DESIGN OF MULTIROLE SUPERSONIC FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT- I REPORT

Submitted by

SIVA VIGNESHWARAN U (16101011)

JAYA BHARATH M (16101031)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PADUR, CHENNAI – 603103

APRIL 2019
 SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF MULTIROLE SUPERSONIC

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of “SIVA VIGNESHWARAN
U (16101011), JAYA BHARATH M (16101031)” who carried out the project
work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge
the work reported here does not form part of any other project/research work on
the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this
or any other candidate.

Dr. ASOKAN R Ms. KRISHNAVENI G

Professor & Head of the department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
Hindustan Institute of Technology Hindustan Institute of Technology
and Science and Science
Chennai – 603103 Chennai – 603103

Submitted for the project viva voice Examination held on __________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my extreme pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr. Elizabeth Verghese,

Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, for providing me with a good,
pleasing and safe environment in our college which helped me a lot to carry on
with my project.

I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Kuncheria P. Issac, Vice-

Chancellor, Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science for providing me with
an excellent study environment.

I am thankful to Dr. Dilip A Shah, Senior Professor & Dean, School of

Aeronautical Sciences & Dr. Asokan R, Professor & Head of the Department,
School of Aeronautical Sciences for much of his valuable support,
encouragement in carrying out this work.

I would like to thank my internal guide Ms. Krishnaveni G, for continuously

guiding and actively participating in my project, giving valuable suggestions to
complete the project work.

I would like to thank all the technical and teaching staff of Aeronautical
Department, who extended their support directly or indirectly.

Last, but not the least, I am deeply indebted to my parents who have been the
greatest support while I worked day and night for the project to make it a success.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT I

LIST OF TABLES II

LIST OF FIGURES III

LIST OF GRAPHS IV

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS V

1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1

2 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES 6

3 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND

PERFORMANCE 10

4 PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS 13

5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION

OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN 34

6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 50

7 POWERPLANT SELECTION 61

8 WING, AEROFOIL & TAIL SELECTION 66

9 FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION 84

10 LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION 93

11 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION 102

12 THREE VIEWS OF BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT 112

13 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 113

14 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 116

REFERENCE 117
 ABSTRACT

This project is about the design of a multirole supersonic fighter aircraft. A

multirole supersonic fighter aircraft is designed to perform different roles in
combat. The air-to-air combat role has been normally performed by fighter
aircraft. In addition, a multirole fighter has secondary roles such as air-to-surface
attack. The term multirole has been reserved for aircraft designed with the aim of
using a common airframe for multiple tasks where the same basic airframe is
adapted to a number of differing roles. The main motivation for developing
multirole aircraft is a cost reduction in using a common airframe.

Keywords: Fighter aircraft, supersonic, airfoil, turbojet engine.

I
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission Phases 52

6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several

53
mission phases

6.3 Regression line constant A & B 54

7.1 From Chapter 5, Table.no-5.3 61

7.2 Comparison of different engines 63

8.1 Wing design result 71

8.2 Comparison of different airfoil 73

8.3 Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean chord 75

8.4 High lift device lift coefficient 79

II
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Design Methodology 1

1.2 Design process 2

1.3 Conceptual design 4

1.4 Aircraft design configuration 5

4.1 Dassault Super Mystère 14

4.2 Grumman F-11 Tiger 15

4.3 Lockheed Martin A-4ar Fightinghawk 16

4.4 Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard 17

4.5 Douglas F4d Skyray 18

4.6 Cac/Pac Jf-17 Thunder 19

4.7 Northrop F-20 Tigershark 20

4.8 Lockheed F-104 Starfighter 21

4.9 Canadair Cf-104 Starfighter 22

4.10 Hal Tejas 23

4.11 Dassault Mirage III 24

4.12 Saab Jas 39 Gripen 25

4.13 Vought F-8 Crusader 26

4.14 North American F-100 Super Sabre 27

4.15 Dassault Mirage F1 28

4.16 Dassault Mirage F1 29

4.17 F-16 Fighting Falcon 30

4.18 IAI Lavi 31

III
4.19 Chengdu J-10 32

4.20 Yakovlev Yak-141 33

7.1 Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 engine 63

8.1 Wing types 66

8.2 wing planform 68

8.3 Aerofoil 72

8.4 Geometry of S2027 Airfoil 75

8.5 Geometry of GOE 490 Airfoil 76

8.6 Geometry of CLARK X Airfoil 76

8.7 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE
77
490
8.8 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil S2027 77
8.9 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil
78
CLARK X
8.10 Types of flaps 79

8.11 types of tail 81

9.1 Principal structural units on F-14 aircraft 84

9.2 Semi monocoque fuselage construction 86

9.3 F-22 Raptor landing gear 87

9.4 landing gear sketch of a fighter 88

9.5 Landing gear schematic diagram 91

10.1 lift representation 93

10.2 skin friction drags 97

10.3 form drag 97

10.4 wave drag 98

10.5 Typical streamlining effect 98

IV
11.1 Take-Off Performance 104

11.2 Landing Performance 106

11.3 Climb Hodograph 107

11.4 Climbing Hodograph 109

11.5 Glide Hodograph 110

11.6 Gliding Hodograph 111

12.1 Front view of Fighter Aircraft 112

12.2 Side view of Fighter Aircraft 112

12.3 Top view of Fighter Aircraft 112

12.4 Isometric view of Fighter aircraft 113

V
 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.1 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio 41

5.2 Max Speed Vs Length 41

5.3 Max Speed Vs Height 42

5.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area 42

5.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Span 43

5.6 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading 43

5.7 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight 44

5.8 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight 44

5.9 Max Speed Vs Payload Weight 45

5.10 Max Speed Vs Thrust to Weight Ratio 45

5.11 Max Speed Vs Range 46

5.12 Max Speed Vs Rate of Climb 46

5.13 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling 47

5.14 Max Speed Vs Dry Thrust 47

5.15 Max Speed Vs Afterburner Thrust 48

VI
 LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS

A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing span(m)

C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)

Croot - Chord at Root (m)

Ctip - Chord at Tip (m)

Cd - Drag Co-efficient

Cdo - Zero lift Drag co-efficient

- Specific fuel consumption (lbs /
CP
hp / hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient

D - Drag(N)

E - Endurance (hr)

e - Oswald efficiency factor

L - Lift (N)

(L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

(L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

M - Mach number of aircraft

Mff - Mission fuel fraction

R - Range (km)

Re - Reynolds number

s - Wing area (m2)

Sref - Reference surface area

Swet - Wetted surface area

Sa - Approach distance (m)

Sf - Flare distance (m)

Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)

S.C - Service ceiling

A.C - Absolute ceiling

VII
T - Thrust (N)

Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)

Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

(T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at Loiter

(T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise

(T/W)Take-off - The thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off

vCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)

vStall - velocity at stall (m/s)

vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)

WCrew - Crew weight (kg)

Wempty - Empty weight of the aircraft (kg)

WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)

WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)

W0 - Overall weight (kg)

W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)

ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)

μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

λ - Tapered ratio

R/C - Rate of Climb

η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

VIII
 1. CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which the
aircrafts are designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and
manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc…
For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by national
airworthiness authorities. Among the fundamental elements of the design process
are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis, construction,
testing and evaluation.
Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and
constraints and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce
the best aircraft. The design method to be followed from the start of the project
to the nominal end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases
are illustrated in Figure. In some industrial organizations, this phase is referred to
as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a document
is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric details
known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document that
will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This
is known as the aircraft ‘Type Specification’.

Figure 1.1 Design Methodology

1
1.2 DESIGN PROCESS

Figure 1.2 Design process

2
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are
carried out in sequence. They are
• Conceptual design
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements)for a

new aeroplane, or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement
some pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a
rather concrete good towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps
towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within
a certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and
performance of the new design are determined.

During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by such

qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail
location through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with cut-outs in the
wing structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than the
fuselage or engine nacelle.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase,
the conceptual design process have been actually flawed, to begin with. It is in
the preliminary design phase that serious structural and control system analysis
and design take place.

DETAIL DESIGN

The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of aeroplane
design. The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control
analysis have all been finished with the preliminary design phase. The aeroplane
is now simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure design of each individual
rib, spar and section of skin now take place. The size of number and location of
fasteners are determined. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be
fabricated.

3
BLOCK ARRAY FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Figure 1.3 Conceptual design

4
Figure 1.4 Aircraft design configuration

5
 2. CHAPTER 2

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES

The following types of aircraft are taken for the study

➢ HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN

➢ SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
➢ TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
➢ AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
➢ BUSINESS JETS
➢ REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
➢ TRANSPORT JETS
➢ MILITARY TRAINERS
➢ FIGHTERS
➢ MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES
➢ FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES
➢ SUPERSONIC CRUISE AIRPLANES
Among these one aircraft is chosen for the study on its specification
and performance

2.1 HOMEBUILT AIRCRAFT

Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are

constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft
may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.
Homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four- seat sportsplanes which
employ simple methods of construction. Fabric-covered wood or metal frames
and plywood are common in the aircraft structure. Fiberglass and other
composites as well as full aluminium construction techniques are also being used.

2.2 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Single engine propeller aircraft are well-suited for short missions under
300 miles. They can easily access smaller airports with shorter runways,

6
increasing the number of airstrips they’re able to reach within their ranges. They
are also known as light aircrafts. They are mainly used for freight transport,
sightseeing, photography and other similar roles as well as personal use.
These aircrafts are nowadays used for training of pilots for the commercial
passenger aircrafts. Using these aircrafts these aircrafts they acquire their pilot
license
2.3 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT
Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most
configurations consist of a forward wing with nacelle-mounted engines on each
side and a single tail empennage. However, about a third of the aircraft are of
various engine and airframe arrangements. The alternative ways in which a twin-
engine propeller-driven aircraft can be put together (excluding bi-planes and
helicopters.). Aircraft are arranged in nine categories, as much as possible, with
similar configuration traits. Each configuration category is identified with a
sample aircraft.

2.4 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES

An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that was built for agricultural use

usually the aerial application of pesticides (crop-dusting) or fertilizer in these
roles they are referred to as "crop dusters" or "top dressers". Agricultural aircraft
are also used for hydroseeding. Agricultural aircraft are typically small, simple,
and rugged. Most have spraying systems attached to the trailing edges of their
wings, and pumps are usually driven by wind turbines.

2.5 BUSINESS JETS

A business jet, private jet or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting
small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as
evacuation of casualities or express parcel deliveries, and some are used by public
bodies, government officials or the armed forces.

2.6 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE

A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly

up to 100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers' airline
hubs from small markets. This class of airliners are typically flown by the
regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines.

7
Regional airliners are used for short trips between smaller towns or from a larger
city to a smaller city. Feederline, commuter, and local service are all alternative
terms for the same class of flight operations.

2.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passenger and air cargo.

Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically defined
as an aeroplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial
service. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are called also twin-aisle.
These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major
cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single-
aisle used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their
wide-body counterparts.

2.8 MILITARY TRAINER

A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight
training of pilot and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with
additional safety features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight
characteristics and a simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training to
safely advance their real-time piloting, navigation and warfighting skills without
the danger of overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured aircraft.

2.9 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air

combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose
main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed,
manoeuvrability, and small size relative to other combat aircraft.

2.10 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES

Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed wing
and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons and other
military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations
around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial flight routes in
uncontrolled airspace.

8
 Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for
delivering airborne forces during World War II and towing military gliders. Some
military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such as aerial
refuelling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts onto
unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.

2.11 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on

water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It
differs from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float,
granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by underwing
floats or by wing-like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Their
advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making
them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also
commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.

2.12 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

Supercruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft with a

useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently, which typically
precludes the use of highly inefficient afterburners or "reheat". Many well-known
supersonic military aircraft not capable of supercruise must maintain supersonic
flight in short bursts typically with afterburners. Aircraft such as the SR-71
Blackbird is designed to cruise at supersonic speed with afterburners enabled.

9
 3. CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND

PERFORMANCE

CREW
A group of people who work on and operate an aircraft.

PASSENGERS

A traveller on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and crew.

EMPTY WEIGHT

The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft without including
passengers, baggage, or fuel.

PAYLOAD

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

freight etc.

TAKE OFF WEIGHT

It is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off due
to structural or other limits.

LANDING WEIGHT

It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations

at which an aircraft is permitted to land.

WING LOADING

It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing.

10
WING AREA

It is the projected area of the wing planform and is bounded by the leading trailing
edges and the wing tips.

WING SPAN

The maximum distance between the two wing tips and id denoted by b.

THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

engine that indicates the performance of the engine or vehicle.

WINGSWEEP BACK ANGLE

The angle at which a wing is either swept backward or occasionally forward from
its root.

ASPECT RATIO

It is the ratio of wing span to its mean chord. It is also equal to the square of the
wing span divided by the wing area.
Aspect ratio = b2/s

THRUST

It is the force exerted by the engines on the airframe to overcome drag and is
measured in Newton (N).

POWER

It is the rate at which work is done.

WET THRUST

It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection.

CRUISE SPEED

The speed at which combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel
consumption and power output.

11
RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB)

The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

RATE OF DESCENT (SINK)

The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

ABSOLUTE CEILING

It is the altitude where maximum rate of climb is zero is the highest altitude
achievable in steady, level flight.

SERVICE CEILING

It is the altitude where the maximum rate of climb is 100 ft/min and it’s
represented the practical upper limit for steady, level flight.

RANGE

It is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between take-off and landing, as
limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft.

ENDURANCE

It is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight as
long as the fuel is available.

STALLING VELOCITY

It is the velocity below which an aircraft will descend, or ‘stall’, regardless of its
angle of attack.

TAKEOFF DISTANCE

It consists of two parts, the ground run and the distance from where the vehicle
leaves the ground until it reaches 50 ft or 15 m. The sum of these two distances
is considered the take-off distance.

LANDING DISTANCE
It is the distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions,
assuming the aircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the
correct speed.

12
 4. CHAPTER 4

PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It’s the collection of data of various aeroplanes to consolidate the data for the
aeroplane that I design. Around 20 aircraft with their design parameters are
compared.

4.2 AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE

1. Dassault Super Mystère

2. Grumman F-11 Tiger
3. Lockheed Martin A-4ar Fightinghawk
4. Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard
5. Douglas F4d Skyray
6. Cac/Pac Jf-17 Thunder
7. Northrop F-20 Tigershark
8. Lockheed F-104 Starfighter
9. Canadair Cf-104 Starfighter
10. Hal Tejas
11.Dassault Mirage III
12.Saab Jas 39 Gripen
13.Vought F-8 Crusader
14.North American F-100 Super Sabre
15.Dassault Mirage F1
16.Dassault Mirage 2000
17. F-16 Fighting Falcon
18. IAI Lavi
19.Chengdu J-10
20.Yakovlev Yak-141

13
 DASSAULT SUPER MYSTÈRE SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.1 Dassault Super Mystère

PARAMETER Dassault Super Mystère

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.13
Height (m) 4.6
Wing Area (m²) 32.0
Wing Span (m) 10.51
Aspect Ratio 3.45
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 10,000
Empty weight (Kg) 6,390
Payload Weight (Kg) 2680
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.5
Max Speed (Km/h) 1195
Service Ceiling (m) 17,000
Range (Km) 1175
Rate of Climb (m/s) 89
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 281
Dry Thrust (KN) 33.3
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 44.1
Engine Type 1 × SNECMA Atar 101G-2 turbojet

14
 GRUMMAN F-11 TIGER SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.2 Grumman F-11 Tiger

PARAMETER Grumman F-11 Tiger

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.3
Height (m) 4
Wing Area (m²) 23
Wing Span (m) 9.6
Aspect Ratio 4
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 10,663
Empty weight (Kg) 6,277
Payload Weight (Kg) 3,280
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.5
Max Speed (Km/h) 1170
Service Ceiling (m) 14,900
Range (Km) 2050
Rate of Climb (m/s) 83
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 411
Dry Thrust (KN) 32.9
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 46.7
Engine Type 1 × Wright J65-W-18 turbojet

15
 LOCKHEED MARTIN A-4AR FIGHTINGHAWK
SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.3 Lockheed Martin A-4ar Fightinghawk

PARAMETER Lockheed Martin A-4AR Fightinghawk

Crew 1
Length (m) 12.3
Height (m) 4.57
Wing Area (m²) 24.15
Wing Span (m) 8.38
Aspect Ratio 2.9
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 11,136
Empty weight (Kg) 4,900
Payload Weight (Kg) 4,490
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.51
Max Speed (Km/h) 1080
Service Ceiling (m) 12,880
Range (Km) 3220
Rate of Climb (m/s) 43
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 344.4
Dry Thrust (KN) 36
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 50
Engine Type 1 × Pratt & Whitney J52-P-408A Turbojet

16
 DASSAULT-BREGUET SUPER ÉTENDARD SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.4 Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard

PARAMETER Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.31
Height (m) 3.86
Wing Area (m²) 28.4
Wing Span (m) 9.6
Aspect Ratio 3.24
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 12,000
Empty weight (Kg) 6,500
Payload Weight (Kg) 2100
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.42
Max Speed (Km/h) 1206
Service Ceiling (m) 13,700
Range (Km) 1820
Rate of Climb (m/s) 100
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 423
Dry Thrust (KN) 42
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 58.9
Engine Type 1 × Snecma Atar 8K-50 turbojet

17
 DOUGLAS F4D SKYRAY SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.5 Douglas F4d Skyray

PARAMETER Douglas F4D Skyray

Crew 1
Length (m) 13.8
Height (m) 3.96
Wing Area (m²) 52
Wing Span (m) 10.21
Aspect Ratio 2
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 12,300
Empty weight (Kg) 7,268
Payload Weight (Kg) 1,500
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.71
Max Speed (Km/h) 1162
Service Ceiling (m) 17,000
Range (Km) 1100
Rate of Climb (m/s) 93.3
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 198
Dry Thrust (KN) 45
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 64.5
1 × Pratt & Whitney J57-P-8, −8A or
Engine Type
−8B turbojet

18
 CAC/PAC JF-17 THUNDER SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.6 Cac/Pac Jf-17 Thunder

PARAMETER CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.93
Height (m) 4.72
Wing Area (m²) 24.43
Wing Span (m) 9.48
Aspect Ratio 3.67
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 12,383
Empty weight (Kg) 6,586
Payload Weight (Kg) 3700
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.95
Max Speed (Km/h) 1958
Service Ceiling (m) 16,916
Range (Km) 3,482
Rate of Climb (m/s) 281
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 372
Dry Thrust (KN) 49.4
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 85.3
1 × Klimov RD-93 Afterburning Turbofan,
Engine Type
with DEEC

19
 NORTHROP F-20 TIGERSHARK SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.7 Northrop F-20 Tigershark

PARAMETER Northrop F-20 Tigershark

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.4
Height (m) 4.2
Wing Area (m²) 18.6
Wing Span (m) 8.53
Aspect Ratio 3.9
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 12,474
Empty weight (Kg) 5,964
Payload Weight (Kg) 3,600
Thrust to Weight Ratio 1.1
Max Speed (Km/h) 2124
Service Ceiling (m) 16,800
Range (Km) 2759
Rate of Climb (m/s) 255
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 395
Dry Thrust (KN) 48.6
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 76
Engine Type 1 × General Electric F404-GE-100 turbofan

20
 LOCKHEED F-104 STARFIGHTER SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.8 Lockheed F-104 Starfighter

PARAMETER Lockheed F-104 Starfighter

Crew 1
Length (m) 16.66
Height (m) 4.11
Wing Area (m²) 18.22
Wing Span (m) 6.63
Aspect Ratio 2.4
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 13,166
Empty weight (Kg) 6,350
Payload Weight (Kg) 1800
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.76
Max Speed (Km/h) 2458
Service Ceiling (m) 15,000
Range (Km) 1740
Rate of Climb (m/s) 240
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 510
Dry Thrust (KN) 44
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 69
1 × General Electric J79 afterburning
Engine Type
turbojet

21
 CANADAIR CF-104 STARFIGHTER SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.9 Canadair Cf-104 Starfighter

PARAMETER Canadair CF-104 Starfighter

Crew 1
Length (m) 16.7
Height (m) 4.08
Wing Area (m²) 18.22
Wing Span (m) 6.63
Aspect Ratio 2.4
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 13,171
Empty weight (Kg) 6,300
Payload Weight (Kg) 1,800
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.76
Max Speed (Km/h) 1843
Service Ceiling (m) 15,240
Range (Km) 2630
Rate of Climb (m/s) 240
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 510
Dry Thrust (KN) 44
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 66.7
Engine Type 1 × Orenda J79-OEL-7 afterburning turbojet

22
 HAL TEJAS SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.10 Hal Tejas

PARAMETER HAL Tejas

Crew 1
Length (m) 13.20
Height (m) 4.40
Wing Area (m²) 38.4
Wing Span (m) 8.20
Aspect Ratio 1.75
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 13,500
Empty weight (Kg) 6,560
Payload Weight (Kg) 3500
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.94
Max Speed (Km/h) 2203
Service Ceiling (m) 16,000
Range (Km) 2999
Rate of Climb (m/s) 270
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 255
Dry Thrust (KN) 53.9
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 89.8
1 × General Electric F404-GE-
Engine Type
IN20 turbofan

23
 DASSAULT MIRAGE III SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.11 Dassault Mirage III

PARAMETER Dassault Mirage III

Crew 1
Length (m) 15.03
Height (m) 4.5
Wing Area (m²) 34.85
Wing Span (m) 8.22
Aspect Ratio 1.95
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 13,700
Empty weight (Kg) 7,050
Payload Weight (Kg) 4000
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.46
Max Speed (Km/h) 2350
Service Ceiling (m) 17,000
Range (Km) 1,200
Rate of Climb (m/s) 83
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 387
Dry Thrust (KN) 41.97
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 60.8
1 × SNECMA Atar 09C afterburning turbojet
Engine Type
engine

24
 SAAB JAS 39 GRIPEN SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.12 Saab Jas 39 Gripen

PARAMETER Saab JAS 39 Gripen

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.1
Height (m) 4.5
Wing Area (m²) 30 2
Wing Span (m) 8.4
Aspect Ratio 2.3
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 14,000
Empty weight (Kg) 6,800
Payload Weight (Kg) 5300
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.97
Max Speed (Km/h) 2458
Service Ceiling (m) 15 240
Range (Km) 3249
Rate of Climb (m/s) 254
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 283
Dry Thrust (KN) 54
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 80.5
Engine Type 1 × Volvo RM12 afterburning turbofan

25
 VOUGHT F-8 CRUSADER SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.13 Vought F-8 Crusader

PARAMETER Vought F-8 Crusader

Crew 1
Length (m) 16.53
Height (m) 4.8
Wing Area (m²) 34.8
Wing Span (m) 10.87
Aspect Ratio 3.4
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 15,000
Empty weight (Kg) 7,956
Payload Weight (Kg) 2,000
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.62
Max Speed (Km/h) 1976
Service Ceiling (m) 17,700
Range (Km) 1609
Rate of Climb (m/s) 96.52
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 377.6
Dry Thrust (KN) 47.6
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 80.1
1 × Pratt & Whitney J57-P-20A
Engine Type
afterburning turbojet

26
 NORTH AMERICAN F-100 SUPER SABRE SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.14 North American F-100 Super Sabre

PARAMETER North American F-100 Super Sabre

Crew 1
Length (m) 15.2
Height (m) 4.95
Wing Area (m²) 37
Wing Span (m) 11.81
Aspect Ratio 3.76
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 15,800
Empty weight (Kg) 9,500
Payload Weight (Kg) 3,190
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.55
Max Speed (Km/h) 1390
Service Ceiling (m) 15,000
Range (Km) 3210
Rate of Climb (m/s) 114
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 352
Dry Thrust (KN) 45
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 71
Engine Type 1 × Pratt & Whitney J57-P-21/21A turbojet

27
 DASSAULT MIRAGE F1 SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.15 Dassault Mirage F1

PARAMETER Dassault Mirage F1

Crew 1
Length (m) 15.3
Height (m) 4.5
Wing Area (m²) 25
Wing Span (m) 8.4
Aspect Ratio 2.8
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 16,200
Empty weight (Kg) 7,400
Payload Weight (Kg) 6300
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.66
Max Speed (Km/h) 2336
Service Ceiling (m) 20,000
Range (Km) 3300
Rate of Climb (m/s) 243
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 436
Dry Thrust (KN) 49.03
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 70.6
1 × SNECMA Atar 9K-50
Engine Type
afterburning turbojet

28
 DASSAULT MIRAGE 2000 SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.16 Dassault Mirage F1

PARAMETER Dassault Mirage 2000

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.36
Height (m) 5.20
Wing Area (m²) 41
Wing Span (m) 9.13
Aspect Ratio 2.03
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 17,000
Empty weight (Kg) 7,500
Payload Weight (Kg) 6,300
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.7
Max Speed (Km/h) 2336
Service Ceiling (m) 17,060
Range (Km) 1550
Rate of Climb (m/s) 285
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 337
Dry Thrust (KN) 64.3
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 95.1
1 × SNECMA M53-P2
Engine Type
afterburning turbofan

29
 F-16 FIGHTING FALCON SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.17 F-16 Fighting Falcon

PARAMETER F-16 Fighting Falcon

Crew 1
Length (m) 15.06
Height (m) 4.88
Wing Area (m²) 27.87
Wing Span (m) 9.96
Aspect Ratio 3.5
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 19,200
Empty weight (Kg) 8,570
Payload Weight (Kg) 7,700
Thrust to Weight Ratio 1.095
Max Speed (Km/h) 2120
Service Ceiling (m) 15,240
Range (Km) 4219
Rate of Climb (m/s) 254
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 431
Dry Thrust (KN) 76.3
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 127
1 × General Electric F110-GE-129 or Pratt
Engine Type & Whitney F100-PW-
220/220E afterburning turbofan

30
 IAI LAVI SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.18 IAI Lavi

PARAMETER IAI Lavi

Crew 1
Length (m) 14.57
Height (m) 4.78
Wing Area (m²) 33
Wing Span (m) 8.78
Aspect Ratio 2.33
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 19,277
Empty weight (Kg) 7,031
Payload Weight (Kg) 7260
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.94
Max Speed (Km/h) 1965
Service Ceiling (m) 15,240
Range (Km) 3700
Rate of Climb (m/s) 254
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 303.2
Dry Thrust (KN) 55
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 82.7
1 × Pratt & Whitney
Engine Type
PW1120 afterburning turbofan

31
 CHENGDU J-10 SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.19 Chengdu J-10

PARAMETER Chengdu J-10

Crew 1

Length (m) 15.49

Height (m) 5.43

Wing Area (m²) 33

Wing Span (m) 9.75

Aspect Ratio 2.88

Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 19,277

Empty weight (Kg) 8,850

Payload Weight (Kg) 7,000

Thrust to Weight Ratio 1.15

Max Speed (Km/h) 2221

Service Ceiling (m) 18,000

Range (Km) 1850

Rate of Climb (m/s) 300

Wing loading (Kg/m²) 381

Dry Thrust (KN) 79.43

Afterburner Thrust (KN) 125

1 × Saturn-Lyulka AL-31FN or WS-
Engine Type
10A turbofan

32
 YAKOVLEV YAK-141 SPECIFICATION

Figure 4.20 Yakovlev Yak-141

PARAMETER Yakovlev Yak-141

Crew 1
Length (m) 18.36
Height (m) 5
Wing Area (m²) 31.7
Wing Span (m) 10.105
Aspect Ratio 3.2
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 19,500
Empty weight (Kg) 11,650
Payload Weight (Kg) 2,600
Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.79
Max Speed (Km/h) 1800
Service Ceiling (m) 15,500
Range (Km) 2100
Rate of Climb (m/s) 250
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 367
Dry Thrust (KN) 108
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 152
Engine Type 1 × Soyuz R-79V-300 lift/cruise turbofan

33
 5. CHAPTER 5

COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION

OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

5.1 CONSOLIDATION OF DATA

Consolidation of data is the comparison of collected data. We have made the

comparison of three aircrafts each with 20 selected aircraft in the following table

Dassault Super Grumman F-11 Lockheed Martin A-

PARAMETER
Mystère Tiger 4AR Fightinghawk
Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 14.13 14.3 12.3

Height (m) 4.6 4 4.57

Wing Area (m²) 32.0 23 24.15

Wing Span (m) 10.51 9.6 8.38

Aspect Ratio 3.45 4 2.9

Max Take Off
10,000 10,663 11,136
Weight (Kg)
Empty weight (Kg) 6,390 6,277 4,900
Payload Weight
2680 3,280 4,490
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
0.5 0.5 0.51
Ratio
Max Speed (Km/h) 1195 1170 1080

Service Ceiling (m) 17,000 14,900 12,880

Range (km) 1175 2050 3220

Rate of Climb (m/s) 89 83 43

Wing loading
281 411 344.4
(Kg/m²)
Dry Thrust (KN) 33.3 32.9 36
Afterburner Thrust
44.1 46.7 50
(KN)
1 × SNECMA 1 × Wright J65-W- 1 × Pratt & Whitney
Engine Type
Atar 101G-2 turbojet 18 turbojet J52-P-408A Turbojet

34
 Dassault-Breguet Douglas F4D CAC/PAC JF-17
PARAMETER
Super Étendard Skyray Thunder

Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 14.31 13.8 14.93

Height (m) 3.86 3.96 4.72

Wing Area (m²) 28.4 52 24.43

Wing Span (m) 9.6 10.21 9.48

Aspect Ratio 3.24 2 3.67

Max Take Off

12,000 12,300 12,383
Weight (Kg)

Empty weight (Kg) 6,500 7,268 6,586

Payload Weight
2100 1,500 3700
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
0.42 0.71 0.95
Ratio

Max Speed (Km/h) 1206 1162 1958

Service Ceiling (m) 13,700 17,000 16,916

Range (Km) 1820 1100 3,482

Rate of Climb (m/s) 100 93.3 281

Wing loading
423 198 372
(Kg/m²)

Dry Thrust (KN) 42 45 49.4

Afterburner Thrust
58.9 64.5 85.3
(KN)
1 × Klimov RD-
1 × Pratt & Whitney
1 × Snecma Atar 8K- 93 Afterburning
Engine Type J57-P-8, −8A or
50 turbojet Turbofan, with
−8B turbojet
DEEC

35
 Northrop F-20 Lockheed F-104 Canadair CF-104
PARAMETER
Tigershark Starfighter Starfighter

Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 14.4 16.66 16.7

Height (m) 4.2 4.11 4.08

Wing Area (m²) 18.6 18.22 18.22

Wing Span (m) 8.53 6.63 6.63

Aspect Ratio 3.9 2.4 2.4

Max Take Off

12,474 13,166 13,171
Weight (Kg)

Empty weight (Kg) 5,964 6,350 6,300

Payload Weight
3,600 1800 1,800
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
1.1 0.76 0.76
Ratio

Max Speed (Km/h) 2124 2458 1843

Service Ceiling (m) 16,800 15,000 15,240

Range (Km) 2759 1740 2630

Rate of Climb (m/s) 255 240 240

Wing loading
395 510 510
(Kg/m²)

Dry Thrust (KN) 48.6 44 44

Afterburner Thrust
76 69 66.7
(KN)
1 × General Electric 1 × General Electric 1 × Orenda J79-OEL-
Engine Type F404-GE- J79 afterburning 7
100 turbofan turbojet afterburning turbojet

36
 Dassault Mirage Saab JAS 39
PARAMETER HAL Tejas
III Gripen

Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 13.20 15.03 14.1

Height (m) 4.40 4.5 4.5

Wing Area (m²) 38.4 34.85 30 2

Wing Span (m) 8.20 8.22 8.4

Aspect Ratio 1.75 1.95 2.3

Max Take Off

13,500 13,700 14,000
Weight (Kg)

Empty weight (Kg) 6,560 7,050 6,800

Payload Weight
3500 4000 5300
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
0.94 0.46 0.97
Ratio

Max Speed (Km/h) 2203 2350 2458

Service Ceiling (m) 16,000 17,000 15 240

Range (Km) 2999 1,200 3249

Rate of Climb
270 83 254
(m/s)
Wing loading
255 387 283
(Kg/m²)

Dry Thrust (KN) 53.9 41.97 54

Afterburner
89.8 60.8 80.5
Thrust (KN)
1 × General Electric 1 × SNECMA Atar 1 × Volvo
Engine Type F404-GE- 09C afterburning RM12 afterburning
IN20 turbofan turbojet engine turbofan

37
 Vought F-8 North American F-
PARAMETER Dassault Mirage F1
Crusader 100 Super Sabre

Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 16.53 15.2 15.3

Height (m) 4.8 4.95 4.5

Wing Area (m²) 34.8 37 25

Wing Span (m) 10.87 11.81 8.4

Aspect Ratio 3.4 3.76 2.8

Max Take Off

15,000 15,800 16,200
Weight (Kg)

Empty weight (Kg) 7,956 9,500 7,400

Payload Weight
2,000 3,190 6300
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
0.62 0.55 0.66
Ratio

Max Speed (Km/h) 1976 1390 2336

Service Ceiling (m) 17,700 15,000 20,000

Range (Km) 1609 3210 3300

Rate of Climb (m/s) 96.52 114 243

Wing loading
377.6 352 436
(Kg/m²)

Dry Thrust (KN) 47.6 45 49.03

Afterburner Thrust
80.1 71 70.6
(KN)
1 × Pratt & Whitney 1 × Pratt & Whitney 1 × SNECMA
Engine Type J57-P-20A J57-P- Atar 9K-50
afterburning turbojet 21/21A turbojet afterburning turbojet

38
 Dassault Mirage F-16 Fighting
PARAMETER IAI Lavi
2000 Falcon
Crew 1 1 1

Length (m) 14.36 15.06 14.57

Height (m) 5.20 4.88 4.78

Wing Area (m²) 41 27.87 33

Wing Span (m) 9.13 9.96 8.78

Aspect Ratio 2.03 3.5 2.33

Max Take Off
17,000 19,200 19,277
Weight (Kg)
Empty weight (Kg) 7,500 8,570 7,031
Payload Weight
6,300 7,700 7260
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight
0.7 1.095 0.94
Ratio
Max Speed (Km/h) 2336 2120 1965

Service Ceiling (m) 17,060 15,240 15,240

Range (Km) 1550 4219 3700

Rate of Climb (m/s) 285 254 254

Wing loading
337 431 303.2
(Kg/m²)
Dry Thrust (KN) 64.3 76.3 55
Afterburner Thrust
95.1 127 82.7
(KN)
1 × General Electric
F110-GE-129 or Pratt
1 × SNECMA M53- 1 × Pratt & Whitney
& Whitney F100-
Engine Type P2 PW1120 afterburning
PW-
afterburning turbofan turbofan
220/220E afterburnin
g turbofan

39
PARAMETER Chengdu J-10 Yakovlev Yak-141

Crew 1 1

Length (m) 15.49 18.36

Height (m) 5.43 5

Wing Area (m²) 33 31.7

Wing Span (m) 9.75 10.105

Aspect Ratio 2.88 3.2

Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 19,277 19,500

Empty weight (Kg) 8,850 11,650

Payload Weight (Kg) 7,000 2,600

Thrust to Weight Ratio 1.15 0.79

Max Speed (Km/h) 2221 1800

Service Ceiling (m) 18,000 15,500

Range (Km) 1850 2100

Rate of Climb (m/s) 300 250

Wing loading (Kg/m²) 381 367

Dry Thrust (KN) 79.43 108

Afterburner Thrust (KN) 125 152

1 × Saturn-Lyulka AL-31FN 1 × Soyuz R-79V-

Engine Type
or WS-10A turbofan 300 [ru] lift/cruise turbofan

40
5.2 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION

MAX SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO

Graph 5.1 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio - 2.8

MAX SPEED vs LENGTH

Graph 5.2 Max Speed Vs Length

Length – 16 m

41
 MAX SPEED vs HEIGHT

Graph 5.3 Max Speed Vs Height

Height – 4.8 m

MAX SPEED vs WING AREA

Graph 5.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area

Wing Area – 29 m2

42
 MAX SPEED vs WING SPAN

Graph 5.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Span

Wing span – 8.1 m

MAX SPEED vs WING LOADING

Graph 5.6 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading

Wing loading – 340 kg/m2

43
 MAX SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT

Graph 5.7 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight

Empty Weight – 7700 kg

MAX SPEED vs MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT

Graph 5.8 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight

Max Take Off Weight – 14900 kg

44
 MAX SPEED vs PAYLOAD WEIGHT

Graph 5.9 Max Speed Vs Payload Weight

Payload Weight – 3100 kg

MAX SPEED vs THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

Graph 5.10 Max Speed Vs Thrust to Weight Ratio

Thrust to Weight Ratio – 0.85

45
 MAX SPEED vs RANGE

Graph 5.11 Max Speed Vs Range

Range – 2600 km

MAX SPEED vs RATE OF CLIMB

Graph 5.12 Max Speed Vs Rate of Climb

Rate of Climb – 252 m/s

46
 MAX SPEED vs SERVICE CEILING

Graph 5.13 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling

Service Ceiling – 16500 m

MAX SPEED vs DRY THRUST

Graph 5.14 Max Speed Vs Dry Thrust

Dry thrust – 57 KN

47
 MAX SPEED vs AFTERBURNER THRUST

Graph 5.15 Max Speed Vs Afterburner Thrust

Afterburner Thrust – 95 KN

48
5.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS FROM GRAPH

IMPERIAL
FLIGHT PARAMETERS SI UNIT VALUE VALUE
UNIT

Length m 16 ft 52.49

Height m 4.8 ft 15.74

Wing Area m2 29 ft2 312.15

Wing Span m 8.1 ft 26.57

Aspect Ratio 2.8 2.8

Max Take Off Weight Kg 14900 lb 32848.87

Empty weight Kg 7700 lb 16975.59

Payload Weight Kg 3100 lb 6834.33

Thrust to Weight Ratio 0.85 0.85

Max Speed Km/hr 2150 Miles/hr 1335.9

Service Ceiling m 16500 Miles 10.25

Range Km 2600 Miles 1615.56

Rate of Climb m/s 252 Miles/hr 563.7

Wing loading Kg/m2 340 lb/ft2 69.63

Dry Thrust KN 57 lbf 12814.11

Afterburner Thrust KN 95 lbf 21356.85

49
 6. CHAPTER 6

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

To find the weight of the following parameters of an aircraft.

• Takeoff Weight (WTO)
• Fuel Weight (WF)
• Empty Weight (WE)
The following are the data which is obtained from the graph to proceed for the
Weight estimation.
• Max Speed = 1335.9 miles/hr
• Takeoff weight = 32848.87 lbs
• Service ceiling (S.C) = 10.25 miles
• Range = 1615.56 miles
• Takeoff Distance (T.D) = 0.4970 miles
• Landing Distance (L.D) = 0.4658 miles
• Payload = 6834.33 lbs

RCR = R – [T.D + L.D + 2 x (S.C)]

Rcr = [1403 – (0.4319 + 0.4048 + (2 X 8.909))]

Where,
R – total range = 1403 nm
T.D – Take off distance = 0.4319 nm
L.D – Landing distance = 0.4048 nm
Service ceiling = 8.909 nm

Rcr = 1384.3 nm

50
6.2 MISSION PROFILE

Description:
0-1 - Engine Start & Warm up 6-7 - Descent
1-2 - Taxing 7-8 - Drop bombs
2-3 - Take off 8-9 - Strafe
3-4 - Climb 9 - 10 - Climb
4-5 - Cruise out 10 - 11 - Cruise in
5-6 - Loitering 11 - 12 - Descent
12 - 13 - Landing, Taxi, Shutdown

51
6.3 MISSION FUEL FRACTION:

The following tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 will be used for getting the values for the specified aircraft types.
Table 6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission Phases

52
Table 6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several mission phases

53
Table 6.3 Regression line constant A & B

54
6.4 CALCULATION

Phase 1: Engine start and Warm-up

𝑊0
Begin weight is W0. End weight is W1 . The ratio = 0.990
𝑊1

Phase 2: Taxi
𝑊2
Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2. The ratio = 0.990
𝑊1

Phase 3: Take-off
𝑊3
Begin weight is W2. End weight is W3. The ratio = 0.990
𝑊2

Phase 4: Climb
𝑊4
Begin weight is W3. End weight is W4. The ratio = 0.971
𝑊3

Phase 5: Cruise - out

Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5. The amount of fuel used during
cruise can be found from Brequet’s range equation mentioned below.
𝑉 𝐿 𝑊
Rcr = [ ]cr [ ]cr ln [ 4 ]
𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5

Rcr = [ R – (T + L + (2 X service ceiling))] = 1384.3 nm

𝑉 𝐿 𝑊
Rcr = [ ]cr [ ]cr ln [ 4 ]
𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5
1336 𝑊
1384.3 = [ ] [7] ln [ 4 ]
0.6 𝑊5
Where,
V – speed (from graph) = 1336 mph
𝐶𝑗 = 0.6
𝐿
=7
𝐷

𝑊5
= 0.915
𝑊4

55
Phase 6: Loitering
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6. The ratio W6/W5 can be estimate
from the Brequet’s endurance equation which is mentioned below.

1 𝐿 𝑊
Elt= [ ]lt [ ]lt ln [ 5 ]
𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊6

1 𝑊
0.5 = [ ] [9] ln [ 5 ]
0.6 𝑊6

Where,
Elt = 30 mins of loitering = 0.5 hrs

The mission profile assumes no range credit during loiter. Loiter time is 30
minutes.
𝐶𝑗 = 0.6
𝐿
=9
𝐷

𝑊6
= 0.967
𝑊5

Phase 7: Descent
Begin Weight is W6. End Weight is W7. No credit is taken for range.
However, a penalty for fuel used during descents from high altitudes needs
to be assessed. Typically, the ratio
𝑊7
= 0.99
𝑊6

Phase 8: Drop Bombs

Begin Weight is W8. End Weight is W9. Typically, the ratio
𝑊9
=1
𝑊8

Phase 9: Strafe
Begin Weight is W9. End Weight is W10. Typically, the ratio
𝑊10
= 0.986
𝑊9

56
Phase 10: Climb
Begin Weight is W11. End Weight is W12. Typically, the ratio
𝑊12
= 0.969
𝑊11

Phase 11: Cruise - in

Begin Weight is W12. End Weight is W13. Typically, the ratio
𝑊13
= 0.959
𝑊12

Phase 12: Descent

Begin Weight is W13. End Weight is W14. No credit is taken for range.
However, a penalty for fuel used during descents from high altitudes needs
to be assessed. Typically, the ratio
𝑊14
= 0.99
𝑊13

Phase 13: Landing, Taxi and Shutdown

Begin Weight is W14. End Weight is W15. Typically, the ratio
𝑊15
= 0.995
𝑊14

Mission Fuel – Fraction (𝑴𝒇𝒇 )

The Overall mission fuel-fraction, Mff can now be computed as

𝑊0 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7 𝑊8 𝑊9 𝑊10 𝑊11 𝑊12 𝑊13 𝑊14 𝑊15

𝑀𝑓𝑓 =
𝑊1 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7 𝑊8 𝑊9 𝑊10 𝑊11 𝑊12 𝑊13 𝑊14

= (0.990) (0.990) (0.990) (0.971) (0.906) (0.967) (0.99)

(1)(0.986)(0.969) (0.959) (0.99) (0.995)

𝑴𝒇𝒇 = 0.744

57
Maximum Take-off Weight ( WTO)

WTO =32848 lbs

Payload Weight (WPayload)

WPayload = Weight of Number of Passengers + Military loads

= (200 * 0) + 6834

WPayload = 6834 lbs

Crew Weight (WCrew)

WCrew = (175 + 25) * Number of crew

= (175 + 25) * 1

WCrew = 200 lbs

Weight of Fuel (Wf)

Wf = Wf used + Wres
Wf used:
Wf used = (1 - 𝑀𝑓𝑓 ) * WTO
Where, 𝑀𝑓𝑓 = 0.744
WTO = 32848 lbs

Wf used = (1 - 0.744) * 32848

Wf used =8409 lbs

Weight of Fuel Reserve (Wres)

Wres = 10-15 % of fuel used

= 10 % of fuel used

Wres = 840.9 lbs

58
Wf = Wfused + Wres
= 8409 + 840.9

Wf = 9249.9 lbs

Weight of Trapped Fuel Oil (WTFO)

WTFO = 0.5 % of WTO

WTFO = 164.24 lbs

Weight of Operative Empty (WOE Tent)

WOE Tent = WTO - Wf – WPayload
= 32848 – 9249.9 - 6834

WOE Tent = 16750.1 lbs

Weight of Empty (WE Tent)

WE Tent = WOE Tent – WTFO – WCrew
= 16750.1 – 164.24 – 200
\
WE Tent = 16385.86 lbs

Weight of Actual (WE Actual)

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − A
WE Actual = inv log10 [ ]
𝐵
A = 0.5091; B = 0.9505
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 32848 − 0.5091
= inv log10 [ ]
0.9505

WE Actual = 16447.7 lbs

Difference Between WE Actual and WE Tent

WE Actual - WE Tent = 16447.7 – 16385.86

WE Actual - WE Tent = 61.84 lbs

59
 Percentage of Error
𝑊𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊𝐸 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑡
% Error = [ ] * 100
𝑊𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

16447.7−16383.86
=[ ] * 100
16447.7

% Error = 0.375 %

RESULT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 14900 32848

6.4.1.1 Fuel Weight (WF ) 3814.2 8409

6.4.1.2 Empty Weight (WE ) 7460.5 16447.7

6.4.1.3 Payload Weight (Wpayload ) 3100 6834

60
 7. CHAPTER 7

POWERPLANT SELECTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
An airplane, an object which is Airborne. It is the multidisciplinary
area where Aerodynamics, Structures, Propulsion, control & stability place
a major role in the formation of an aircraft. Unlike automobile engines, these
engines are Air-breathing engines which use atmospheric air as the medium
for airborne. There is a different kind of engines equipped with an aircraft,

7.2 TYPES OF ENGINES

1. Piston engine 2. Turbofan

3. Turboprop 4. Turbojet
5. Ramjet 6. Scramjet

7.3 THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION

𝑻𝑹
= 𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝑪
𝑾𝟎

Table 7.1 From Chapter 5, Table.no-5.3

𝑻𝑹
= 𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝑪 𝒂 𝒄
𝑾𝟎
Jet trainer 0.488 0.728
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo/ bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363

From above table for Jet Fighter,

a =0.514 ; c =0.141

From Result of Weight Estimation, W0 = 146.169 𝐾𝑁

From Graph, umax = 597.2 m/s

61
 T@16500m = 216 𝐾
W.K.T,
umax
Mmax =
√γRT@16500

597.2
=
√1.4×287×216

= 2.02

TR
⇒ = 0.514 × 2.020.141
W0

𝐓𝐑 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 𝐊𝐍

𝐓⁄ CALCULATION
𝐖
T
TR = W𝑇0 ( )
W

T TR
⇒ =
W W0

T 82.96 × 103
⇒ =
W 146196

𝐓
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔
𝐖

The thrust produced should be 10% more than the required thrust.
Hence, Thrust required is TR= 91.25 KN
Therefore, Thrust required for single engine is 91.25 KN.

7.4 SELECTION OF ENGINE

Choice of the engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as higher
operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.

A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements

are chosen and are tabulated below

62
 Table 7.2 Comparison of different engines

Name of the Dry Weight SFC Total Thrust

S.NO Engine type
Engine (kg) ( g/kN.s) (kN)
General Electric
1 Turbojet 2300 51 130
YJ93
2 Lyulka AL - 7 Turbojet 2010 63.6 98.1
3 Orenda Iroquois Turbojet 2110 52 114
Pratt & Whitney
4 Turbojet 2700 52.7 113.4
J58
Rolls-
5 Royce/Snecma Turbojet 3175 39 169
Olympus 593
6 Tumansky R-15 Turbojet 2454 76.3 100

7.5 DETAILS ABOUT THE ENGINE

The Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 was an Anglo-French afterburning

(reheated) turbojet which powered the supersonic airliner Concorde. It

Figure 7.1 Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 engine

was initially a joint project between Bristol Siddeley Engines Limited (BSEL)
and Snecma. It was based on the Bristol Siddeley Olympus 22R engine.[1] Rolls-
Royce Limited acquired BSEL in 1966 during development of the engine making

63
BSEL the Bristol Engine Division of Rolls-Royce.

The Olympus 593 was a 2-shaft turbojet with reheat. The LP and HP compressors
both had 7 stages and were each driven by a single-stage turbine. Due to the high
inlet air temperatures at Mach 2 cruise - in excess of 120 degrees C - the
compressor drums and blades were made from titanium except for the last 4 HP
stages which were Nimonic 90 nickel alloy. Nickel alloys were normally only
required in the hotter turbine areas but the high temperatures that occur in the last
stages of the compressor at supersonic flight speeds dictated its use in the
compressor also. Both the HP and LP turbine rotor blades were cooled.

A partial reheat (20% thrust boost) was installed to give the required take-off
thrust. It was also used for transonic acceleration from just below Mach 1 up to
Mach 1.7; the engine supercruised above that speed and at cruise the thrust
through the engine mounts contributed 8% of the thrust from the complete
propulsion system.

All major components of the 593 were designed for a life of 25,000 hours, with
the exception of the compressor and turbine blades which were designed for a
10,000 hour life. An engine installed on Concorde could be changed in one hour,
50 minutes

7.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

• Type: Turbojet
• Length: 4.039 m (13 ft 3 in)
• Diameter: 1.212 m (47.75 in)
• Dry weight: 3,175 kg (7,000 lb)
• Compressor: Axial-flow, 7-stage low-pressure, 7-stage high-pressure
• Combustors: Nickel alloy construction annular chamber, 16 vapourising
burners, each with twin outlets
• Turbine: High-pressure single-stage, low-pressure single-stage
• Fuel type: Jet A1
• Maximum thrust: wet: 169.2 kN (38,050 lbf) dry: 139.4 kN (31,350 lbf)
• Overall pressure ratio: 15.5:1

64
 • Air mass flow: 186 kg/s (410 lb/s)
• Specific fuel consumption: 1.195 lb/(lbf⋅h) (33.8 g/(kN⋅s)) cruise / 1.39
lb/(lbf⋅h) (39 g/(kN⋅s)) SL (sea level)
• Thrust-to-weight ratio: 5.4:1

7.7 CONCLUSION

The preferable choice of engine, from the above, would be Rolls-Royce/Snecma

Olympus 593 engine since the engine thrust is 169 KN.It is a Single afterburning
turbojet engine equipped and also it meets our thrust required calculation 91.25
KN which also suits our demand of weight and power.

65
 8. CHAPTER 8

WING, AEROFOIL & TAIL SELECTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter explain the selection of wing, types of wing and calculation
of wing design parameter

WING SELECTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of
the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities
are in general, a function of the thickness of the aerofoil section that is used in
the wing structure. The first step towards designing the wing is the thickness
estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn, depends on the critical Mach
number of the aerofoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number
corresponding to the wing section.

TYPES OF WING

Wings are differentiated from there wing configuration by the following

• Swept back wing
• Delta wing
• Tapered wing
• Based on the aspect ratio
• Based upon position

Figure 8.1 Wing types

66
 THE POSITION OF WING

The location of the wing in the fuselage (along with the vertical axis) is
very important. Each configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own advantages
but in this design, the Low-wing offers significant advantages such as
• Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.
• Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.
• Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul
easier.
• Permits usage of the Wing carries through the box which alone can
admit the amount of fuel that we require to carry.
• Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and
therefore, provides greater ground clearance and reduces the amount of
fuselage upsweep that is to be provided.
• Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to a minimum
extent.
• The low-wing requires that some amount of dihedral angle is
provided for lateral stability. As of now, the dihedral angle is assumed to
be 5 degrees, but it may be subject to change in the stability analysis.

WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

• The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely

the Wing loading (W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the
Sweepback angle at quarter chord (Λqc).

• The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is

used to find the Wing Area S (from W/S). The value of S also enables us
to calculate the Wingspan b (using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can
now be found using the equation.
S
Croot

The tip chord is given by,

𝐂𝐭𝐢𝐩 = 𝛌 ∗ 𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭

67
 • Wing planform

Figure 8.2 wing planform

the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above - deals with airflow in three
dimensions and is very important to understanding wing performance and
aeroplane flight characteristics. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are
factors in planform design that are very important to the overall aerodynamic
characteristic of a wing

8.2 WING DESIGN CALCULATION

WING AREA (S)

𝑊𝑇𝑂 32848
Area, S = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 69.6375

= 471.69 𝑓𝑡 2

S = 43.82 𝒎𝟐

Where,
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 32848 lbs (From Chapter 6 Weight estimation)

Wing loading = 340 kg/m2 = 69.6375 lb/ft2 (From Graph 5.6)

68
 ASPECT RATIO (A.R)

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛2
A.R = = 2.8 (From Graph 5.1)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

b = √𝐴. 𝑅 ∗ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = √2.8 ∗ 43.82

b = 11.07 m
Where,
Wing Area, S = 43.82 m2

ROOT CHORD (CR)

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 11.07
CR = =
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 2.8

CR = 3.953 m

TAPER RATIO (𝝀)

𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶𝑡 )
𝜆 =
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶𝑅 )
Where,
Taper ratio, 𝜆 = 0.25 (For SAAB 39 Gripen)
Ct
0.25 =
3.953

Ct = 0.988 m

̂)
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD – MAC (𝑪

2 1+ 𝜆 + 𝜆2
MAC, 𝐶̂ = x CR x ( )
3 1+𝜆
Where,
CR = 3.953 m
𝜆 = 0.25

̂ = 2.7524 m
MAC, 𝑪

69
 VOLUME OF FUEL WEIGHT

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 3814.2

Volume of fuel weight = =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 801
3
Volume of fuel weight = 4.759 m
Where,
Weight of fuel = 8409 lbs = 3814.2 kg
Density of fuel = 801 kg/m3

THICKNESS OF ROOT CHORD (CR) AND TIP CHORD (Ct)

𝑡
20 % of Volume of fuel weight = x 𝐶̂ 2 x 0.375 x b
𝑐
Where,
20 % of Volume of fuel weight = 0.9518 m3
𝐶̂ = 2.7524 m
b = 11.07 m
𝒕
= 0.030
𝒄

Thickness of Root chord (TR): TR = 0.030 x CR

= 0.030 x 3.953

TR = 0.1185 m

Thickness of Tip chord (Tt): Tt = 0.030 x Ct

= 0.030 x 0.988

Tt = 0.0296 m

Table 8.1 Wing design result

S.NO DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS VALUES

1 Wing loading (kg/m2) 340
2 Wing Area S (m2) 43.52
3 Aspect Ratio 2.8
4 Span b (m) 11.07
5 Taper ratio (λ) 0.25
6 Root Chord (m) 3.953
7 Tip chord (m) 0.988
8 Mean chord (m) 2.7524

70
8.3 AIRFOIL SELECTION

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE
The aerofoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the aeroplane. The
aerofoil affects the cruise speed, landing distance and take off distance, stall
speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of
flight.

Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic
curves.

The following are the aerofoil

geometry and definition:

Chord line: It is the straight line

connecting leading edge (LE)
and trailing edge (TE).

Chord (c): It is the length of

chord line. Figure 8.3 Aerofoil

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic

typically 12%).

Camber (d): It is the curvature of the section, perpendicular distance of section

mid-points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).

The angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between the chord line and
airflow direction.

The following are aerofoil categories:

1. Early it was based on trial & error.

2. NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
3. NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased CLmax.
4. NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar
flow.

71
5. Modern it is mainly based on the need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below the speed of sound.

Table 8.2 Comparison of different airfoil

Lift
Lift-to- Stall TE LE
S. Thickness Camber Coeffi
Name Drag Angle Angle Radius
No (%) (%) cient
(L/D) (deg) (deg) (%)
(CL)
GOE 546
1 10.4 3.5 1.326 60.2 3 12.9 2.6
AIRFOIL
GOE 490
2 8.8 3.8 1.358 72.9 8 15.7 2.5
AIRFOIL
NACA
3 64(1)-212 12 2.4 1.302 49.9 -0.5 6.7 3
MOD A
CLARK
4 X 11.7 3.3 1.308 57 8 18.2 3
AIRFOIL
5 S2027 14.5 2.7 1.303 46.4 12 7.2 2.6

NACA 4 Digit

▪ 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from leading
edge (LE)).

▪ 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit

▪ 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

▪ 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from
LE).
▪ 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 6 Digit

▪ 1st digit: identifies the series type.

72
▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from
leading edge (LE)).

▪ 3rd digit: indicates an acceptable range of CL above/below design value

for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

▪ 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

▪ 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

From the above list of aerofoils, the one chosen is the GOE 490
AIRFOIL which have the suitable lift coefficient for the current design.

In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to have better

stalling characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the pilot may
realize and avoid a stall by sensing the vibrations on his control stick), it is
usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to the tip section and a higher t/c to the
root section.
Hence,
Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord - GOE 490 AIRFOIL
The section used at the tip - CLARK X
The section used at the root - S2027

73
 Table 8.3 Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean chord

CHORD AIRFOIL CLmax

ROOT S2027 1.303

MEAN GOE 490 AIRFOIL 1.358

TIP CLARK X 1.303

CLmax = (1.303+1.358+1.303) / 3= 1.321

CLmaxAvailable = 0.9 ∗ CLmax = 1.189

AEROFOIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

8.3.2.1 S2027

Figure 8.4 Geometry of S2027 Airfoil

74
8.3.2.2 GOE 490 AIRFOIL

Figure 8.5 Geometry of GOE 490 Airfoil

8.3.2.3 CLARK X

Figure 8.6 Geometry of CLARK X Airfoil

75
 PERFORMANCE CURVES

8.3.3.1 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE 490

Figure 8.7 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE 490

8.3.3.2 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil S2027

Figure 8.8 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil S2027

76
8.3.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil CLARK X

Figure 8.9 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil CLARK X

8.4 HIGH LIFTING DEVICES

In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a

component or mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount of lift
produced by the wing. The device may be a fixed component or a movable
mechanism which is deployed when required. Common movable high-lift
devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed devices include leading-edge root
extensions and boundary layer control systems, which are less commonly used.

TYPES OF DEVICES

• Flaps
• Slots & Slats
• Boundary layer control and blown flaps • Leading edge root
extension.

77
For the current design, the double slotted flap is selected. ∆ of the double
slotted flap for different configurations is given in the table below:

Table 8.4 High lift device lift coefficient

S.No HIGH LIFT DEVICE ∆𝑪𝑳

1 Plain flap 0.7 - 0.9
2 Split flap 0.7 - 0.9
3 Fowler flap 1 - 1.3
4 Slotted flap 1.3 Cf/C
5 Double slotted flap 1.6 Cf/C
6 Triple slotted flap 1.9 Cf/C
7 Leading edge flap 0.2 - 0.3
8 Leading edge slat 0.3 - 0.4
9 kruger flap 0.3 - 0.4

CALCULATIONS

CLmaxRequired (takeoff) = 1.189 + 1.5 = 2.689

CLmaxRequired (landing) = 1.189 + 2.05 = 3.184

Figure 8.10 Types of flaps

78
8.5 TAIL SELECTION

INTRODUCTION

The tail of an aeroplane is called by various names, such as

“empennage” and “stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because
it is at least partially descriptive of the component’s function. However,
the stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the aeroplane’s
control. The tail of an aeroplane is designed to provide both stability and
control of the aeroplane in pitch and yaw. There are many different forms
an aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual requirements of stability and
control. Most tail designs have a horizontal wing like structure and one or
more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever practical, these
structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, although
some designs do not conveniently fit such a description. The many types
of aeroplane tail design include, but are by no means limited to, the
conventional, T-tail, cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted V
tail, inverted Y-tail, twin-tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-
plane tail designs.

CONVENTIONAL TAIL DESIGN

The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one
vertical stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one
horizontal stabilizer divided into two parts, one on each side of the vertical
stabilizer. For many aeroplanes, the conventional arrangement provides
adequate stability and control with the lowest structural weight.

T-TAIL DESIGN

In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail,

the horizontal stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer.
The horizontal stabilizer is then above the propeller flow, or prop wash,
and the wing wake. Because the horizontal stabilizer is more efficient, it
can, therefore, be made both smaller and lighter. The placement of the
horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer can also make the
vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making the vertical
stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced. However, the horizontal
stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and twisting load on the
vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a heavier, structure.

79
These loads are avoided in the conventional design. There is also the
possibility that at the high pitch angle usually associated with landing the
aeroplane, the horizontal stabilizer of the T tail will be immersed in the
slower and more turbulent flow of the wing wake.

DUAL-TAIL DESIGN

The dual-Tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are

placed at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly
common on large flying boats and twin-engine propeller-driven bombers
such as the North American-25. In some cases, this arrangement is
attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in the prop wash of
wing-mounted propellers. The result is the maintenance of good
directional control during low-speed operations. The positioning of the
two vertical stabilizers at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers allows for
a smaller, lighter, and more aerodynamically efficient horizontal
stabilizer. However, the overall weight of a plane with a dual-tail design
is greater than that of a plane with the single conventional-tail design. The
dual tail is part of the design of the Republic Fairchild A-10 ground-attack
aeroplane, in which the plane’s two jet engines are mounted to the rear of
the fuselage. When this aeroplane is viewed from

Figure 8.11 types of tail

the rear and slightly to either side, the engine exhausts, blocked by
the vertical stabilizer, are not easily visible.

80
 TRIPLE-TAIL DESIGN

The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the ends
of the horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is attractive
when the height of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain restrictions,
such as hangar-door height. Certainly, this was the important
consideration in the design of the Lockheed Constellation, one of the most
significant passenger aeroplanes of the late 1940′s. Another well-known
example of the triple-tail design is the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye.

V-TAIL DESIGN

The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited
application in aeroplane design, the most significant of which has been by
the Beech Company in the Beech-craft Bonanza V-35. Clearly, the usual
definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers has no application to the V
tail. The intended advantage of the V-tail design is that two surfaces might
serve the same function as the three required in the conventional tail and
its variants. Removal of one surface then would reduce the drag of the tail
surfaces as well as the weight of the tail region. However, wind tunnel
studies by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA)
have shown that for the V tail to achieve the same degree of stability as a
conventional tail, the area of the V tail would have to be about the same
size as that of the conventional tail.

BOOM-TAIL DESIGN

Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend entirely
back to the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38 Lightning
fighter of World War II and the Fairchild C-119 cargo plane, engines were
mounted on the booms. In the case of the C-119, the twin boom allowed
easy access to the rear of the fuselage for loading and removing cargo.
The twin boom has also been used for an aeroplane with engines mounted
in the fuselage, with one engine, known as the tractor, in the nose of the
aeroplane and one engine, known as the pusher, in the rear of the
aeroplane. Because the thrust of both engines is along the centreline of the
aeroplane, it is much easier in this arrangement to compensate for the loss
of one engine than it is in the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the
Cessna Sky master and the new Adam 309 have fuselage-mounted

81
engines. In the case of the Adam 309, the horizontal stabilizer is raised to
avoid propeller wake from the pusher, or rear-mounted, engine.

8.6 CONCLUSION

The aerofoil which I have selected for root, mean, tip chords are all
with 9% thickness to chord ratio. The Double slotted flaps taken for high
lifting device, will provide manoeuvrability for the fighter.
In my Design Project fighters are equipped with Triple Tail Design.
As mentioned above the Triple tail design will give better stability
performance to the aircraft.

82
 9. CHAPTER 9

FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION

9.1 FUSELAGE SELECTION

The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It

provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories.
The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it.

Figure 9.1 Principal structural units on F-14 aircraft

There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel

truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller
Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters.

The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or

covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided
into three classes—monocoque, semi-monocoque, and reinforced shell.

• The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies,

and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin

83
 carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present,
the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
• Semi-monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem
of monocoque construction. In addition to having formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi-monocoque construction has the
skin reinforced by longitudinal members.

• The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework

of structural members. Different portions of the same fuselage may
belong to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of
semi monocoque-type construction.

• The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium

alloy, although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature
areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which
usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are
supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.
Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons.

The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads,

frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals
to allow for concentrated loads. These members are also found at points
where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings and
stabilizers.

The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as
fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and
for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads
and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these
joins together to form a rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons
prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage.

There are a number of advantages in using the semi-monocoque fuselage.

• The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and
rigidity of the structure.

• The main advantage of the semi-monocoque construction is that it

depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of

84
its stressed skin construction, a semi-monocoque fuselage can withstand
damage and still be strong enough to hold together.

Figure 9.2 Semi monocoque fuselage construction

Points on the fuselage are located by station numbers. Station 0 is usually

located at or near the nose of the aircraft. The other stations are located at
measured distances (in inches) aft of station 0. A typical station diagram
is shown. On this particular aircraft, fuselage station (FS) 0 is located 93.0
inches forward of the nose.

9.2 LANDING GEAR

In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure

(usually wheels) that supports an aircraft and allows it to move across the
surface of the earth when it is not in flying. So, more importance is to be
given as it carries the entire load on the ground.

Figure 9.3 F-22 Raptor landing gear

85
 OVERVIEW

The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined by

the unique characteristics associated with each aircraft, i.e., geometry,
weight, and mission requirements. Given the weight and CG range of the
aircraft, suitable configurations are identified and reviewed to determine
how well they match the airframe structure, flotation, and operational
requirements.

The essential features, e.g., the number and size of tires and wheels,
brakes, and shock absorption mechanism, must be selected in accordance
with industry and federal standards discussed in the following chapters
before an aircraft design progresses past the concept formulation phase,
after which it is often very difficult and expensive to change the design.
The purpose of Landing Gears is to move the aircraft on the ground.
After take-off, the landing gear is retracted, before landing it is extended
and locked into position.

Liebherr provides a system architecture for gear actuation control,

steering control, wheel and brake integration and position and status
control, as well as system integration, series production and of course
product support.

Figure 9.4 landing gear sketch of a fighter

86
 Liebherr acquired knowledge and experience based on the
realization of different landing gear programs. The integration of various
technologies and use of new material for individual landing gear concepts
lead to competitive products:
• Landing Gear Systems
• Nose Landing Gear Subsystem
• Main Landing Gear Subsystem
• Brake and Brake Control Subsystem
• Research and Development Technology

LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS

Landing Gear Arrangement Three basic arrangements of the landing gear

are used:
• Tail wheel type landing gear (also known as conventional
gear)
• Tandem landing gear
• Tricycle-type landing gear.

TAIL WHEEL-TYPE LANDING GEAR

Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear

because many early aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear
is located forward of the centre of gravity, causing the tail to require
support from a third wheel assembly. A few early aircraft designs use a
skid rather than a tail wheel. This helps slow the aircraft upon landing and
provides directional stability. The resulting angle of the aircraft fuselage,
when fitted with conventional gear, allows the use of a long propeller that
compensates for older, underpowered engine design. The increased
clearance of the forward fuselage offered by tail wheeltype landing gear
is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved runways.
Today, aircraft are manufactured with conventional gear for this reason
and for the weight savings accompanying the relatively light tail wheel
assembly.

87
 TANDEM LANDING GEAR

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name
implies, this type of landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned
on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Sailplanes commonly use tandem
gear, although many only have one actual gear forward on the fuselage
with a skid under the tail. A few military bombers, such as the B-47 and
the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy plane. The VTOL Harrier
has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the wings for support.
Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates the use of
very flexible wings.

TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-

type landing gear. It is comprised of the main gear and nose gear.

Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the
following benefits:

• Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing

over when braking, which enables higher landing speeds.
• Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during
landing and ground manoeuvring.
• Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft centre
of gravity is forward of the main gear, forces acting on the
centre of gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving forward rather
than looping, such as with a tailwheel-type landing gear.

STEERING

The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing

gear varies by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.

• RUDDER STEERING
• DIRECT STEERING
• TILLER STEERING

88
 CONFIGURATION SELECTION

The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the preferred
configuration for passenger transports. It leads to a nearly level fuselage
and consequently the cabin floor when the aircraft is on the ground. The
most attractive feature of this type of undercarriages is the improved
stability during braking and ground manoeuvres. Under normal landing
attitude, the relative location of the main assembly to the aircraft CG
produces a nose-down pitching moment upon touchdown.

Figure 9.5 Landing gear schematic diagram

This moment helps to reduce the angle of attack of the aircraft and thus the
lift generated by the wing. In addition, the braking forces, which act behind the
aircraft CG, have a stabilizing effect and thus enable the pilot to make full use of

89
the brakes. These factors all contribute to a shorter landing field length
requirement.
The primary drawback of the nose wheel tricycle configuration is the
restriction placed upon the location where the main landing gear can be attached.
With the steady increase in the aircraft Take off weight, the number of main
assembly struts has grown from two to four to accommodate the number of tires
required to distribute the weight over a greater area.

.
LANDING GEAR DISPOSITION

The positioning of the landing gear is based primarily on stability

considerations during taxiing, lift-off and touchdown, i.e., the aircraft should
be in no danger of turning over on its side once it is on the ground.

Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the

Takeoff/landing performance characteristics and the relationships between the
locations of the landing gear and the aircraft CG.

STABILITY AT TOUCHDOWN AND DURING TAXING

Static stability of an aircraft at touchdown and during taxiing can be

determined by examining the location of the applied forces and the triangle
formed by connecting the attachment locations of the nose and main
assemblies.

Whenever the resultant of air and mass forces intersects the ground at a
point outside this triangle, the ground will not be able to exert a reaction force
which prevents the aircraft from falling over. As a result, the aircraft will can’t
over about the side of the triangle that is closest to the resultant force/ground
intersect.

BRAKING AND STEERING QUALITIES

The nose assembly is located as far forward as possible to maximize the

flotation and stability characteristics of the aircraft. However, a proper balance
in terms of load distribution between the nose and main assembly must be
maintained.

90
 When the load on the nose wheel is less than about eight percent
of the maximum Takeoff weight (MTOW), controllability on the ground
will become marginal, particularly in cross-wind 21 conditions. This
value also allows for fuselage length increase with aircraft growth.

9.3 CONCLUSION

Semi-monocoque and Tri-cycle type landing gear has been selected for my
fighter aircraft

91
 10. CHAPTER 10

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

10.1 LIFT ESTIMATION

Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular

to the flight direction.

Figure 10.1 lift representation

LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)

• Amount of lift generated depends on:

– Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), lift
coefficient(CL)
1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2

• CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

– Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack (𝛼),
compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

GENERATION OF LIFT

• Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:

92
 – Variable pressure distribution.
– Shear stress distribution.
• Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
• Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting
surfaces, i.e. wing.
• Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure
on the lower surface.
• Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or inclined
to flow direction.
• Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.

LIFT AT TAKE-OFF
1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶
2 𝑠 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 57.21 m/s
V = 0.7*1.3*Vstall = 52.06 m/s
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V =√
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

2 𝑋 146169
52.06 = √
1.225 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 𝐶𝑙

s = wing area = 43.82 m2

CLmax = coefficient of lift = 2

1
𝐿= X 1.225 X (52.06)2 X 43.82 X 2
2

L = 145484.5 N
L = 145.484 KN

93
 LIFT AT CRUISE
1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶
2 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

ρ = Density at 16500 m = 0.1539 Kg/m3

V = Vcruise = cruising speed = 597.2 m/s
s = wing area = 43.82 m2
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V= √
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

2 𝑋 146196
597.2 = √
0.1539 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 𝐶𝑙

CLmax
Cruising Lift Coefficient = 0.121

1
𝐿= X 0.1539 X (597.2)2 X 43.82 X 0.121
2

L = 145514.39 N
L = 145.514 KN

LIFT AT LANDING
1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶
2 𝑠 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3
Vstall = stalling speed = 57.21 m/s

V = 0.7*1.2*Vstall = 48.05 m/s

s = wing area = 43.82 m2
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V= √
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

2 𝑋 146196
48.05 = √
1.225 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 𝐶𝑙

94
CLmax = Maximum coefficient of lift = 2.35

1
𝐿= X 1.225 X (48.05)2 X 43.82 X 2.35
2
L = 148364.4 N
L = 148.364 KN

10.2 DRAG ESTIMATION

DRAG:

• Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force

which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
• It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
• It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while the lift
is the desired component.

DRAG COEFFICIENT (CD)

• Amount of drag generated depends on:

1. Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), drag
coefficient (CD)
2. CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends
upon:
i. Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack,
compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

DRAG COMPONENTS

• SKIN FRICTION

1. Due to shear stresses produced in the boundary layer.

2. Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of
boundary layers.

95
 Figure 10.2 skin friction drags

• FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG

1. Due to static pressure distribution around the body -
component resolved in direction of motion.

2. Sometimes considered separately as forebody and

rear (base) drag components.

Figure 10.3 form drag

WAVE DRAG
1. Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and
supersonic speeds.

2. The result of both direct shock losses and the influence

of shock waves on the boundary layer.

96
 Figure 10.4 wave drag

Figure 10.5 Typical streamlining effect

97
 16ℎ 2
) (
∅= 𝑏
16ℎ 2
1+ ( )
𝑏
h = service ceiling = 16500 m
b = Wing span = 11.07 m
16 𝑋 16500 2
( )
∅= 11.07
16 𝑋 16500 2
1+ ( )
11.07

∅ = 0.99
DRAG AT TAKE-OFF
1 2 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ]
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 57.21 m/s
V = 0.7*1.3*Vstall = 52.06 m/s
s = wing area = 43.82 m2
CLmax = coefficient of lift =2
CDO = 0.003

∅ = 0.99

Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.971

AR = Aspect Ratio = 2.8
1 2
0.99 𝑋 22
𝐷 = 𝑋 1.225 𝑋(52.06) 𝑋 43.82 [0.003 + ]
2 𝜋 𝑋 0.971(2.8)
D = 33725.2 N
D = 33.725 KN

DRAG AT CRUISE
1 2 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ]
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)

98
ρ = Density at max altitude = 0.1539 Kg/m3
Vcruise = cruising speed = 597.2 m/s
s = wing area = 43.82 m2
CL = cruising lift coefficient = 0.121
CDO = 0.003

∅ = 0.99
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.971
AR = Aspect Ratio = 2.8

1 2
0.99 𝑋 0.1212
𝐷 = 𝑋 0.1539 𝑋(597.2) 𝑋 43.82 [0.003 + ]
2 𝜋 𝑋 0.971(2.8)
D = 5648.59 N
D = 5.648 KN

DRAG AT LANDING
1 2
∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ]
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3
Vstall = stalling speed = 57.21 m/s
V = 0.7*1.2*Vstall = 48.05 m/s
s = wing area = 43.82 m2
CLmax
Maximum coefficient of lift = 2.35
CDO = 0.003

∅ = 0.99

Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.971

AR = Aspect Ratio = 2.8

99
 1 2
0.99 𝑋 2.352
𝐷 = 𝑋 1.225 𝑋(48.05) 𝑋 43.82 [0.003 + ]
2 𝜋 𝑋 0.971(2.8)
D = 39851 N
D = 39.851 KN

RESULT

CONDITION LIFT (N) DRAG (N)

TAKE OFF 148364.4 33725.2

CRUISE 145514.39 5648.59

LANDING 145484.5 39851

100
 11. CHAPTER 11

PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

INTRODUCTION

Our study of static performance (no acceleration) answered a number of questions

about the capabilities of a given airplane-how fast it can fly, how far it can go,
etc. However, there are more questions to be asked: How fast can it turn? How
high can it "zoom"? What ground distances are covered during takeoff and
landing? The answers to these questions ,involve accelerated flight, the subject
of this chapter.

11.1 THRUST AND POWER

THRUST

By definition, the thrust available, denoted by TA, is the thrust the power
plant of the airplane. The various propulsion devices are described at length. The
single purpose of these propulsion devices is to reliably provide thrust in order to
propel the aircraft. Unlike the thrust TR, which has almost everything to do with
the airframe of the airplane and virtually nothing to do with the power plant, the
thrust available TA has almost everything to do with the power plant and virtually
nothing to do with the airframe.

➢ Thrust Available

𝑇𝐴 = 91.25 KN
➢ Thrust required
𝜌 0.1539 1.14
𝑇R = 𝑇𝐴 𝑋 ( )𝑚 = 91.25 𝑋 ( )
𝜌∞ 1.225

𝑇R = 8.57 KN

POWER

By definition, the power available, denoted by PA, is the power provided by the
powerplant of the airplane. The maximum power available compared with the
power required allows the calculation of the maximum velocity of the airplane.

101
 ➢ Power Available

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑇𝐴 ∗ 𝑉∞ = 91.25 ∗ 597.2

𝑃𝐴 = 54494.5 KW

➢ Power Required

𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 ∗ 𝑉∞ = 8.57 ∗ 597.2
𝑃𝑅 = 5118 KW

11.2 RATE OF CLIMB AND RATE OF SINK

➢ Rate of Climb
𝑃𝐴 −𝑃𝑅
R/C =
𝑊𝑇𝑂

54494500−5118000
R/C =
146196

R/C = 337 m/s

➢ Rate of Sink

2𝑊 1 𝐶 3
𝑅⁄𝑆 = ( )2 𝑋 ( 𝐷 )2
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑂 + 𝐾(𝐶𝐿)2 = 0.003 + 0.117 ∗ (2)2 = 0.471

2 𝑋 146196 1 0.471 3
R⁄𝑆 = ( )2 𝑋 ( )2
1.225 2

R/S = 55.8 m/s

102
11.3 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Figure 11.1 Take-Off Performance

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually

considered in two parts:

• Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)

• Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft
others).

The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (Vlo = about 1.2 x VStall)
when it will then be rotated.
A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made
from:

144𝑊 2
𝑆𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 𝑇

This shows its sensitivity to W (W2) and 𝜌 (1/ 𝜌2 since T also varies with
𝜌). Slo may reduce by increasing T, S or Cl, max (high lift devices relate to
latter two).
An improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made
by including drag, rolling resistance and ground effect terms.

144𝑊 2
𝑆𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 {𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]}𝑎𝑣

103
The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be
made by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x Vlo In the
above equation:

1 2
∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ]
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)

Where ∅ accounts for drag reduction when in ground effect:

16ℎ 2
) (
∅= 𝑏
16ℎ 2
1+ ( )
𝑏
Where h = height above ground, b = wingspan.
𝜇𝑟 = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.

CALCULATION

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ] = 33725.2 N
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)

144 𝑋 33725.2 2
𝑆𝐿𝑂 =
9.81 𝑋 1.225 𝑋43.82 𝑋 2 𝑋 {91250 − [33725.2 + 0.02(146196 − 148364.4)]}𝑎𝑣

SLO = 2701.3 m

104
11.4 LANDING PERFORMANCE

Figure 11.2 Landing Performance

APPROACH & LANDING

➢ Consists of three phases:

• Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 3 0) and constant
speed.

• Flare - transitional manoeuver with airspeed reduced from about 1.3

VStall down to touch-down speed.

• Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.

➢ Ground roll landing distance (s3 or s1) estimated from:
Where Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is
assumed as 1.3 x Vstall
1.69 𝑊 2
𝑆𝐿 =
𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 {[𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]}𝑎𝑣

105
 ➢ 𝜇𝑟 is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use 𝜇𝑟 = 0.4 for
the paved surface.
➢ If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:

1.69𝑊 2
𝑆𝐿 =
𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 {𝑇 + [𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]}𝑎𝑣

CALCULATION

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 + ] = 39851 N
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
1.69𝑋 1461962
𝑆𝐿 =
9.81 𝑋 1.225 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 2.35𝑋 {91250+[39851+0.02(146196−145484.5)]}𝑎𝑣

SL = 222.6 m

11.5 CLIMB HODOGRAPH

From the diagram, it is observed that in a climb, the vertical velocity is the rate
of climb VC and the horizontal velocity is VH. From the discussion in the diagram
it is observed that for a chosen altitude, the vertical velocity VC and the horizontal
velocity VH change with the flight speed V. A plot of the values of VC and VH at
a particular altitude, in which VC is plotted on y-axis and VH is plotted on the x
axis is called ‘Climb hodograph’. The diagram shows a hodograph, based on the

Figure 11.3 Climb Hodograph

106
sea level climb performance of a jet aeroplane.

In a hodograph the line, joining the origin to a point on the curve, has the
length proportional to the flight velocity (V) and the angle this line makes
to the horizontal axis (VH- axis) is the angle of climb (γ). This becomes
evident when it is noted that VC and VH are the components of the flight
velocity (V).

A line from the origin which is tangent to the hodograph gives the value
of γ max and also the velocity corresponding to the diagram. Actually, a
climb hodograph gives complete information about the climb
performance at the chosen altitude especially γ max, Vγ max, (R/C) γ max,
(R/C) max, V(R/C) max, γ(R/C) max and Vmax

CALCULATION
1
2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝑅 =( 𝑋√ 𝑋 )
( )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶 𝜌 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑆

1
2
2 0.117 14900
𝑉(𝑅)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑋√ 𝑋 )
𝐶 1.225 3 𝑋 0.003 43.82

𝑽(𝑹)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 44.73 m/s

𝑪
1
2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑋 √ 𝑋 ) 𝑋 cos 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜌 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑆

1
2
2 0.117 14900
𝑉𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑋√ 𝑋 ) 𝑋 0.96
1.225 0.003 43.82

𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 58.8o

107
 PERFORMANCE GRAPH FOR CLIMBING HODOGRAPH

Figure 11.4 Climbing Hodograph

11.6 GLIDE HODOGRAPH

In this section, the climb hodograph was discussed. Similarly, a glide

hodograph is obtained when horizontal velocity Vh is plotted on the x-axis
and the rate of sink Vd is plotted on the y-axis. A typical diagram is shown.
Such a the diagram gives complete information about glide performance
at an altitude especially, γmin, Vγmin, (R/S) min, V(R/S) min, γ(R/S) min

108
 Figure 11.5 Glide Hodograph

CALCULATION

(R/S)min = 55.8 m/s

2𝑊 2 𝑋 14900
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ =√
𝜌𝑠𝐶 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.225 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 2.35

𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 15.36 m/s

2𝑊 2 𝑋 14900
𝑉𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ =√
𝜌𝑠𝐶 𝐿𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.225 𝑋 43.82 𝑋 0.160

𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 58.90o

𝐶𝐷𝑜 1
𝐶𝐿𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( )2 = (0.003/0.117)^1/2 = 0.160
𝐾

109
 PERFORMANCE GRAPH FOR GLIDING HODOGRAPH

Figure 11.6 Gliding Hodograph

RESULT

PARAMETER VALUE

THRUST REQUIRED 8.57 KN

THRUST AVAILABLE 91.25 KN

POWER REQUIRED 5118 KW

POWER AVAILABLE 54494.5 KW

RATE OF CLIMB 337 m/s

RATE OF SINK 55.8 m/s

TAKE – OFF DISTANCE 2701.3 m

LANDING DISTANCE 222.6 m

110
12. CHAPTER 11

THREE VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

Figure 12.2 Side view of Fighter Aircraft

Figure 12.3 Top view of Fighter Aircraft

Figure 12.1 Front view of Fighter Aircraft

111
 Figure 12.4 Isometric view of Fighter aircraft

(Source: http://getdrawings.com/aircraft-drawing)

112
 13. CHAPTER 12

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

WEIGHT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (Lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 14900 32848

11.6.1.1 Fuel Weight (WF ) 3814.2 8409

11.6.1.2 Empty Weight (WE ) 7460.5 16447.7

11.6.1.3 Payload Weight (Wpayload ) 3100 6834

ENGINE TYPE

• Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 engine since the engine thrust is 169 KN. It
is a Single afterburning turbojet engine equipped
• Thrust required calculation 91.25 KN
WING TYPE

Tapered wing with dihedral monoplane configuration mounted as a low

wing.

AIRFOIL CHOSEN

• Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord - GOE 490 AIRFOIL

• The section used at the tip - CLARK X
• The section used at the root - S2027

FUSELAGE TYPE

A semi-monocoque fuselage has been constructed.

EMPENNAGE TYPE

Triple tail plane configuration with vertical stabilizers is mounted.

113
LANDING GEAR

Retractable Tri-cyclic landing gears is constructed.

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

CONDITION LIFT (N) DRAG (N)

TAKE OFF 148364.4 33725.2

CRUISE 145514.39 5648.59

LANDING 145484.5 39851

PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

PARAMETER VALUE

THRUST REQUIRED 8.57 KN

THRUST AVAILABLE 91.25 KN

POWER REQUIRED 5118 KW

POWER AVAILABLE 54494.5 KW

RATE OF CLIMB 337 m/s

RATE OF SINK 55.8 m/s

TAKE – OFF DISTANCE 2701.3 m

LANDING DISTANCE 222.6 m

114
DISCUSSION
The Takeoff Weight estimated as 14900 Kg which most efficient for
business aircraft. Monoplane design was selected since it can carry payload
below wing without any disturbance. Tapered wing design configuration was
selected since it reduce drag and lift distribution increases. Low wing
configuration was selected to carry more payloads. Triple tail configuration
was selected with vertical stabilizer mounted. Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
engine was selected since the engine thrust is 169 KN. It is a Single
afterburning turbojet engine equipped.
The lift at takeoff was evaluated as 148364.4 N which is most required
for takeoff among other conditions such as cruise and landing. Drag at takeoff
was evaluated as 33725.2 N which should be less than landing condition. The
performance of aircraft was evaluated and compared with the optimum value
found. The takeoff distance was 2701.3 m and landing distance was 222.6 m.

115
 14. CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a Multirole Fighter aircraft is done and the

various design considerations and performance parameters required are
calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a
definite reflection of the aeroplane's true and conceptualized design, but the
basic outlay of development has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long-range

aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal design as
such and continuous changes, improvements and innovations serve to make the
design as ideal as possible, while always looking to achieve optimum
performance.

The design is a fine blend of science, creativity, the presence of mind and
the application of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything
needs experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal system. The
scientific society always looks for the best product design. This involves the
strong fundamentals of science and mathematics and their skilful applications,
which is a tough job endowed upon the designer.

We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets
completed in a fluttering sense but it is one step further towards the ideal system.
But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its
implications when applied to an aircraft design.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear the
fact that experience plays a vital role in the successful design of any aircraft or
aircraft component. A lot of effort has been put into this project and as much as
we have worked, we have learnt in turn.

116
FUTURE WORK

The above work will enhance the knowledge in continuation of the design given
in Aircraft Design project-I

In Design Project – II will be studied for the design with Gust and
manoeuvrability envelopes. Performance of Critical loading and the final
calculation of V-n graph. A theoretical approach to Study of structural design
will be undertaken. To estimate loads of wings, to estimate loads of fuselage.
Balancing and manoeuvring loads on the tailplane, Aileron and Rudder load are
started. Designing the structural layout of the aeroplane. Even some of the
components like wings, the fuselage is designed. Finally, detailed design report
will be prepared with sketches or drawings.

117
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