
from nuclear power plants is another threat. Desertification and
deforestation are major problems in certain parts of the world.
Deforestation can lead to erosion and is a special threat to the rain
forests. One hotly debated issue is global warming. Many scientists
believe that Earth’s temperature has risen because of gases released
during the burning of fossil fuels. Others argue that global warming
is due to natural fluctuations in Earth’s climate.

Lesson Vocabulary
acid rain a form of pollution in which toxic chemicals in the air
come back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, or hail
deforestation the destruction of forest land
erosion the wearing away of land
global warming the increase in Earth’s average surface
temperature over time

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TERRORISM AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union built
up arsenals of nuclear weapons. To ensure that nuclear weapons did
not proliferate, or spread rapidly, many nations signed the Nuclear
Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968. However, the treaty does not
guarantee that nuclear weapons will not be used. Some nations have
not signed the treaty. Others are suspected of violating it. Nuclear
weapons, along with chemical and biological weapons, make up a
category of weapons called weapons of mass destruction (WMD).
Recently, terrorist groups and rogue states have begun to use
WMDs for their own purposes. Terrorism is the use of violence,
especially against civilians, to achieve political goals. Terrorist
groups use headline-grabbing tactics to draw attention to their
demands. Regional terrorist groups, such as the Irish Republican
Army (IRA), have operated for decades. Increasingly, the Middle
East has become a training ground and source for terrorism. Islamic
fundamentalism motivates many of these groups. One important
Islamic fundamentalist group is al Qaeda, whose leader was Osama
bin Laden. Al Qaeda terrorists were responsible for the attacks on
the United States on September 11, 2001.
In response to these attacks, the United States and other nations
made fighting terrorism a priority. In 2001, Osama bin Laden and
other al Qaeda leaders were living in Afghanistan. Afghanistan’s
government was controlled by the Taliban, an Islamic
fundamentalist group. When the Taliban would not surrender the
terrorists, the United States and its allies overthrew the Taliban and
supported the creation of a new government. Because President
Bush claimed that Iraq had WMDs, the United States later declared
war on Iraq.
During the early 2000s, concerns grew that North Korea was
developing nuclear weapons. In 2006, North Korea actually tested
such a weapon. Meanwhile, Iran announced plans to develop
nuclear power plants. The United States and other nations, however,
believed that Iran aimed to build nuclear weapons, too. The United
States and other countries worked to stop this nuclear proliferation.

Lesson Vocabulary
proliferate to multiply rapidly
rogue state nation that ignores international law and threatens
other nations
terrorism deliberate use of random violence, especially against
civilians, to achieve political goals

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ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Since 1945, scientific research and technological developments have MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES
transformed human existence. One example is the exploration of
space. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union
competed in a “space race.” This began in 1957 when the Soviet
Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. By 1969, the
United States had landed the first human on the moon. Both super-
powers explored military uses of space and sent spy satellites to
orbit Earth.
Since the end of the Cold War, however, nations have worked in
space together. For example, several countries are involved in the
International Space Station (ISS). Thousands of artificial satellites
belonging to many countries now orbit Earth. They are used for
communication, observation, and navigation.
Another important technological development is the invention of
the computer. It has led to the “Information Age.” Personal
computers, or PCs, have replaced typewriters and account books in
homes and businesses. Factories now use computerized robots, and
computers remotely control satellites and probes in space. The
Internet links computer systems worldwide and allows people to
communicate instantly around the globe. It also allows people to
access vast storehouses of information that were unavailable before.

(Continues on the next page.)

Lesson Vocabulary
artificial satellite manmade object that orbits a larger body in
space
Internet a huge international computer network linking millions of
users around the world

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159
ESSON
Lesson Summary
ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (continued)

MODIFIED CORNELL NOTES Other important developments have occurred in medicine and
biotechnology—the application of biological research to industry,
engineering, and technology. Vaccines have been developed that
help prevent the spread of diseases. In the 1970s, surgeons learned to
transplant human organs. Lasers have made many types of surgery
safer and more precise. Computers and other technologies have
helped doctors diagnose and treat diseases. The fields of genetics
and genetic engineering have made dramatic advances. Genetics is
the study of genes and heredity. Genetic engineering is the
manipulation of genetic material to produce specific results. Genetic
research has produced new drug therapies to fight human diseases
and has created new strains of disease-resistant fruits and
vegetables. Genetic cloning has many practical applications in
raising livestock and in research. However, cloning raises ethical
questions about the role of science in creating and changing life.

Lesson Vocabulary
biotechnology the application of biological research to industry,
engineering, and technology
lasers a high-energy light beam that can be used for many
purposes, including surgery, engineering, and scientific research
genetics a branch of biology dealing with heredity and variations
among plants and animals
genetic engineering manipulation of living organism’s chemical
code in order to produce specific results

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Review Questions
15 THE WORLD TODAY (1980–PRESENT)

Answer the questions below using the information in the Lesson Summaries on the previous
pages.

Lesson 1: Challenges of Development

1. What problems do people in the developing world often face when they move to
cities?

2. Identify Supporting Details Record details that support this statement: “The
global South faces many challenges.”

Lesson 2: Challenges for African Nations

3. Why did some African nations choose socialism?

4. Identify Main Ideas What is the main idea of this Summary?

Lesson 3: Rapid Development in China and India

5. Name two groups that have benefited from changes in India.

6. Understanding Effects What impact have economic reforms had in China?

Lesson 4: Latin American Nations Move Toward Democracy

7. Why was democracy difficult to achieve in Latin America?

8. Identify Main Ideas and Supporting Details In an outline, show the recent
political history of Mexico and Argentina.

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HAPTER

11 Note Taking
Review Questions
Study Guide
OPIC

S
15
ECTION
212THE
MANYWORLD
CULTURES
TODAY
MEET
(1980–PRESENT) (continued)

Lesson 5: The Industrialized World

9. What economic challenges did Russia face after the breakup of the Soviet Union?

10. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the U.S. economy in the early
1990s with the economy in the early 2000s.

Lesson 6: Globalization and Trade

11. What is the goal of the World Trade Organization?

12. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the effect of borrowing capital on
rich and poor nations.

Lesson 7: Social and Environmental Issues

13. What environmental problem is a special threat to the rain forests?

14. Identify Causes What are some causes of poverty?

Lesson 8: Terrorism and International Security

15. Why did the United States declare war on Afghanistan?

16. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the status of nuclear weapons
before and after the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty.

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Review Questions
15 THE WORLD TODAY (1980–PRESENT) (continued)

Lesson 9: Advances in Science and Technology

17. What are the three uses of artificial satellites?

18. Compare How have people benefited from advances in science and technology
since the space race began?

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