MODULE 1

FOLK LITERATURE : MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE – AN OVERVIEW

At the end of these weeks, the pre-service teacher (PST) should be able to:
a. describe folk literature as a relevant artifact of history; and
b. discuss research-based theories which help understand folk literature.

Lesson 1

Folk Literature as a Relevant Historical Artifacts

Folk literature includes all the myths, legends, epics, fables, and folktales passed
down by word of mouth through the generations. The authors of traditional literature
are usually unknown or unidentifiable.
These stories have endured because they are entertaining, they embody
the culture’s belief system, and they contain fundamental human truths by which
people have lived for centuries. Knowing the characters and situations of folk
literature is part of being culturally literate.
Folk literature, regardless of its place of origin, seems clearly to have arisen
to meet a variety of human needs:
1. The need to explain the mysteries of the natural world
2. The need to articulate our fears and dreams
3. The need to impose order on the apparent random, even chaotic, nature
of life
4. The need to entertain ourselves and each other.
Their brevity, immediate action, easily understandable characters, recurring
features, fantastic elements, and happy endings particularly appeal to children
between the ages of 3 and 8.
Folk literature can help children begin to develop a sense of morality. It helps
children to sort out good and evil in the world and to identify with the good.

Lesson 2
GENRES OF FOLK LITERATURE

Myths

Myths are stories that recount and explain the origins of the world and the
phenomena of nature. The characters are mainly gods and goddesses, with
occasional mention of humans, and the setting is high above earth in the home of the
gods.

Myths often mirror human nature and the essence of our sometimes primitive
emotions, instincts, and desires. Some folklorists believe that myths are
the foundation of all other ancient stories.The best-known mythologies are of Greek,
Roman, and Norse origin.

Epics
Epics are long stories of human adventure and heroism recounted in many
episodes, often in verse. Epics are grounded in mythology, and their characters can
be both human and divine. However, the hero is always human (e.g., “Iliad”,
“Odyssey”, “Beowulf” and “The Song of Roland”). The setting is earthly but not always
realistic.
Because of their length and complexity, epics are more suitable for students in high
school or college.
Modern retellings of Greek and Roman stories for children:
 The most famous ones are Padraic Colum’s The Children’s
Homer (see sample pages), The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived
Before Achilles (see the text), and The Adventures of Odysseus and the Tale
of Troy

Legends and Tall Tales

Legends are stories based on either real or supposedly real individuals and
their marvelous deeds. Legendary characters such as King Arthur and Robin
Hood are a tantalizing mix of realism and fantasy.
Tall tales are highly exaggerated accounts of the exploits of persons, both real
and imagined, so they may be considered a subcategory of legends, though with much
more recent origin. Tall tales usually defy logic and are usually without moral lessons.
Tall tales are usually valued for their humor and exaggeration, whereas legends
are more austere in tone

Folktales (or Fairy Tales)

Folktales are stories that grew out of the lives and imaginations of the people, or
folk. They have always been children’s favorite type of folk literature.
Their popularity springs from their imaginative characters, their supernatural
elements, their focus on action, their simple sense of justice, their happy endings, and
the fundamental wisdom they contain.
Many people use the terms folktale and fairy tale interchangeable, though few of
these tales actually contain fairies. “Fairy tales are unreal but they are not untrue; they
reflect essential developments and conditions of man’s existence” (cited in Lüthi,
1976, Once Upon a Time: On the Nature of Fairy Tales, p. 70)
Important folktale collections:
 Charles Perrault’s “Tales of Mother Goose” (1697) collected and
published in France: first written version of folktales.
 Wilhelm and Jakob Grimm’s “Nursery and Household Tales” (1812)
collected and published in Germany: helped to popularize folktales
(also see Grimm’s tales at nationalgeographic.com and Animated
Grimm Tales)
 Joseph Jacobs’s “English Fairy Tales” (1894) collected and published
in England: further helped to popularize folk literature
  Andrew Lang’s “Fairy Books” (1889-1910) collected and published a
series of fairy books containing folktales from around the world
Below are the most prevalent kinds of folktales (note that some folktales have
characteristics of two or more folktale categories):
1. Animal tales are perhaps the oldest of all folktales. They are part myth,
part fable, and part fairy tales. They play significant roles in early stories
and legends. Talking animals appear in many European folktales. For
example, “The Three Little Pigs” and “Little Red Riding Hood”.
2. Wonder tales (also known as fairy tales) are the best known of the
traditional folktales. They are stories of supernatural wonders typically
depicting the conflict between good and evil. Most conclude with the
triumph of virtue and a happy marriage. In fairy tales, the supernatural
wonder is derived from either a magical person (a fairy godmother, a
wicked witch), a magical object (a wondrous beanstalk, a talking mirror,
a magic lamp) or an enchantment (a miraculous sleep that lasts until
love’s first kiss). For example, “Cinderella”, “Snow White and the Seven
Dwarfs”, “Sleeping Beauty” and “Jack and the Beanstalk”
3. Cumulative tales are the ones in which successive additions are made
to a repetitive plot line. They are generally very simple in plot and brief,
for with each addition, the entire sequence is repeated. For example,
“The Gingerbread Man” and “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”.
4. Pourquoi tales (“pourquoi” means “why” in French) seeks to explain
natural phenomena. They provide primitive explanations for the many
“why” questions early humans asked. They are found throughout the
world and especially popular in African and Native American folklore.
There is a strong connection between pourquoi tales and myths;
however, the setting in pourquoi tales is earthly and deities play no role
in pourquoi tales as they do in myths. For example, “Why the Sun and
the Moon Live in the Sky” (from Southern Nigeria), “Where Stories
Come From” (from Zulu), and “Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears”
(1976) (see the video at Prairie School Television).
5. Noodlehead tales are light-hearted tales about silly people doing silly
things. These tales are popular because of their pure nonsense and
jocularity, and sometimes we enjoy the triumph of the good-hearted
simpleton over the craftier evil characters of the story. For example,
“Hans in Luck” by the Grimm brothers and “The Three Wishes” by
Joseph Jacobs.

Literary Fairy Tales

Literary fairy tales are original tales written by specific modern authors that have
all the flavor of a traditional folktale. These tales fall somewhere between traditional
literature and fantasy. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the literary fairy
tale and the oral folktale unless we know the origin.
Literary fairy tales exhibit many of the same features as traditional folktales:
conventional settings in a distant “generic” kingdom, predominantly flat and
stereotyped characters, an accepted magical element, and typically the requisite
happy ending.
 Hans Christian Andersen was the most important creator of literary fairy
tales and his fairy tales (1835) has proved one of the most enduring.
See Hersholt translation of Andersen’s fairy tales (the most comprehensive
edition of Andersen's fairy tales in English on the internet), Animated
Anderson’s Fairy Tales, and Andersen's Fairy Tales at literaturepage.com.
 A modern variation of the literary fairy tale is a spoof or satire (i.e.,
a parody of a folktale). Satire results when writers feel a literary form has
been exhausted and that it offers no other serious possibilities; therefore,
they begin to poke fun at it and then give the form a new life.
For example:
 James Thurber’s “Many Moons” (1943)
 Roald Dahl’s “Revolting Rhymes” (1982)
 Eugene Trivizas’s “The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig”
(illustrated by Helen Oxenbury) (1997)
 Jon Scieszka’s “The True Story of the Three Little Pigs” (1996)
 Colin & Jacqui Hawkins's "Fairytale News"(2004)
Ballads
A special tradition of tales told in song has arisen in Europe since the Middle
Ages and has been carried to wherever Europeans have settled. These ballads, in
characteristic local metrical forms and frequently with archaic musical modes, are
usually concerned with domestic or warlike conflict, with disasters by land or sea, with
crime and punishment, with heroes and outlaws, and sometimes, though rarely, with
humour. Despite a folk culture fast being overwhelmed by the modern world, these
ballads are still sung and enjoyed. (For a more detailed treatment of this
subject, see folk music.)
Folk drama
Belonging only remotely to oral literature is folk drama. Dances, many of them
elaborate, with masks portraying animal or human characters, and sometimes
containing speeches or songs, are to be found in many parts of the preliterate world.
Though the action and the dramatic imitation is always the most prominent part of such
performances, these may be part of a ritual and involve speaking or chanting of sacred
texts learned and passed on by word of mouth.
The ancient Greek mysteries, as well as secret societies even down to the
present, have retained this method of transmitting dramatically their traditions and their
teachings and commentary. Some dramatic rituals indeed were not secret but part of a
public cult. Thus in ancient Greece the feast of Dionysus led eventually to Classical
Greek drama, and in the Middle Ages the dramatic celebrations of the Christian church
developed into the medieval folk dramas and at long last into the literary drama of the
Renaissance and later.
The medieval mummers’ plays and their modern survivals, the Passion plays, the
Mexican reenactment of historic scenes such as “The Moors and the Christians,” and
the modern pageants—all these are based on written texts, however crude, and are
beyond the scope of this treatment (see also ritual and dramatic literature).

Fable
Fables, whether of the well-known Aesop cycle, with animals acting according to
their real natures, or those from India, where animals simply act as men and women,
are literary in origin. But they have had an important influence on folk literature. In
addition to appearing in written collections, a number of these are told by storytellers in
many parts of the world. Such fables as “The Ant and the Grasshopper,” with
appropriate morals, have been frequently recorded along with oral tales and have
undoubtedly served as models for new animal stories. Sometimes these new tales have
eventually received literary treatment, as in the medieval “Reynard the Fox,” and then
been carried back around the world by storytellers. In such narratives the borderline
between folk literature and other literary expression is impossible to draw

Lesson 3

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING FOLK LITERATURE

Teaching children folk stories and fairy tales offers a number of practical
benefits, including sharing cultural traditions between generations and exploring
important life lessons. Children develop a sense of imagination when reading and
studying folktales, and retelling the tales to others helps practice important
communication skills.

 Life Parables and Cultural Bridges

Many folktales use morals as an important message or theme. Tales with morals
create a foundation to talk with children about important life lessons. Historical folktales
written by Mason Locke Weems claim that a young George Washington admitted
chopping down a cherry tree to his father, and a youthful Abraham Lincoln walked miles
to return borrowed reading books. Both fictional tales present an important life lesson
for moral development for young readers in stressing the importance of telling the truth
and keeping a promise, even when the action causes distress. Artist Grant Wood
recreated the fictional story in a famous painting of Washington with an ax to remind
both children and adults of this life lesson. Many cultures share folktales using various
story titles and featuring characters with different names. Teaching folktales also shows
children that diverse cultures share important traditions.

 Communication Skills

Children learn communication skills by talking with others and by developing an

interesting message to attract the attention of listeners. Retold folktales allow young
people a way to practice memory skills by learning stories to share with others. Children
sometimes add a unique interpretation of the story and give personality to the
characters to spin the tale with a personal touch. Reading folktales and listening to tales
also helps reinforce the child's basic listening, grammar and vocabulary skills.

 Literature Foundation

Folktales typically have a plot and a core of general and supporting characters.
Children listen to story details and learn the story line to share with peers or family
members, and this helps develop the child's ability to recall details and to describe
personalities and actions. Folktales also help children understand that stories typically
have basic elements, including a beginning, middle and an end that leaves the listener
with closure. Teachers can build on this story foundation to teach more sophisticated
literature.

 Imagination and Morals

Extremely young children accept fictional characters with special or magical skills
and talents, and teaching literature through folktales helps children develop a sense of
imagination. Folktales give children easy-to-follow examples of storytelling for use in
their own fictional writing. Talking about folktales and teaching fairy tales in a formal
classroom setting gives the teacher opportunities to explore imagination and reality with
children and to discuss the difference between the two different concepts.
Lesson 4

THEORIES RELATED TO FOLK LITERATURE

Rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the
chief source and test of knowledge "or "any view appealing to reason as a source of
knowledge or justification". More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or
a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive".

In an old controversy, rationalism was opposed to empiricism, where the

rationalists believed that reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of this, the
rationalists argued that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these
truths. That is to say, rationalists asserted that certain rational principles exist
in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that
denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high
confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as
unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant ways in
which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".
Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of
rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over
other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the
unique path to knowledge". Given a pre-modern understanding of reason, rationalism is
identical to philosophy, the Socratic life of inquiry, or the zetetic (skeptical) clear
interpretation of authority (open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they
appear to our sense of certainty). In recent decades, Leo Strauss sought to revive
"Classical Political Rationalism" as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning,
not as foundational, but as maieutic.
In the 17th-century Dutch Republic, the rise of early modern rationalism – as a
highly systematic school of philosophy in its own right for the first time in history –
exerted an immense and profound influence on modern Western thought in general,
with the birth of two influential rationalistic philosophical systems of Descartes (who
spent most of his adult life and wrote all his major work in the United Provinces of the
Netherlands) and Spinoza–namely Cartesianism and Spinozism. It was the 17th-century
arch-rationalists like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz who have given the "Age of
Reason" its name and place in history.

Ethymological Theory
Etymology is not a rhetorical or literary device. “Etymology is the investigation of
word histories.” Every word in every language has a unique origin and history; words
can be born in many ways, and often their histories are quite adventurous and
informative. Etymology investigates and documents the lives (mainly the origins) of
words.
The etymology of a word may include many things. A word’s birthday is usually
given as the date of the first known usage of the word in print. If a word, like “selfie” was
created within historical times, it’s origin is described. Most words are developed over
hundreds of years out of previous words, going back into the ancient past, so an
etymology tries to trace that development back as far as it can, usually ending with the
oldest dead language that we actually have records of. Most words had slightly or very
different meanings in the ancient languages they came from, which is documented as
well.

Allegorical Theory
Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are
described in terms of characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and
poetry to tell a story, with a purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The
objective of its use is to teach some kind of a moral lesson.
Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is
a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea
or event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving
it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example,
Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of how some people are ignorant, while at the
same time other people “see the light.” Plato’s allegory stands for an idea and does not
tell an actual story.

Euhemerism
Euhemerism is an approach to the interpretation of myths in which accounts are
presumed to have originated from real historical people or events. Euhemerism
supposes that historical accounts become myths as they are exaggerated in the retelling,
accumulating elaborations and alterations that reflect cultural expectations. It was named
for the ancient Greek mythographer Euhemerus, who lived in the late 4th century BCE.
 In the ancient skeptic philosophical tradition of the Cyrenaics, Euhemerus forged
a new method of interpretation for the contemporary religious beliefs. Though his work is
lost, the reputation of Euhemerus was that he believed that much of (Greek) mythology
could be interpreted as natural or historical events subsequently given supernatural
characteristics through retelling. Therefore, Euhemerus was considered to be an atheist
by his opponents, most notably Callimachus.
Euhemerus’ views were rooted in the deification of men, usually kings, into gods
through apotheosis. In numerous cultures, kings were exalted or venerated into the
status of divine beings and worshiped after their death, or sometimes even while they
ruled. For instance, Dion, the dictator of Syracuse, was deified while he was alive and
modern scholars consider his apotheosis to have influenced Euhemerus’ views on the
origin of all gods, and by extension goddesses. After all, Euhemerus was living during
the contemporaneous deification of the Seleucids and pharaohization of the Ptolemies.
Of course, Euhemerus wasn’t actually the first to attempt to rationalize mythology
in this way. “Euhemeristic” views of history are found in many earlier writings including
those of Ephorus, Herodotus, Xenophanes, and Hecataeus of Abdera. However, the
enduring influence of Euhemerus upon later thinkers such as the classical poet Ennius
and the modern author Antoine Banier identified Euhemerus as the traditional founder of
this particular school of thought.

Naturalism
Naturalism is a philosophical doctrine. It is opposed to idealism in its
interpretation of reality.
Naturalism is concerned with “natural self” or “real self”. It contends that the
ultimate reality is matter, and not mind or spirit.
Naturalism does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the existence of a spiritual
universe — the universe of ideas and values.
According to naturalism, the material world is the only real world. It is the only
reality. This material world is being governed by a system of natural laws and the man,
who is the creation of the material world, must submit to them. The naturalists have
regard for actual facts, actual situations and realities. For them nature is everything. It is
the whole reality.
Behind everything there is Nature. It denies the existence of anything beyond
nature. Naturalism believes that everything comes from nature and returns to nature.
Nature, according to naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity. It is self-determined and
governed by its own laws.
The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality as it is in its own
nature. They do not believe that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths.
Naturalism takes recourse to such concepts as appetites, emotions, instincts and
evolution. According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our activities —
biological, psychological or social. To them there is no absolute good or evil in the world.
Values of life, according to naturalism, are created by the human needs. Man creates
them when he reacts to — or interacts with — his environment. He must adapt himself
to the environment.
According to the naturalists there is inherent goodness in man. In man there is an
innate capacity for morality. Man is born rational. The naturalists, thus, have idolized
man. Nature, according to the naturalists, is complete in itself, having its own laws. It
does not, therefore, require us to have insight or intuition to understand Nature.
Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of evolution and it
can be explained in terms of nature. Mind is a function of the brain which is material in
nature. Mind is not the source of knowledge; all knowledge is acquired from without,
and senses are the gateways of all knowledge.
The personality of the child, according to the naturalists, is fashioned by:
(a) Endowment and
(b) (b) Environment.
Environment is of two types:
1. The material or physical environment
2. The mental or psycho-social environment.
According to the naturalists, society is meant for the individual and not the
individual for society as they believe that man is born good. He is corrupted by the
society. Man must remain away from the society if he wants to remain pure and
unadulterated.
Forms of Naturalism:
Naturalism exists in different forms.

From an educational point of view naturalists may be grouped in two forms:

1. Physical Naturalists (Instinctivists):
It is also known as material naturalism. This type of naturalism lays emphasis
purely on physical nature. It believes only in the reality of material objects and the laws
of mass and motion. Man is only one of the objects of physical nature, a creature of
mass and motion.
According to this form of naturalism, mind has no existence apart from the body.
This universe is governed by natural laws. Physical naturalists also assert that man is
also governed by these laws. They also believe that not only the external world but also
human conduct is governed by scientific laws. Thus emphasis is laid on the external
nature.
The inner or spiritual nature of man is less emphasised. But education is a
mental activity rather than a physical one. Hence physical naturalism has little impact on
educational theory and practice. The naturalists advocate the development of child
without any restriction. Instincts must have their own way. The development of the child
should be from within and not from without. Let the child learn by himself in the lap of
nature. The nature is a great book to him.
The interests and aptitudes of children should determine the educational
programmes. Rousseau’s Emile was to be educated according to the laws of nature,
away from society. Children should learn from their sensory experiences because the
senses are the gateways of knowledge. Let them learn by their own experiences.
2. Biological Naturalists (Darwinians):
Darwin (1809-1882) and Lamarck (1744-1829) are the greatest exponents of
‘biological naturalism’. It derives its data and first principles from the biological rather
than the physical sciences. With a great faith in biological evolution, it accepts man as
the highest form of living organism in the evolutionary process.
 Henri Bergson (1859-1951), the Noble Laureate French philosopher, developed
this idea to a higher dimension. Bergson holds that man is endowed with life-force, elan
vital, will-to-power, will-to-live, a ‘creative impulse’. The biological nature of man
consists’ of impulses, instincts and emotions, tendencies and propensities. This he
shares with animals. This is his true nature. It unfolds and develops spontaneously from
within.
The basic standpoints of biological naturalism are two:
(1) Each creature has an urge to live and
(2) He struggles to exist.
In the struggle for existence those that are fit, survive, and those that are not, die.
The theory is best known as the ‘survival of the fittest’ — a term coined by Herbert
Spencer (1820-1903).
According to biological naturalism self-preservation is the first law of nature. Life,
according to the biological naturalists, is dynamic, ever-changing and ever-developing
phenomenon. Man, therefore, must adjust himself to the changing life. Education should
be for change rather than for stability. Such an education should be systematic,
evolutionary and inter-related.
The biological naturalists have raised a very pertinent question: Is a man shaped
by Iris environmental forces or by inherited equipment’s? The answer is ‘by both’. Both
environment and heredity have their role in shaping human beings. Man is the product
of inter-play of both the forces. In short, man is a “compromised personality”.
The biological school of naturalism lays great stress on “intelligence”. Intelligence
is very helpful in dealing with experiences of life. It helps in solving the problems of life
and in adjusting the individual to the environment. This form of naturalism has a great
impact on the theory and practice of education It maintains that real education lies in the
modification and training of man’s instincts and emotions. This view is generally
acceptable to the modern educators.

Some Basic Principles of Naturalism:

1. Nature is the final reality. All things originated from matter, all are ultimately to be
reduced to matter. Matter takes different forms.
2. Mind is the brain functioning and brain is matter.
3. All types of mental activities – imagination, thinking, reasoning etc. are the functions
of the brain.
4. The entire universe is governed by the laws of nature which are unchangeable
Science reveals the mysteries of nature; hence only that knowledge is true that is
derived from science.
5. There is no God or Spirit. Therefore, there is no religion. There are no higher or
eternal values. There is no spiritual goal or ideal of human life. Man himself creates
values in interaction with the environment in which he is placed.
6. “Follow Nature” is the greatest slogan of naturalism in education. Natural
development of the child, the naturalists believe, takes place in the natural environment
rather than in artificially designed atmosphere of the school. In the field of education
“Nature” is used in two senses – one conveying the physical nature and second the
“nature of the child” i.e., tendencies, impulses, instincts of the child with which he is born.
 The first is the outer nature; the second is the inner nature. In educating the child,
his whole nature should be taken into consideration. “The child’s nature is not static, it
grows and develops.” It is dynamic education which has to help the growth and
development of the child.
7. The child occupies the central position in the educative process. The child should be
educated according to his nature. “It is the child himself rather than the educator, the
school the book or the subjects of study that should be in the foreground of the
educational picture.” Unnecessary interference on the part of parents or teachers should
be avoided.
Children should be treated as children and not as small adults. Instead of
imposing adult ideas on them, let them have the opportunity of formulating their ideas
through personal experiences. Modern education is pedo-centric.
8. The naturalists advocate freedom in education. Only under freedom, the naturalists
believe, the child can grow in his natural way. Freedom should be the pivot round which
the educational program should revolve. “Child is a good, not an evil being; being
born good he remains good when all opportunity to fear and hate is abolished.”
9. Instincts should be the main instruments of education. They must be exploited fully to
modify the behaviour of man from “animal behaviour ‘to’ human behaviour.”
10. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Real knowledge comes through the senses
and, therefore, the sensory experiences should be provided for effective learning.

Naturalism in Education:

Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence on the

theory and practice of education. “It decries all external restraint in education and it
condemns all unnecessary formalities in education.
In the naturalistic system of education there is no place for class-room, textbooks,
time-table, formal lessons, curricula or examination. The ‘chalk and talk’ method has no
scope. The teacher has no significant role to play. External discipline has no place in
naturalistic system of education.
The only discipline applied in this system is the discipline of natural
consequences. Naturalism has no faith in formal education. To the naturalists, formal
education is artificial and vicious. Good education can be had only by a direct contact
with nature.
Naturalism in education stands for the doctrine of “follow nature” in education.
It wants all education to be in strict conformity with the nature of the child. It stands for
complete freedom to be given to the child in learning. He is to be left alone, absolutely
free. Let him learn from the pages of nature without interference from any quarter. He is
to be thrown into Nature as an explorer and discoverer.
Naturalism emphasises free and spontaneous self-expression of the child. Its
watchword is “Back to Nature” as expounded by Rousseau and Gandhiji. Thus, the
whole of the child’s learning will come from his own experiences and their natural
consequences. His whole education will be according to the natural laws of human
development.
Much of the Naturalistic movement finds its root in the pages of Rousseau. He
brought the child into the foreground of the educational arena and pleaded that
educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature.
Naturalism and Aims of Education:

1. Naturalists differ with regard to the aim of education. Under the naturalistic school of
philosophy the aim of education is self-expression. Some naturalists consider man as a
machine and they opine that the aim of education is to make the human machine as
perfect and efficient as possible.
2. According to Spencer, self-preservation and self-satisfaction constitute the highest
good in life and, hence, the primitive instincts and natural impulses should be used in
such a way that this highest good can be achieved.
3. McDougall (1871-1938), the famous exponent of the Naturalistic school of
psychology, does not accept the theory of pleasure. He holds that our instincts are to be
directed towards certain natural goals. Hence the aim to education, according to him, is
the sublimation of the native instincts and energies of the individual — the redirection,
coordination and harmonious working of the native impulses.
4. According to the Darwinian school of naturalists, the aim of education should be to
“equip the individual for struggle for existence and thus to ensure his survival.”
According to the Lamarckians, education should enable the individual to adjust himself
to the environment. The individual must be “in harmony with and well-adapted to his
surroundings.”
5. T. P. Nunu considers “harmonious, natural and autonomous development of the
individual in natural setting” as the central aim of education. Thus he regards the
development of individuality as the supreme aim of education.
In support of this he says “the proper goal of human life is perfection of the
individual.” But, at the same time, he considers that this development of individuality
should not be at the cost of social interests. Every individual has a social self.
Individuality develops in and through society. Hence individual and social interests can
be compromised by the recognition of universal values in man.
6. Rousseau’s statement of naturalistic aim of education is the most comprehensive and
lucid. Education, he holds, should aim at the development of the child in conformity with
his nature.

Naturalism and Curriculum:

The naturalistic aims of education are reflected in its curriculum. The naturalists
strongly advocate inclusion of natural sciences — such as physics, chemistry, zoology,
botany — in the curriculum. As regards language and mathematics they opine that only
such knowledge of these subjects should be acquired as is essential for scientific
studies. They also want that the pupil should not be plunged into poetry and literature.
The naturalists not only emphasise the present but also the past and the future.
They are in favour of inclusion of history in the curriculum as it deals with the cultural
heritage of the race. History helps to understand the present in the light of the past and
leads to the future.
Naturalism does not attach much importance to spiritualism or religion in the
curriculum. At the same time it does not include music and painting in the curriculum.
The naturalists differ in their opinion in respect of curriculum. Comenius wanted
that all subjects should be taught to all men. But Locke did not agree with this view, and
said it is not possible to teach all subjects to all. Hence only those subjects should be
taught which are necessary. Spencer advocates that only those subjects should be
included in the curriculum which minister to self-preservation as it is the first law of life.
He gives a very high place to science. He attaches no importance to cultural
subjects. T. H. Huxley does not agree with Spencer, for giving undue importance to
science. He wants that literary and cultural subjects be imparted to children. Rousseau
pleaded negative education for children and was not in favour of formal text-books. The
naturalists, in general, contend that the child’s present experiences, interests and
activities should determine the choice of studies.

Naturalism and Methods of Teaching:

In methods of teaching, naturalism is a revolt against the old, traditional and

bookish system of education. It, therefore, attaches no importance to formal schools
and textbooks as these hinder the natural development of children. It condemns note-
learning and encourages learning by doing. They emphasise auto-education and self-
development, and learning through personal experience of the child.
The creed of the naturalists is “follow nature” as it supplies all laws of learning.
The naturalist method is to gather direct experience from nature, men and things.
Rousseau’s advice was: “Give your scholar no verbal lessons, he should be taught by
experience alone.” All knowledge must emerge out of actual life situation and
experience.
According to the naturalists the proper method of imparting scientific knowledge
is through observation and experimentation. They decry “chalk and talk method”. Let the
child discover the truth. This was the advice of the naturalists. They advocated a
heuristic method. Pedocentricism was the key-note of the naturalistic method.
The naturalists say that there are two methods of teaching — the positive and the
negative. When systematic and sustained efforts are made to impose knowledge on the
child without considering his interests and aptitudes, it is called positive method of
teaching.
In the words of Rousseau positive education is “one that tends to form the mind
prematurely and instructs the child in the duties that belong to man. It is negative
education when the child is left free to develop his body and senses.
Rousseau defines negative education as “one that tends to perfect the organs
that are the instruments of knowledge. A negative education does not mean a time of
idleness; far from it. It does not give virtue, it protects from vice; it does not inculcate
truth; it protects from error. It disposes the child to take the path that will lead him to
truth.”
The naturalists do not want to superimpose anything on the children. They want
the children to acquire everything with their own efforts. “The naturalistic educator
allows the child to follow the lines of his natural interests and to have free choice of
activity, with no interference or thwarting.”
The naturalists want an “ideal environment of freedom for the development of the
growing child.” Coercive methods are not permitted for imparting knowledge. The way of
the naturalist is “auto-education or self-education.” They do not advocate much teaching
but emphasise much learning experience of the pupils. They attach great importance to
creative activities and self-expression.
 The greatest attraction of the child is play. The naturalists, therefore, have given
a prominent place to the play-way method. It is play which helps the child to express
himself fully. It is in his free play that the child most clearly reveals his nature and the
lines of his natural development.
Play is nature’s mode of education. The principal aim of education should be an
integrated growth of the child. This is possible if each child is permitted freedom to grow
at his own pace and according to his own nature.

Naturalism and the Teacher:

The educator should not interfere in the natural development of the child. He
should not impose ideals or ideas on him. He is only to help the child in the discovery of
truth. He should a have critical and scientific bent of mind and supreme reverence for
truth. The educator must see that the child develops freely. He should not make an
artificial effort to educate the child.
He has to provide suitable opportunities and create conditions which are
conducive to the natural development of the child. The place of the educator is not
primary but secondary. He is an observer of the child’s development rather than a giver
of information. The child’s education is the free development of his interests and
motives.
The role of the educator is that of a friend, philosopher and guide. Such a role of
the teacher is advocated by all the modern educators and in all the modern methods of
teaching. Rousseau, Fichte, Montessori and Ross are in favour of non-intervention of
the teacher in the education of the child.
They contend that the child’s nature is essentially good, and any intervention is,
therefore, harmful. Ross is of the opinion that the teacher has only “to set the stage,
supply the materials and opportunities provide an ideal environment and create
conditions conducive to natural development”, and then he is to “recede in the
background.”

Naturalism and Discipline:

For harmonious development of the child, he should be given freedom to plan his
own activities. But this freedom means individual freedom and not social freedom. To
regulate the school society, government is required, but it must be self-government.
Naturalists have no faith in discipline based on external force. They condemn corporal
punishment as it represses the impulses and instincts of the children.
Naturalism stands for a “hands-off’ policy in education. The only discipline to be
applied is the discipline of natural consequences. The child should be left perfectly free
to act in any way he likes and then face the consequences of his actions.
If the consequences of his action turn out to be pleasant and favourable, it would
be repeated and, therefore, learnt. On the contrary, if the consequences of an action are
found to be unpleasant, it shall be given up. Thus, the forces of pleasure and pain will
effectively teach discipline to the child.
Rousseau is of the opinion that children should never be punished for their wrong
deeds. Nature spares none. Every action is inevitably followed by its natural
consequences. All immoral or undesirable actions will result in unpleasant
consequences and these unfavorable results will make the individual avoid the
repetition of such actions in future. Herbert Spencer also supports the doctrine of
natural discipline.
He wishes that children should be left to suffer the natural unpleasant
consequences of their wrong actions and learn from them. But Spencer does not wish
to apply this principle during infancy. He says, “A three-year-old urchin, playing with an
open razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of natural consequences, for
the consequences may be too serious.”

Limitations of Naturalism:

1. Naturalism has its own limitations and disadvantages. It altogether ignores the
spiritual and moral aspects of human nature. It totally neglects the moral development
of the child.
2. Naturalism takes into account only the present needs of the child and ignores his
future needs and the ultimate goals and purposes of man’s life.
3. Naturalism leaves the child purely to the discipline of natural consequences which,
often, involves grave risks.
4. Naturalism throws the teacher with superior knowledge and experience into the
background. He takes secondary position in the educative process.
5. Naturalism allows complete freedom to the child from the very start of his life, even
when he has no yet learnt the right use of freedom. This is no doubt a very risky
experiment inasmuch as sometimes absolute freedom degenerates into licence. In the
early state of life some guidance is necessary.
6. Naturalism attaches too much importance to the animal nature of man — his instincts,
impulses and emotions, and completely ignores the spiritual and cultural values of life.
7. Naturalism gives too much emphasis on the heredity of the child and neglects the
influence of environment on “raw” nature.

Contribution of Naturalism:
Naturalism has tremendously influenced the modern educational theories and
practices.Its permanent contributions in the field of education may be summed up:

1. “Follow nature” is the watch-word of naturalism. The innate nature of the child should
be developed in natural environment and not in the artificial atmosphere of the school.
2. Instincts, impulses and emotions should form the basis of all education of the child.
According to the naturalists, instincts should be the main instrument of education.
3. Pedocentricism is another important contribution of the naturalists in the field of
education. In the educative process the child takes the pivotal position. “It is the child
himself rather than the educator, the school, the book or the subjects of study that
should be in the foreground of the educational picture.” Children should be treated as
children and not as adults in miniature.
4. The freedom of the child is another important feature of naturalistic education. The
child should grow freely according to his own nature and pace without interference from
the educator or the parents. True education takes place when the nature, powers and
inclinations of the child are allowed to develop freely with a minimum of guidance. The
naturalists strongly advocate freedom for the child.
5. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Education is very much effective when it
comes through sensory channels. As such, naturalists consider the training of senses
very important.
In conclusion we can say that naturalism has secured freedom for the child and
has further succeeded in freeing the child from many a tyranny of rigidity, interference
and strict discipline. Naturalism has given an impetus to new psychological methods in
education.
Self- expression, follow nature, auto-education, play-way, Pedocentricism,
sense-training, self- discipline and learning by doing are some of the main
characteristics of modern education.

Ritualism
Ritualism is a concept developed by American sociologist Robert K. Merton as a
part of his structural strain theory. It refers to the common practice of going through the
motions of daily life even though one does not accept the goals or values that align with
those practices.
Ritualism as a Response to Structural Strain
Merton, an important figure in early American sociology, created what is
considered to be one of the most important theories of deviance within the discipline.
Merton's structural strain theory states that people experience tension when a society
does not provide adequate and approved means for achieving culturally valued goals. In
Merton's view, people either accept these conditions and go along with them, or they
challenge them in some way, which means they think or act in ways that appear deviant
from cultural norms.
Structural strain theory accounts for five responses to such strain, of which
ritualism is one. Other responses include conformity, which involves continual
acceptance of the goals of the society and continued participation in the approved
means through which one is supposed to achieve them. Innovation involves accepting
the goals but rejecting the means and creating new means. Retreatism refers to
rejection of both the goals and the means, and rebellion occurs when individuals reject
both and then create new goals and means to pursue.
According to Merton's theory, ritualism occurs when a person rejects the
normative goals of their society but nonetheless continues to participate in the means of
attaining them. This response involves deviance in the form of rejecting the normative
goals of society but is not deviant in practice because the person continues to act in a
way that is in line with pursuing those goals.
One common example of ritualism is when people do not embrace the goal of
getting ahead in society by doing well in one's career and earning as much money as
possible. Many have often thought of this as the American Dream, as did Merton when
he created his theory of structural strain. In contemporary American society, many have
become aware that stark economic inequality is the norm, that most people do not
actually experience social mobility in their lives, and that most money is made and
controlled by a very tiny minority of wealthy individuals.
Those who see and understand this economic aspect of reality, and those who
simply do not value economic success but frame success in other ways, will reject the
goal of climbing the economic ladder. Yet, most will still engage in the behaviors that
are meant to achieve this goal. Most will spend most of their time at work, away from
their families and friends, and may even still attempt to gain status and increased salary
within their professions, despite the fact that they reject the end goal. They "go through
the motions" of what is expected perhaps because they know that it is normal and
expected, because they do not know what else to do with themselves, or because they
have no hope or expectation of change within society.
Ultimately, though ritualism stems from discontent with the values and goals of
society, it works to maintain the status quo by keeping normal, everyday practices and
behaviors in place. If you think about it for a moment, there are probably at least a few
ways in which you engage in ritualism in your life.

Other Forms of Ritualism

The form of ritualism that Merton described in his structural strain theory
describes behavior among individuals, but sociologists have identified other forms of
ritualism too. For example, sociologists also recognize political ritualism, which occurs
when people participate in a political system by voting despite the fact that they believe
that the system is broken and cannot actually achieve its goals.
Ritualism is common within bureaucracies, wherein rigid rules and practices are
observed by members of the organization, even though doing so is often counter to their
goals. Sociologists call this "bureaucratic ritualism."

Diffusionism
The diffusion theory, also known as the diffusion of innovations theory, is a
theory concerning the spread of innovation, ideas, and technology through a culture or
cultures. The theory has been extensively studied by sociologists, psychologists, and
anthropologists. Diffusion theory states that there are many qualities in different people
that cause them to accept or not to accept an innovation. There are also many qualities
of innovations that can cause people to readily accept them or to resist them.
According to diffusion theory, there are five stages to the process of adopting an
innovation. The first stage is knowledge, in which an individual becomes aware of an
innovation but has no information about it. Next is persuasion, in which the individual
becomes actively interested in seeking knowledge about the innovation. In the third
stage, decision, the individual weighs the advantages and disadvantages of the
innovation and decides whether or not to adopt it.
After the decision comes implementation, in which the individual actually does
adopt and use the innovation. Confirmation is the final stage. After making adopting the
innovation, the individual makes a final decision about whether or not to continue using
it based on his own personal experience with it. These same stages apply, to varying
degrees, to groups of people in addition to individuals.
There are many factors of innovations themselves that determine how likely
people are to adopt them and how quickly people will adopt them. Generally speaking, if
an innovation is better than whatever standard preceded it, it will eventually be adapted.
However, if the innovation goes against the moral values of the people, they will be less
likely to adapt it. The ability to try the innovation without committing to it right away also
influences the likelihood of people adopting the innovation.
 Simplicity of use is also a major factor in the adoption of innovations. No matter
how good an innovation is, people will be hesitant to adopt it if it is difficult to use and to
learn. Most important, though, are observable results. When people begin to see the
good that the innovation is doing for them and for their neighbors, they will find it difficult
to resist the temptation to adopt it. These qualities of the innovation are of the utmost
importance to diffusion theory.
Diffusion theory is also concerned with the rate at which innovations spread.
Some people adopt the innovation immediately, while others hold out for a long time
and continue using older methods. The rate of adoption depends on many factors. If, for
example, a highly respected member of a community adopts an innovation, many more
people are likely to follow. If many people give an innovation poor reviews, people are
likely to be slow to adopt it.

Evolutionism
Social theory developed in the 19th century, which had fundamental influence on
sociological and anthropological thinking up until the First World War (see structural
functionalism). Evolutionism postulates that societies develop from simpler to more
complex organizational forms, a simple formulation, which hardly anyone would
disagree with, even today. In the 19th century, however, one often also imagined that
development proceeded by necessity toward morally "superior" and more "civilized"
conditions (a view that was widely abandoned after the First World War). In more
modern variants, evolutionism is often tied to theories of modernization and scale,
ecological anthropology, and research on development and underdevelopment. Lévi-
Strauss has shown that movements from "primitive" to "modern" thought not only imples
increasing complexity, but a change in the type of complexity (see bricoleur).
The impact of 19th century evolutionism on modern anthropology lies, first and
foremost, in the grand comparative projects it attempted, which have inspired a general
ideal of comparative studies in anthropology. Secondly, the ideal of cross-cultural
comparison implied a postulate of the racial homogeneity of all humankind - i.e. to be
comparable, all people, regardless of color, culture or cuisine, were basically of the
same kind, a position that was championed by all the major 19th century evolutionists.
This postulate, of "the psychic unity of mankind", has been fundamental to later
anthropology, which has (like the Victorian evolutionists) consistently resisted all
attempts to reduce culture to biology.
In the post-Second World War years, the American anthropologist Julian
Steward developed a neo-evolutionist theory, which influenced his many students, and
was an inspiration for American ecological anthropology (cultural
ecology), subtantivism in economic anthropology, and peasant studies throughout the
the next decades. Steward built on his teacher Robert H. Lowie's theory of multilinear
evolution (which posited that cultures could evolve along several parallel, though
different, lines), and developed a true materialist evolutionary theory, in which a
society's evolutionary stage could be measured quantitatively, as the amount of energy,
per capita, it could extract from the environment. Later, Steward's student, Morton Fried,
would distinguish between pristine (self-originating) evolution and secondary evolution
(imposed from without), and Steward and Fried's student, Marshall Sahlins, would
distinguish general and specific evolution; i.e. a universal, long-term trend towards
greater and greater energy production, and a local trend, towards more and more
efficient utilization of a given resource base (this is often referred to as adaptation).

Freudianism

The term comes from the name of a famous scientist Sigmund Freud, who
proposed his theory of human psychoanalysis. Freudianism is the theory of
psychoanalysis, which explains some of the mental processes occurring at the
unconscious level. According to Freud, the entire psychic life of man consists of three
basic levels: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious.
The unconscious level Freud associates with sexual energy. Freud in his theory
identifies such components of personality:
1. "Id" - the carrier of instincts.
2. "Ego", or in another way "I", which acts on the principle of reality.
3. "Super-Ego", or "Super-I", is responsible for the moral qualities of the individual.
If there is a conflict between these components, protective mechanisms begin to
appear.
Freudianism in psychology occupies a very important step, because it is due to
the teachings of Freud that we can talk about the treatment of neuroses and protracted
depressions, but for this it is necessary first of all to identify the cause of these diseases.
The main point to start treatment is primarily psychoanalysis. Experiments using
hypnosis, which were conducted by Freud, proved that different feelings and the desire
to achieve a goal can change the behavior of the researcher, even if he himself does
not fully realize this.

Jungian Archetypes
Archetypes are the way in which they express a series of experiences and
memories concerning the ancestors. That is, each person develops a series of
archetypes based on the experiences of their descendants.
In this way, the archetypes defend the main idea of ​ ​ the Collective
unconscious And refer to common mental representations that all people present.
In the development of archetypes, the influence of the cultural context of each
person plays a vital role. Individuals do not develop the archetypes in terms of their
personal experiences but in function of the social experiences of their surroundings.
Regardless of their collective origin, if archetypes are analyzed individually in
each person, they result in emotional and behavioral patterns that determine the way of
processing sensations, images and perceptions.
According to Carl Jung, contextual, cultural and ancestral influences motivate the
generation of archetypes, which accumulate in the unconscious of individuals and
determine much of their psychic development.
To exemplify the idea of ​ ​ the archetypes Carl Jung used the symbols and
myths that seem to be in all cultures.
According to the Austrian author, the fact that all cultures present common
elements reveals that human societies think and act from a cognitive and emotional
basis that does not develop according to each person's own experiences.
 In contrast, the cognitive and emotional basis of all people would be regulated by
the theory of the collective unconscious, which generates the development of a series of
archetypes common to all individuals transmitted from generation to generation.
However, Carl Jung emphasized that archetypes are not about inherited
representations, but about possibilities inherited from representations.
In this way, the archetypes do not develop genetically but environmentally.
Through genetics the ability to develop archetypes is conveyed. Subsequently, the
person develops through cultural influence these archetypes.
The archetypes posited by Carl Jung are patterns of images and recurring
symbols that appear in different forms in all cultures.
They are characterized by presenting a slope inherited from generation to
generation, so an archetype is a piece that gives shape to a part of the collective
unconscious, which is partially inherited.
Archetypes are therefore universal images that can be detected in cultural
manifestations of different societies.
Speech, behavior, emotional reactions and dreams are elements through which
archetypes are expressed. For this reason, archetypes can be detected and isolated in
any type of behavior of the people.
Carl Jung postulated that these archetypes are part of the unconscious of people,
so they affect the behavior in an unconscious way. The person is not able to detect that
a certain part of his way of being is influenced by the archetypes developed in his
psyche.
In this sense, for some psychoanalysts, Jung archetypes are elements that make
certain roles and functions appear in situations very different from the same culture.

Types of archetypes
According to Carl Jung, a person can develop a large number of archetypes. The
collective unconscious results in a complex psychic structure that can house a large
number of representations.
Nevertheless, the famous Austrian psychoanalyst determined five types of
archetypes with development superior to the others.
In this sense, Carl Jung's archetypes can be divided into two general categories:
the main archetypes and the other archetypes.

Main archetypes
The main archetypes are a series of unconscious representations that seem to
play a major role in the development of the human psyche.
In this way, the main archetypes would be more relevant and generate greater
influence than the others in determining the development of the behavioral traits of
individuals.
In this sense, Carl Jung determined that the five main archetypes of the collective
unconscious of people are: the anima, the animus, the shadow, the person and the self.

1- Anima
Ánima means in Latin soul and according to the theory of the collective
unconscious of Carl Jung defines the archetypal images of the eternal feminine in the
unconscious of a man.
 The anima is an archetype that makes a connection between the consciousness
of the self and the collective unconscious, thus opening a way to the self.
Thus, the anima is the archetype on the female figure, which is present in the
unconscious of men. It is an archetypal image that is linked to the eros principle and
reflects the nature of men's relationships, especially with women.
The soul is associated with a high emotionality and with the strength of one's own
life. According to Carl Jung, men's relational problems often result from unconscious
identification with the bore or the projection of the spine in the partner.
This fact, according to the Austrian psychoanalyst, generates a feeling of
disillusionment of the real person.
It must be borne in mind that the anima figures are not representations of
concrete women, but consist of fantasies lined with needs and experiences of an
emotional nature.
The most representative figures of this archetype would be the goddesses, the
famous women, the maternal figures, the maidens, the sorceresses and the female
creatures.

2- Animus
Animus means in Latin spirit and according to the theory of the collective
unconscious it refers to the archetypal images of the eternal male in the unconscious of
a woman.
That is to say, it is the archetypal relative to the bore in the woman. As in its
feminine parallelism, the animus forms a link between the consciousness of the self and
the collective unconscious thus opening a way to the self.
The animus is an archetype that is linked to its logos principle and reflects the
nature of the connection with the world of ideas and spirit. According to Carl Jung, the
animus is the archetype of meaning.
As with the anima, animus figures are not representations of concrete men, but
of fantasies lined with needs and experiences of an emotional nature.
Thus, the most characteristic animistic figures would be the paternal figures, the
famous men, the religious figures, the idealized figures and the young men.
According to the theory of the collective unconscious, unconscious identification
with the animus or its projection in the couple usually generates a feeling of
disillusionment with the real person and generate vital and / or conjugal difficulties.

3- Shadow
The shadow is another of the main archetypes of the collective unconscious that
presents two different meanings.
On the one hand, the shadow is an archetype that represents the totality of the
unconscious.
Secondly, the shadow refers to the unconscious aspect of the personality Of
people, which is characterized by traits and attitudes that the conscious self does not
recognize as their own.
The shadow is a highly relevant archetype to conceptualize the theory of the
collective unconscious, since it shows that all personal and collective psychic
dispositions are not assumed by the consciousness by its incompatibility with the
personality.
Thus, the conscious personality rejects a large number of psychic elements
which do not disappear, but develop an antagonistic agent of the ego in the
unconscious.
This antagonistic agent of the conscious self is represented through the
archetype of the shadow and is expressed through all those personality traits and
behaviors that one does not accept as own and defining, and which conceals others.

4- Person
The person is an archetype antagonistic to the shadows. That is, it refers to the
unconscious side of oneself that one wants to share with others.
The archetypal person encompasses all those unconscious elements that one
adopts as part of his public image. The aspects referring to the person archetype are
consonant with the conscious part of the individual, so the individual uses it as a
defining part of himself.

5- Self
Finally, Carl Jung's fifth major archetype is the self, which is defined as the
central archetype of the collective unconscious.
This archetype represents the last step of the individual individualization process.
In this sense, it is understood that the self is the archetypal image of the whole,
experienced as a transpersonal power that confers on life.

Other archetypes
Although the anima, the animus, the shadow, the person and the self are the
main archetypes, the theory of the collective unconscious postulates the existence of
multiple different archetypes.
According to Carl Jung, the rest of archetypes are less relevant to the
conformation of the collective unconscious than the five principal ones. However, each
of them seems to have a particular function.
In this sense, the archetypes of Carl Jung can be classified through different
modalities. There are archetypal events such as birth or death, archetypal themes such
as creation or revenge, and archetypal figures such as the sage or the father.
Some of the archetypes that are not central to the theory of the collective
unconscious are discussed below.

1- The mother
According to the theory of the collective unconscious, the mother constitutes an
archetypal image that allows the person to detect behaviors related to motherhood, as
experienced by the ancestors.

2- The father
For its part, the archetype of the father forms a figure of authority that guides the
individual's unconscious on how to live based on his example.
3- The hero
According to Carl Jung, the hero is another important archetypal figure. It refers
to an image of power that is characterized by fighting the shadow, that is, by that part of
the unconscious that consciousness rejects.
The hero is an archetype that allows to keep at bay everything that should not
invade the social sphere in order not to harm oneself.

4- The wise man

The sage is an archetypal figure whose main goal is to reveal the hero. The hero
is an archetype who fights with determination against the shadow but acts in an
unreflective way.
In this sense, the wise brings reflection and rationality to the performance of the
hero in order to develop behaviors more adapted and effective.

5- The trickster
Finally, the trickser, also known as trickster, is the archetype that is responsible
for introducing the jokes and violation of established rules.
It places traps and paradoxes in the operation of the hero and serves to check to
what extent laws are convenient and / or vulnerable.

Structuralism
Structuralism, in linguistics, any one of several schools of 20th-century
linguistics committed to the structuralist principle that a language is a self-contained
relational structure, the elements of which derive their existence and their value from
their distribution and oppositions in texts or discourse. This principle was first stated
clearly, for linguistics, by the Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913).
Saussurean structuralism was further developed in somewhat different directions by
the Prague school, glossematics, and other European movements.
In the United States the term structuralism, or structural linguistics, has had much
the same sense as it has had in Europe in relation to the work of Franz Boas (1858–
1942) and Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and their followers. Nowadays, however, it is
commonly used, in a narrower sense, to refer to the so-called post-Bloomfieldian school
of language analysis that follows the methods of Leonard Bloomfield, developed after
1930. Phonology (the study of sound systems) and morphology (the study of word
structure) are their primary fields of interest. Little work on semantics has been done by
structural linguists because of their belief that the field is too difficult or elusive to
describe.

Historical- Critical Theory

Historical criticism, also known as the historical-critical method or higher
criticism, is a branch of criticism that investigates the origins of ancient texts in order to
understand "the world behind the text".While often discussed in terms of Jewish and
Christian writings from ancient times, historical criticism has also been applied to other
religious and secular writings from various parts of the world and periods of history. The
primary goal of historical criticism is to discover the text's primitive or original meaning in
its original historical context and its literal sense or sensus literalis historicus. The
secondary goal seeks to establish a reconstruction of the historical situation of the
author and recipients of the text. That may be accomplished by reconstructing the true
nature of the events that the text describes. An ancient text may also serve as a
document, record or source for reconstructing the ancient past, which may also serve
as a chief interest to the historical critic. In regard to Semitic biblical interpretation, the
historical critic would be able to interpret the literature of Israel as well as the history of
Israel. In 18th century Biblical criticism, the term "higher criticism" was commonly used
in mainstream scholarship in contrast to "lower criticism". In the 21st century, historical
criticism is the more commonly used term for higher criticism, and textual criticism is
more common than the loose expression "lower criticism".
Historical criticism began in the 17th century and gained popular recognition in
the 19th and 20th centuries. The perspective of the early historical critic was rooted
in Protestant Reformation ideology since its approach to biblical studies was free from
the influence of traditional interpretation. Where historical investigation was unavailable,
historical criticism rested on philosophical and theological interpretation. With each
passing century, historical criticism became refined into various methodologies used
today: source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, tradition criticism, canonical
criticism, and related methodologies.

References

Baker, D. (ed) (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology: Global
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