Mentouri Brothers University, Constantine

Department of Letters and English Language

First year Level

Lecturer: Mrs Kihel

The Programme Semester One

 Course One: An Introduction to Linguistics
1. Definition of Linguistics
2. Definition of a linguist
3. Macrolinguistics vs. Microlinguistics
 Course Two: Definitions of Language
1. Definition of Language
2. Animal vs. Human Language
3. Definitions of Language by Key Figures in Linguistics and
Psychology
 Course Three : Properties of Language
1.Creativity
2.Displacement
3.Duality
4.Discreteness
5.Cultural Transmission
6.Change
7.Arbitrariness
8.Medium Transferability
 Course Four: Language Functions
1. The informational Function
2. The Phatic Function
3. The Emotive Function
4. The Conative Function
5. The poetic Function

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 6. The Metalingual function
 Course Five: Traditional and Modern Approaches to Language Study
1. Traditional Grammar
2. Modern Linguistics
 Course Six: Microlinguistic Branches
1. Morphology
2. Syntax
3. Semantics
4. Phonetics
5. Phonology

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Course One

An Introduction to Linguistics

1. Definition of Linguistics:

Every human knows at least one language, spoken or signed. Linguistics is the science

of language, including the sounds, words, and grammar rules. Words in languages are finite,

but sentences are not. It is this creative aspect of human language that sets it apart from

animal languages, which are essentially responses to stimuli.

The rules of a language, also called grammar, are learned as one acquires a language.

These rules include phonology, the sound system, morphology, the structure of

words, syntax, the combination of words into sentences, semantics, the ways in which

sounds and meanings are related, and the lexicon, or mental dictionary of words. When you

know a language, you know words in that language, i.e. sound units that are related to

specific meanings. However, the sounds and meanings of words are arbitrary. For the most

part, there is no relationship between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its

meaning.

Knowing a language encompasses this entire system, but this knowledge

(called competence) is different from behavior (called performance.) You may know a

language, but you may also choose to not speak it. Although you are not speaking the

language, you still have the knowledge of it. However, if you don't know a language, you

cannot speak it at all.

The main goal of the study of Linguistics in an academic setting, like all other

intellectual disciplines, is to increase our knowledge and understanding of the

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world. However, since Language is universal and fundamental to all human interactions, the

knowledge attained in Linguistics has many practical applications. Linguists, with some

training in other appropriate disciplines, would thus be prepared to seek answers to questions

such as the following: …how can a previously unstudied language be analyzed and written?

…how can foreign languages best be taught and learned? …how can speech be synthesized

on a computer or (far more difficult) how can a computer be programmed to understand

human speech? …how can the language problems of people with speech abnormalities be

analyzed and rectified? …how are linguistic issues in legal matters to be handled? …etc.

2. Definition of a Linguist:

A linguist is a scientist or a scholar who investigates human language in all its facets, its

use, its history, its place in society. Linguists do work on specific languages, but their primary

goal is to understand the nature of Language in general: …what distinguishes human

language from other animal communication systems? …what features are common to all

human languages? …how are the modes of linguistic communication (speech, writing, sign

language of the deaf) related to each other? …how is Language related to other types of

human behavior? …etc.

3. Macrolinguistics vs.Microlinguistics

Linguistics as a science covers various areas of human language which are usually

discussed under two broad areas namely, micro-linguistics and macro-linguistics.

Macro-linguistics is the study of language in relation to other disciplines such as psychology,

sociology, ethnography…..etc. Branches of macro-linguistics include psycholinguistics,

sociolinguistics, and anthropological linguistics. Language studies before the twentieth

century used to be macro-linguistic .After that ,it started to be micro-linguistic thanks to the

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work of the Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure who publically stated that language is a

system of interrelated elements and it must be studied independently without referring to

something else.

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Course Two

Definitions of Language

1.Definition of Language

Language is the most effective method of human communication. The term language is

derived from the Latin word lingua meaning tongue. Human language is in organized form. It

is an open entity, new words or meanings may come into use. Language is a dynamic, creative

and systemic tool for communication of information and building interpersonal relations.

2.Animal vs. Human Language

Human language is entirely different from animal communication. It is open-ended and

productive. It has many properties which makes it different from animal communication. Human

language has alphabets which help man to write down and preserve ideas for coming generations.

Animal communication is context bound, they cannot communicate any experience of past. Animal

communication is biologically transmitted, thus, it cannot learn any other languages. Some birds

like parrot may imitate human utterances but it reiterate the words without knowing meaning also

fails to learn more words. If they try to learn new utterance the older ones get erased. Whereas

human beings can imitate the sounds of animals and make them respond to the sounds easily. Hence

human communication or human language is a unique one which is the sole property of him.

3. Definitions of Language by Key Figures in Linguistics and Psychology

Here are some definitions of language supplied by outstanding figures:

 "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,

emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols."

(Edward Sapir, Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Harcourt, Brace and

Company, 1921

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 "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group

cooperates."

(B. Bloch and G. Trager, Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Waverly Press, 1942)

 Language is «a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out

of a finite set of elements."

(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1957)

 "[L]anguage is behaviour which utilizes body parts: the vocal apparatus and the auditory

system for oral language; the brachial apparatus and the visual system for sign language. . .

. Such body parts are controlled by none other than the brain for their functions."

(Fred C.C. Peng, Language in the Brain: Critical Assessments. Continuum, 2005)

 "A language consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those

symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages."

(Wayne Weiten, Psychology: Themes And Variations, 7th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2007)

 "We can define language as a system of communication using sounds or symbols that

enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences."

(E. Bruce Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday

Experience, 2nd ed. Thomson, 2008)

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Course Three

Properties of Language

Human language has many characteristics (features, proprieties) which distinguish it

from all other systems possessed by animals. As matter of fact, these characteristics make of

human language a unique pattern of behavior that no other living creature can perform. Here

are some characteristics of language as a human faculty or as a universal and recognizable

part of human behavior:

1.Creativity

Creativity is the capacity of man to say things that have never been said or heard and

yet to be understood by other speakers and the ability to constantly create and understand

sentences that no one has ever produced before. This has important implications for theory of

language development and human learning and development in general

2.Displacement

Displacement is man’s ability to talk about things that are far in space and time, and

even to things that do not exist at all. For example, we can refer to our new car though it is

not in front of us.

3.Duality

Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure:

a. A higher level in which language is understood as a sequence of meaningful units

such as: words, phrases, clauses….etc. This level is limitless and infinite.

b. A lower level in which language is conceived as a sequence of meaningless units

such as: sounds, letters….etc. This level is limited.

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4.Discreteness

Discreteness means that any language is made up of discrete units, that is to say, no

unit is like the other.

5.Cultural Transmission

The human language is not just a tool to satisfy the immediate needs but it is also a

means to transfer human heritage to the upcoming generation.

6.Change

Language is dynamic, that is to say, it changes over time because of many factors.

7.Arbitrariness

Human language is made up of arbitrary symbols. It means that there is no logical

connection between the words and the meaning. For example there is no connection

between the cat and the animal it symbolizes.

8.Medium Transferability

Medium transferability means that what is spoken can be written and what is written

can be spoken.

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Course Four

Language Functions

According to Roman Jakobson (1960), all acts of communication be written or

spoken are based on six elements, each element being associated with one of the six

functions of language? Any act of communication takes place in a context, and it involves a

sender and a receiver. It further includes a message which the sender transmits and the

receiver interprets. The message is formulated in a language. For this process to happenthe

sender and the receiver must be connected by a channel. Jakobson’s model clarity has made

it to become the best-known model to be followed.

1.The Informational Function( Referential)

The informational function refers to the context. It is a kind of language used to give or

askfor information. It is a kind of neutral and objective language that concerns much

scientific topics.

2.The Phatic Function

The phatic function is related to the contact. It is a kind of language used just to open up

lines of communication and to maintain good relationship between speakers. In the British

culture, remarks about the weather are good of that.

3.The Emotive Function

The emotive function is related to the addresser. It is a kind of languagein which the

speaker gives his opinion about something and expresses his feeling and emotions. Such

expressions as: I think, I suppose, in my opinion……….are good examples of the emotive

function.

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4.The Conative Function

The conative function is a kind of language used to convince the listener. So, it is

allocated to him. Rhetorical speech is a good example of the conative function. The speaker

directs his language to convince the listener to do something.

5.The poetic Function

The poetic function is a kind of language used to show the beautiful side of the

language. Prose and poetry are good examples of that. Some other linguists call it the

aesthetic function.

6.The Metalingual function

The metalingual function is related to the code. It is a kind of language used to check

whether or not the listener understands the speaker. Such expressions as: ‘are you

following? Do you understand? Can I go on?...are some expressions which fall into the

metalingual function.

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Course Five

Traditional and Modern Approaches to Language Study

The table below summarizes the main differences between traditional

grammar and modern linguistics:

1.Traditional Grammar 2. Modern Linguistics

–Selective, subjective (evaluates, –Scientific, objective, empirical,

criticiticizes), selects as right, as wrong. systematic, explicit, descriptive.

–Priority to written language.

–Based on classical language such as –Priority to spoken language.

Greek and Latin

–Interested in particular languages such as

standard and literary language. –General (interested in all languages, in all

–Prescriptive: prescribes rules telling forms and all aspects of the language.

people how they ought to speak and write. –Descriptive: describes language in its

own terms, no judgements.

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Course Six

Microlinguistic Branches

Micro-linguistics is considered as core linguistics. It deals with language as a

system in itself, within itself and for itself without any consideration of a non linguistic

nature such as: the sociological context, the psychological context….etc. Micro-linguistics

encompasses many interlinked branches: Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Phonetics and

Phonology.

1.Morphology

This is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and how

words are formed in a language. Morphology accounts for word formation in languages.

The basic unit of analysis in morphology is called the ‘morpheme’. A morpheme is defined

as the minimal meaningful unit of grammatical analysis. For example, the word unexpected

can be broken into three units or morphemes as in Un + expect + ed. The main word or the

root morpheme is ‘expect’. This word is called a free morpheme because it can stand on its

own and have meaning. The other parts of the word (unexpected) that are attached to the

left (prefix) or right (suffix) of the root word that cannot stand on their own are called

bound morphemes. They have meaning only when they are linked to the main word.

2. Syntax

Syntax is the study of how words are arranged to form sentences. Just as minimal units

of speech form the data for phonetics and phonology, and morphemes are the minimal units

in morphology, the sentence, made up of phrases and words are the minimal units of study

in syntax. The words in a language have to be arranged according to the rules of that

language to make meaning.

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3. Semantics

Semantics is the branch of linguistics that is concerned with meaning in language.

The main reason for communicating is to make meaning. The goal of semantics is to

develop theoretical framework of statements of fact and definitions on the basis of which

meaning can be described. For example, identifying words which have more than one

meaning: polysemous words (such as book can be considered an actual piece of literature

that holds multiple pages or an action that is done when attempting to make a reservation

for travels),Synonymous words (deepprofound ),antonymous words (married/single), and

words with different meanings (go, sleep…).

4. Phonetics

This is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of speech sounds-

how they are produced, transmitted, and perceived. In other words, phonetics deals with the

physical properties of the sounds and how they are received by the hearers. There are three

areas of study in phonetics: articulatory, acoustic and auditory phonetics. Articulatory

phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics deals with

instrumental production of sounds, while auditory phonetics has to do with how sounds are

perceived by the organs used for hearing, the ear and the brain.

5. Phonology

Phonology is the study that tackles the combination of sounds that are permissible

in a language to form patterns and systems. It is related to Phonetics in that phonetics

supplies the data for phonology. A phonological account will show which sounds can make

a difference in meaning of words. For example, /p/ and /b/ make a difference in the

meaning of the following words in English: bet /bet/ and pet /pet/. In phonology, sounds

that make a difference in the meaning of words are the significant sounds in a language and

are known as phonemes. It is not only the sounds that can make a difference in the meaning

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of words; other features like stress, intonation and tone perform similar functions.

References

 Kuriakose,,K.P, , (2002). ,An Introduction to Linguistics. Gayatrhri Publishers, 7-11

 Hockett, F. C., (1970). A Course in Modern Linguistic, the Macmillan Company, 570-

580

 Coffey, J.R., (2011). The Father of Modern Linguistics, Pt1: Saussure, Boas, and

Bloomfield. http:// www. Eng2012Klages, Saussure. html.

 Hasan, Md. R., (2009). Saussure and His Main Contribution. Free English Litterature

Essays. http:// www.Allr free. blogspot. com.

 Lyons, J. (1984). Language and Linguistics. An Introduction. Cambridge University

Press.

 MCGregor, W. (2009). Linguistics: An Introduction Continuum.

http://www.Brysons.net/academic/Saussure.html.

 Van Vlack, S. (2009). Introduction to Linguistics: Synchrony and Diachrony:

Explanation Theory. http:// www. ChangingMinds. org.

 Sapir, E. (1921). Language. New York: Harcourt Brace.

 Ofulue,C.I., (2009). Introduction to Linguistics I. National Open University of

Nigeria: Nigeria.

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