CNO cycle

The CNO cycle (for carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) is one of the two

known sets of fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen
to helium, the other being the proton–proton chain reaction (pp-
chain reaction). Unlike the latter, the CNO cycle is a catalytic
cycle. It is dominant in stars that are more than 1.3 times as
massive as the Sun.[1]

In the CNO cycle, four protons fuse, using carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen isotopes as catalysts, to produce one alpha particle, two
positrons and two electron neutrinos. Although there are various
paths and catalysts involved in the CNO cycles, all these cycles
have the same net result:

− + −
4 11H + 2 e → 42He + 2 e + 2 e + 2
νe + 3 γ + 24.7 MeV → 42He + 2 νe +
3 γ + 26.7 MeV Overview of the CNO-I Cycle

The positrons will almost instantly annihilate with electrons,

releasing energy in the form of gamma rays. The neutrinos
escape from the star carrying away some energy. One nucleus
goes on to become carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes through
a number of transformations in an endless loop.

The proton–proton chain is more prominent in stars the mass of

the Sun or less. This difference stems from temperature
dependency differences between the two reactions; pp-chain
reaction starts at temperatures around 4 × 106 K[2]
(4 megakelvin), making it the dominant energy source in smaller
stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain starts at approximately
15 × 106 K, but its energy output rises much more rapidly with
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle-1
increasing temperatures[1] so that it becomes the dominant source
of energy at approximately 17 × 106 K.[3] The Sun has a core
4
temperature of around 15.7 × 106 K, and only 1.7% of He nuclei produced in the Sun are born in the CNO cycle. The CNO-I
process was independently proposed by Carl von Weizsäcker[4][5] and Hans Bethe[6][7] in the late 1930s.

Contents
Cold CNO cycles
CNO-I
CNO-II
CNO-III
CNO-IV
 Hot CNO cycles
HCNO-I
HCNO-II
HCNO-III
Use in astronomy
See also
References
Further reading

Cold CNO cycles

Under typical conditions found in stars, catalytic hydrogen burning by the CNO cycles is limited by proton captures. Specifically,
the timescale for beta decay of the radioactive nuclei produced is faster than the timescale for fusion. Because of the long
timescales involved, the cold CNO cycles convert hydrogen to helium slowly, allowing them to power stars in quiescent
equilibrium for many years.

CNO-I
The first proposed catalytic cycle for the conversion of hydrogen into helium was initially called the carbon–nitrogen cycle (CN-
cycle), also referred to as the Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle in honor of the independent work of Carl von Weizsäcker in 1937-38[4][5]
and Hans Bethe. Bethe's 1939 papers on the CN-cycle[6][7] drew on three earlier papers written in collaboration with Robert
Bacher and Milton Stanley Livingston[8][9][10] and which came to be known informally as "Bethe's Bible." It was considered the
standard work on nuclear physics for many years and was a significant factor in his being awarded the 1967 Nobel Prize in
Physics.[11] Bethe's original calculations suggested the CN-cycle was the Sun's primary source of energy.[6][7] This conclusion
arose from what is now-known as a mistaken belief: that the abundance of nitrogen in the sun is approximately 10%, when it is
actually less than half a percent.[12] The CN-cycle, named as it contains no stable isotope of oxygen involves the following cycle
of transformations: 126C → 137N → 136C → 147N → 158O → 157N → 126C.[12] This cycle is now understood as being the first part of a
larger process, the CNO-cycle, and the main reactions in this part of the cycle (CNO-I) are:[12]

12 + 1H → 13N + γ + 1.95 MeV

6C 1 7
13
7N
→ 136C + e+ + νe + 1.20 MeV (half-life of 9.965 minutes[13])
13 + 1H → 14N + γ + 7.54 MeV
6C 1 7
14 + 11H → 158O + γ + 7.35 MeV
7N
15 → 15N + e+ + ν + 1.73 MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds[13])
8O 7 e
15 + 11H → 126C + 42He + 4.96 MeV
7N

where the carbon-12 nucleus used in the first reaction is regenerated in the last reaction. After the two positrons emitted annihilate
with two ambient electrons producing an additional 2.04 MeV, the total energy released in one cycle is 26.73 MeV; in some texts,
authors are erroneously including the positron annihilation energy in with the beta-decay Q-value and then neglecting the equal
amount of energy released by annihilation, leading to possible confusion. All values are calculated with reference to the Atomic
Mass Evaluation 2003.[14]

The limiting (slowest) reaction in the CNO-I cycle is the proton capture on 147N. In 2006 it was experimentally measured down to
stellar energies, revising the calculated age of globular clusters by around 1 billion years.[15]
The neutrinos emitted in beta decay will have a spectrum of energy ranges, because although momentum is conserved, the
momentum can be shared in any way between the positron and neutrino, with either emitted at rest and the other taking away the
full energy, or anything in between, so long as all the energy from the Q-value is used. The total momentum received by the
electron and the neutrino is not great enough to cause a significant recoil of the much heavier daughter nucleus and hence, its
contribution to kinetic energy of the products, for the precision of values given here, can be neglected. Thus the neutrino emitted
during the decay of nitrogen-13 can have an energy from zero up to 1.20 MeV, and the neutrino emitted during the decay of
oxygen-15 can have an energy from zero up to 1.73 MeV. On average, about 1.7 MeV of the total energy output is taken away by
neutrinos for each loop of the cycle, leaving about 25 MeV available for producing luminosity.[16]

CNO-II
15
In a minor branch of the above reaction, occurring in the Sun's core 0.04% of the time, the final reaction involving 7N shown
15
above does not produce carbon-12 and an alpha particle, but instead produces oxygen-16 and a photon and continues 7N→
16 17 17 14 15 15
8O→ 9F→ 8O→ 7N→ 8O→ 7N:

15 + 1H → 16O + γ + 12.13 MeV

7N 1 8
16 + 11H → 179F + γ + 0.60 MeV
8O
17 → 17O + e+ + ν + 2.76 MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)
9F 8 e
17 + 11H → 147N + 42He + 1.19 MeV
8O
14 + 1H → 15O + γ + 7.35 MeV
7N 1 8
15
8O
→ 157N + e+ + νe + 2.75 MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)

Like the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen involved in the main branch, the fluorine produced in the minor branch is merely an
intermediate product and at steady state, does not accumulate in the star.

CNO-III
This subdominant branch is significant only for massive stars. The reactions are started when one of the reactions in CNO-II
results in fluorine-18 and gamma instead of nitrogen-14 and alpha, and continues 178O→189F→188O→157N→168O→179F→178O:

17 + 11H → 189F + γ + 5.61 MeV

8O
18
9F
→ 188O + e+ + νe + 1.656 MeV (half-life of 109.771 minutes)
18 + 1H → 15N + 4He + 3.98 MeV
8O 1 7 2
15 + 11H → 168O + γ + 12.13 MeV
7N
16 + 11H → 179F + γ + 0.60 MeV
8O
17
9F
→ 178O + e+ + νe + 2.76 MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)

CNO-IV
Like the CNO-III, this branch is also only significant in massive stars. The
reactions are started when one of the reactions in CNO-III results in fluorine-19
18 19 16
and gamma instead of nitrogen-15 and alpha, and continues 8O→ 9F→ 8O→
17 17 18 18
9F→ 8O→ 9F→ 8O:

A proton reacts with a nucleus

causing release of an alpha particle.

18 + 1H → 19F + γ + 7.994 MeV

8O 1 9
19 + 11H → 168O + 42He + 8.114 MeV
9F
16 + 1H → 17F + γ + 0.60 MeV
8O 1 9
17
9F
→ 178O + e+ + νe + 2.76 MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)
17 + 11H → 189F + γ + 5.61 MeV
8O
18
9F
→ 188O + e+ + νe + 1.656 MeV (half-life of 109.771 minutes)

Hot CNO cycles

Under conditions of higher temperature and pressure, such as those found in novae and x-ray bursts, the rate of proton captures
exceeds the rate of beta-decay, pushing the burning to the proton drip line. The essential idea is that a radioactive species will
capture a proton before it can beta decay, opening new nuclear burning pathways that are otherwise inaccessible. Because of the
higher temperatures involved, these catalytic cycles are typically referred to as the hot CNO cycles; because the timescales are
limited by beta decays instead of proton captures, they are also called the beta-limited CNO cycles.

HCNO-I
The difference between the CNO-I cycle and the HCNO-I cycle is that 137N captures a proton instead of decaying, leading to the
total sequence 126C→137N→148O→147N→158O→157N→126C:

12 + 11H → 137N + γ + 1.95 MeV

6C
13 + 11H → 148O + γ + 4.63 MeV
7N
14
8O
→ 147N + e+ + νe + 5.14 MeV (half-life of 70.641 seconds)
14 + 1H → 15O + γ + 7.35 MeV
7N 1 8
15
8O
→ 157N + e+ + νe + 2.75 MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)
15 + 11H → 126C + 42He + 4.96 MeV
7N

HCNO-II
The notable difference between the CNO-II cycle and the HCNO-II cycle is that 179F captures a proton instead of decaying, and
neon is produced in a subsequent reaction on 189F, leading to the total sequence 157N→168O→179F→18 18 15 15
10Ne→ 9F→ 8O→ 7N:

15 + 1H → 16O + γ + 12.13 MeV

7N 1 8
16 + 11H → 179F + γ + 0.60 MeV
8O
17 + 11H → 18 + γ + 3.92 MeV
9F 10Ne
18
10Ne
→ 189F + e+ + νe + 4.44 MeV (half-life of 1.672 seconds)
18 + 1H → 15O + 4He + 2.88 MeV
9F 1 8 2
15
8O
→ 157N + e+ + νe + 2.75 MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)

HCNO-III
18
An alternative to the HCNO-II cycle is that 9F captures a proton moving towards higher mass and using the same helium
production mechanism as the CNO-IV cycle as 9F→19
18 19 16 17 18
10Ne→ 9F→ 8O→ 9F→10Ne→ 9F:
18

18 + 11H → 19 + γ + 6.41 MeV

9F 10Ne
19
10Ne
→ 199F + e+ + νe + 3.32 MeV (half-life of 17.22 seconds)
19 + 11H → 168O + 42He + 8.11 MeV
9F
16 + 1H → 17F + γ + 0.60 MeV
8O 1 9
17 + 11H → 18 + γ + 3.92 MeV
9F 10Ne
18
10Ne
→ 189F + e+ + νe + 4.44 MeV (half-life of 1.672 seconds)

Use in astronomy
While the total number of "catalytic" nuclei are conserved in the cycle, in stellar evolution the relative proportions of the nuclei
are altered. When the cycle is run to equilibrium, the ratio of the carbon-12/carbon-13 nuclei is driven to 3.5, and nitrogen-14
becomes the most numerous nucleus, regardless of initial composition. During a star's evolution, convective mixing episodes
moves material, within which the CNO cycle has operated, from the star's interior to the surface, altering the observed
composition of the star. Red giant stars are observed to have lower carbon-12/carbon-13 and carbon-12/nitrogen-14 ratios than do
main sequence stars, which is considered to be convincing evidence for the operation of the CNO cycle.

See also
Stellar nucleosynthesis, the whole topic
12
Triple-alpha process, how C is produced from lighter nuclei

References
1. Salaris, Maurizio; Cassisi, Santi (2005). Evolution of Stars and Stellar Populations (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=p4ojTNkcFx8C&pg=PA119). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 119–121. ISBN 0-470-09220-3.
 2. Reid, I. Neill; Hawley, Suzanne L. (2005). "The Structure, Formation and Evolution of Low-Mass Stars and Brown
Dwarfs – Energy Generation" (https://books.google.com/books?id=o7pe7Fp4JaAC&pg=PA108). New Light on
Dark Stars: Red Dwarfs, Low-Mass Stars, Brown Dwarfs. Springer-Praxis Books in Astrophysics and Astronomy
(2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 108–111. ISBN 3-540-25124-3.
3. Schuler, S. C.; King, J. R.; The, L.-S. (2009). "Stellar Nucleosynthesis in the Hyades Open Cluster". The
Astrophysical Journal. 701 (1): 837–849. arXiv:0906.4812 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0906.4812).
Bibcode:2009ApJ...701..837S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJ...701..837S). doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/701/1/837 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F701%2F1%2F837).
4. von Weizsäcker, Carl F. (1937). "Über Elementumwandlungen in Innern der Sterne I" [On Transformations of
Elements in the Interiors of Stars I]. Physikalische Zeitschrift. 38: 176–191.
5. von Weizsäcker, Carl F. (1938). "Über Elementumwandlungen in Innern der Sterne II" [On Transformations of
Elements in the Interiors of Stars II]. Physikalische Zeitschrift. 39: 633–646.
6. Bethe, Hans A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (1): 103. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.103
(https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.103).
7. Bethe, Hans A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (5): 434–456.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.434).
8. Bethe, Hans A.; Bacher, Robert (1936). "Nuclear Physics, A: Stationary States of Nuclei" (https://authors.library.c
altech.edu/51288/1/RevModPhys.8.82.pdf) (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 8 (2): 82–229.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.8.82 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.8.82).
9. Bethe, Hans A. (1937). "Nuclear Physics, B: Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical". Reviews of Modern Physics. 9 (2):
69–244. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.9.69 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.9.69).
10. Bethe, Hans A.; Livingston, Milton S. (1937). "Nuclear Physics, C: Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental". Reviews of
Modern Physics. 9 (2): 245–390. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.9.245 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.9.24
5).
11. Bardi, Jason Socrates (23 January 2008). "Landmarks: What Makes the Stars Shine?" (https://physics.aps.org/st
ory/v21/st3). Physical Review Focus. 21 (3). Retrieved 26 November 2018.
12. Krane, Kenneth S. (1988). Introductory Nuclear Physics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 537. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
13. Ray, Alak (2010). "Massive Stars as Thermonuclear Reactors and their Explosions Following Core Collapse" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=gCr9WVH0utwC&pg=PA233). In Goswami, Aruna; Reddy, B. Eswar (eds.).
Principles and Perspectives in Cosmochemistry. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 233.
ISBN 9783642103681.
14. Wapstra, Aaldert; Audi, Georges (18 November 2003). "The 2003 Atomic Mass Evaluation" (http://amdc.in2p3.fr/
web/masseval.html). Atomic Mass Data Center. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
15. LUNA Collaboration; Lemut, A.; Bemmerer, D.; Confortola, F.; Bonetti, R.; Broggini, C.; Corvisiero, P.; Costantini,
H.; Cruz, J.; Formicola, A.; Fülöp, Zs.; Gervino, G.; et al. (2006). "First measurement of the 14N(p,γ)15O cross
section down to 70 keV". Physics Letters B. 634: 483–487. arXiv:nucl-ex/0602012 (https://arxiv.org/abs/nucl-ex/0
602012). Bibcode:2006PhLB..634..483L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhLB..634..483L).
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2006.02.021 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2006.02.021).
16. Scheffler, Helmut; Elsässer, Hans (1990). Die Physik der Sterne und der Sonne [The Physics of the Stars and the
Sun]. Bibliographisches Institut (Mannheim, Wien, Zürich). ISBN 3-411-14172-7.

Further reading
Bethe, H. A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (5): 434–56.
Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..434B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...55..434B).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.434).
Iben, I. (1967). "Stellar Evolution Within and off the Main Sequence". Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 5: 571–626. Bibcode:1967ARA&A...5..571I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967ARA&A...5..571I).
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.05.090167.003035 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.aa.05.090167.003035).

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