CHAPTER -I

INTRODUCTION

“We Are Born Weak, We Need Strength; Helpless, We

Need Aid; Foolish, We Need Reason, All That We Lack At Birth,
All That We Need When We Come To Man’s Estate, Is The Gift
Of Education” - Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Introduction
Education is as old as the human race. Its importance has
been realized since times immemorial and it continues right up
to this day. It has been accepted as one of the primary needs of
every civilized person. This is the only reason why philosophers
and leaders of human thought have so eloquently sung its praises
in all ages.
Education is a conscious purpose to train the children for
fulfilling the responsibilities of adult life. Since, the children
have to enter a complicated society when they grow adults,
education gives them training for adult life. It develops in them,
thinking and reasoning power to fit them to rise to the occasion,
when they are forced with the pressing problems of home,
community and world. An individual needs training to use his
own reason so that thereby he may learn to live orderly life or
moral life. True education means training the individual to
discriminate between ‘good and evil’, both on the level of
physical responses as well as mental response. In short,
education is the training of the intellect, body and spirit; it is
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training in cooperation, love and sympathy. It is training in
correct responses to environmental conditions.
Education has been recognized as fundamental right and
it is viewed as a process of human resource development where
the knowledge, skills and capabilities are sharpened to achieve a
wide range of objectives. In a democracy, education can be used
for giving training in good citizenship. It can produce leaders in
different walks of life. Education is the process by which an
individual is enabled to function according to the expectations of
the society as well as according to his/her capabilities.
The human beings living in this planet are the products
of millions of years of evolution. Over a huge proportion of those
cones - actually, until relatively recently- adaptation challenges
were confined to simple necessities like the provision of
adequate food, shelter, clothing, safety and means of
transmitting the primitive wisdom and skills of the earlier
generations to the later ones. The rate of progress in technology
and in the comprehension of nature during this vast period has
been insufficient to outstrip to any significant degree, the
necessarily slow organic changes wrought by evolutionary
processes. Now all that has changed; the dizzying pace of
cultural progress shows as we are. The children live in a world
that is quite different from the one into which they were born.
There is nothing really comparable to these discontinuous in the
history of the species.

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 Education is regarded as the potential instrument of
social change that is thought desirable at a particular point of
time. It is intended to bring about social upliftment, political
awareness and promotion of economic growth of the masses in
general. Governments of different countries have therefore taken
up the responsibilities of universalizing school education and
widening the access to tertiary and teacher education. It has been
ensured not only in the constitution of most of the countries but
also in the international charter of UNO and UNESCO.
Today’s children are in enigma. Their growth and
development are modulated, moderated, determined,
disillusioned, disturbed and damped. They are in a real
predicament. If these external forces are in tune with their in-
built skills and aspirations, their growth becomes natural and
exciting otherwise it gets commonality. Some of its compulsory
aspects like work exercise, social service, scouting, guiding etc.,
are not found a place in their implementation.
Today the examinations are more faced by the parents
than their children. In most cases, for better or worse, it is the
parent who influences the destiny of his children. Too much
pressure causes behavioural problems. Examination also causes
stress. The fear of examination is a common feature with
children. This over attention and undue anxiety often results in
excessive pressure on the children to study hard and in cutting
down their time for play and recreation.

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 Tension and Stress have become a part and parcel of
today’s life. The 20 th century has been branded as the age of
‘stress and anxiety’. Stressful circumstances are encountered
every day and at every stage of human development. From the
very trauma of birth itself, right through adolescence, the young
meet unavoidable sources of stress. From weaning and toilet
training as babies to the process of formal education and learning
social skills, stress is encountered in varying degrees. “As the
21st centenary approaches, education will become so valid in task
and form that it covers all activities that enable people from
childhood to old age to acquire a living knowledge of the world
of other people and themselves”.
Meaning of Education
The word “Education’ has been interpreted in various
ways. The following are some of the interpretations:
Etymological Meaning
The word “Education’ is derived from the Latin roots as under-
• Educatum To train, Act of teaching of training.
• Educere To lead, To draw out.
• Educare To bring up, To educate.
Education means to train ‘E’ means from inside and
’Duco’ means to draw out, to lead or to bring up. Combining the
two, we get “to draw from inside”. Developing process of
drawing out from with into make explicit what is implicit,
education is to draw out and develop powers and capacities to
the optimal. ‘Educare’ and ‘Educere’ also mean a process of
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developing a child’s inner dispositions, capacities and abilities
to its full use. It is process of developing a continuous process of
continuous development.
Narrower Meaning of Education
In its narrow sense, education is referred to school
instruction. In this process the elders of the society strive to
predetermined aims during a specified time by providing pre-
structured information to children through set methods of
teaching. It is not drawing out, it is filling in, and thus hampers
the natural and full development of a child. Education in this
sense is extrinsic and is in no way related to the child’s
endowments and capacities. “In narrow sense, education may be
taken to mean any consciously directed effort to develop and
cultivate our powers.”
Wider Meaning of Education
In the wider sense, education is a process of development
from cradle to the grave, a never-ending continuous process of
never-ending, continuous development. In wider sense,
education is experiential. “Whatever broadens our horizons,
deepens our insight, refines our reactions and, stimulates thought
and feeling, educates us”. (Lodge) “In wider sense, it is a process
that goes on through life, and that is promoted by almost every
experience in life”. (Mackenzie). According to Dumvile,
education in its widest sense “Includes all the influences which
act upon an individual during his passage from cradle to the
grave.” Education in this sense is intrinsic and unstructured.
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True Meaning
Education is a purposeful conscious or unconscious
deliberate or spontaneous, psychological, sociological, scientific
and philosophical process which brings about the all-round
development of the individual to its fullest extent in the best of
his social interests in such a way that he enjoys maximum
happiness and prosperity.
Definitions of Education
“Education means the bringing out of the ideas of
universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man.” -
Socrates
“By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the
best in child and man-body, mind and soul.”- Mahatma Gandhi
“Education is the manifestation of perfection already
reached in man.” - Vivekananda
True Definition of Education
According to Raymont “Education is that process of
development which consists in the passage of human being from
infancy to maturity, the process whereby he adapts himself
gradually in various ways to his physical, social and spiritual
environment.”
To Sum up:
▪ Education is a process of drawing out innate powers.
▪ Education is a process of development of individuality.
▪ Education is a process of producing change in the group.
▪ Education is a process of adjustment to environments.
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The Principles of Education
The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be
taught. The teacher is not an instructor or taskmaster, he is a
helper and a guide. His business is to suggest and not to impose.
The second principle is that the mind must be consulted in its
own growth. The idea of hammering the child into the shape
desired by parent or teacher is a barbarous and ignorant
superstition. It is he himself who must be induced to expand in
accordance with his own nature. The chief aim of education
should be to help the growing soul to draw out that in itself.
principle of education is to work from the near to the far, from
that which is to that which shall be… a free and natural growth
is that condition of genuine development - Sri Aurobindo.
It has been aptly remarked, “if you educate a boy, you
educate one individual. If you educate a girl, you educate the
whole family and if you educate a teacher, you educate the whole
community”.
The contention that teachers are born, not made, can be
true only in a few rare cases. It is also not contended that training,
by itself, is sure to make a good teacher. But it is generally
observed that a teacher with training becomes more mature and
confident to perform his task more efficiently. Proper training
and education enable the teacher to have knowledge of how
children grow, develop and learn how they can be taught best
and how their innate capacities can be brought out and
developed.
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Need and Importance of Education
The importance of Education in human life can best be
seen from educational values. The Educational values are
individual as well as social.
The Educational values have the following advantages
for individuals’ social life. They are:
➢ Development of a healthy and balanced personality
➢ Capacity to earn livelihood and acquire material
prosperity
➢ Development of Vocational efficiency
➢ Creation of good citizenship
➢ Development of good character
➢ Adjustment with environment and its’ modification
➢ Fulfillment of needs
➢ National integration and national development
➢ Promotion of social efficiency
➢ Preserving cultural values
➢ Utilization of leisure time
The above educational values play an important role in
human life. Through them one is able to lead his personal and
social life successfully.
The overall development of a nation depends on the
proper utilization of its natural as well as human resources. The
opinion of the planning commission in the 7th five-year plan
(1985-90) may be mentioned in this context. “Human resources
development has necessarily to be assigned a key role in any
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development strategy particularly, in a country with a large
population. Trained and educated on sound lines, a large
population can itself become an asset in accelerating economic
growth and in ensuring social change in designed directions.
Education develops basic skills and abilities and fosters a value
system conducive to and in support of national development
goals, both long term and immediate”.
Hence the development of human resource is a must for
any modern society. As M.S. Swaminathan remarks “Human
resource is the most valuable global resource and any short- or
long-term development strategy should be oriented towards the
continued wellbeing of human race”.
Education plays a significant role in the development of
human resources. “If this change on a grand scale is to be
achieved without violent revolution, there is one instrument only
that is: Education”.
Other agencies may help and indeed sometimes have a
more apparent impact. But the national system of education is
the only instrument that can reach all the people.
The school can help in manpower planning though, it has
no direct role in the matter. It is a social agency, and it has social
accountability. Education is a social process and so it has a
significant role in manpower planning in the light of individual
as well as social needs.
In all the countries of the world, it may be seen that high
per-capita incomes are associated with high rates of literacy.
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Education is valued because; it contributes to a better life. Alfred
Marshall emphasized the importance of education as a national
investment - it is the most valuable of all capital, invested in
human beings. Economic growth in any society is dependent on
the existence of a high-level need, for achievement among
people in that society.
In a democratic country, education can be used for giving
training in a good citizenship. It can produce leaders who are
capable of independent thought, Judgment, self-expression,
originality and initiative emphasizing the importance of
education. The Kothari Commission’s report on Indian
Education (1964-66) says, “In a world based on science and
technology, it is the education that determines the level of
prosperity, welfare and security of the people and the quality and
number of persons coming out of our schools and colleges, will
depend on our success in a great enterprise of national
reconstruction, whose principal objective is to raise the standards
of living of our people”.
The development of a country is primarily determined by
the quality of its human resources, which depend on the level of
knowledge, skills, attitudes etc. Therefore, creating the right
minds through the right process of education requires the top-
most priority.
From the above discussion, it is clear that Education
leads to the overall personality development (spiritual, moral
social, cultural, mental, and economic). Therefore ‘Education’ is
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a must for any individual and for the development of one’s
country.
Aims of Education
The aim of education is two-fold (i) Development of the
individual in society and (ii) Consequent development of the
society. The aim of education in relation to individual may be
spelt out as follows:
❖ To produce full human personality with courage,
conviction, vitality, sensitivity and intelligence so that
men and women may live in harmony with the universe;
❖ To bring out the fullest potential of child and prepare him
for life and its varied situations so that he becomes a
cultured and responsible citizen dedicated in the service
of community.
In relation to the society, the aim of education is to create:
❖ A sane and learning society were made of material
production will be such that no section of the society
remains unemployed. In the Indian context such a made
of production will be necessarily based on a decentralised
economy utilising all available manpower;
❖ A society, where the conditions of work and general
environment will offer psychic satisfactions and effective
motivations to its members.
❖ A society reconciling technological and scientific
advancement with general well-being and security of its

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 members, enhancing joy of life and eliminating all forms
of exploitation.
The broad objective of education should, therefore, be to
look beyond the existing society and to develop men and women
amenable to the advent of a sane and healthier society of
tomorrow.
While summing up, it may be pointed out that various
dimensions individual and social development, social
transformation, value- acquisition etc. have been well identified
in the memoranda documents. The following words briefly
summarise the various dimensions which are considered
important indeed for marching into the 21st century:
We are of the opinion that Indian education should aim
at producing men and women of knowledge, character and
cultural values and trained skills to achieve excellence in their
career and life. Let us make it clear that we wish to prepare youth
to march into the 21 st century on the ideals of truth and non-
violence as shown to us by our great leaders.
Factors that influence the standards of Education
The standard of education depends on so many factors
like study habits, adjustment, parents’ education, surrounding
community, location, teaching staff, individual’s intelligence,
home environment etc.
The individual develops achievement motivation in the
life-setting. Home plays an important role in the early training of
children for development of attitude and motives. Parental
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guidance and encouragement develop the need for high
achievement in life.
The educational institution - the school / college
contributes a lot to sharpen already acquired experiences and
develop positive attitude among children. Efficient learning not
only depends on good teaching but also on satisfactory learning
procedures and study habits. In other words, learning involves
the development of adequate study-habits and skills. A Properly
organized school combined with child’s native interests,
experiences, observation and teaching forms the foundation and
thus enlists the child’s instinctive energy in the cause of
education. On the other hand, the school above should organize
its work and curriculum to make the child’s experiences more
interrelated, more systematic, and more enlightened than they
would be without the intervention of the school as special
educative environment.
The society is also an important factor in developing the
standards of education. There are communities which are
achievement oriented. The classroom plays a vital role in
moulding the personality of the student. Personal contact
between the teacher and taught increase the standards of
education. An individual endowed with many potentialities is
likely to be poor in achievement if the individual has adjusted
mental problems.
There are some more important agencies that mould his
personality among which the home has a pre-eminent place. The
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socio-economic status of the family would be an important factor
in influencing the standard of achievement.
Education not only helps in the development of
personality but also determines the future of the child. Human
adjustment is not an ending process of dealing with frustration.
The adjusted personality is one which bears a realistic relation to
physical well-adjusted people tend to have a reasonably accurate
evaluation of themselves.
The socio-economic status of the family is an important
variable in developing achievement motivation.
Further, the importance of education as an agency of
modernization as well as source of employment has long been
recognized in our national plans. For the present, the basic
problem in education is the problem of motivating the children
to learn at all levels. A high level of aspiration for a good
education would normally make the individual to not only put
forth his sustained effort in getting education but also it would
make him achieve at a high level throughout the course of
education.
The tremendous explosion of knowledge makes it
possible for anyone to keep himself abreast of times even in
one’s own sphere of knowledge, unless he develops the habit of
careful and well-planned study. The acquisition of knowledge
by reading comprises three aspects, such as reading, note taking
and organizing facts.

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 Education is the process through which an individual
develops individuality, and a person evolves exclusive
personality of his own. Education should be individualized and
personalized to the utmost and should constitute a preparation
for self-learning. Now-a-days there are many means and sources
of learning. Some children may learn through the use of different
learning material rather than merely listening to an inspirational
talk by the teacher. The pupils have several sources of
information pertaining to the various aspects of human life, but
most of the children of today lack depth of thought and breadth
of vision due to poor study-habits. The study-habits of learner
means the ability to schedule his time, the plan of his study, the
habits of concentration, note-taking, reviewing, over-learning,
the judicious application of whole and part method, massed and
distributed learning and so on.
Achievement of student is a multi-faced problem. It is
well accepted that besides curriculum, co-curricular, intellectual
and non-intellectual factors and individual’s study habits play a
pivotal role in determining the academic achievement. A
student’s progress or failure in the class depends upon many
factors like interest in the subject / course, motivation to learn,
study facilities, children own study habits and so on. Hence, the
investigator is interested in the area of study habits of the
children.

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Education in India
India is a multi-lingual country with 18 major modern
languages and 1652 mother tongues. It is well known for its
cultural, social and religious diversity, and its economic
disparity. Considerable differences exist between rural and urban
areas. All urban cities include a cosmopolitan population
representing a range of socio-economic, cultural, religious and
linguistic groups. A large number of people who live in a
particular city do not speak the regional language as they come
from other parts of the country where the language differs. Hindi
is the national language and due to historical reasons, English,
along with Hindi, continues as the official language. English is a
major language of communication and socio-political discourse,
and fluency in English is considered to be an advantage, both for
educational and career prospects. Schools in India, particularly
in the cities, normally start at the nursery or kindergarten class
and go up to the twelfth class. A recent trend in schools has been
to start at the kindergarten when the children are three years of
age, instead of the nursery class. Therefore, in the cities there are
nursery schools for children aged 2-5 years. The average class
size is 50 or more and there is usually one teacher in any one
classroom at a particular time. A prescribed syllabus and books
are used as the basis for teaching. There is little or no scope for
individual attention and practically no support for under-
achieving pupils. All children are required to learn three
languages Hindi, English and the regional language.
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 An important feature of the educational system in India
is the existence of two parallel school systems. There are the
government-run schools and some private schools where the
regional language is used for instructional purposes and English
is taught as an additional language. Additionally, there are
‘English’ medium schools, all privately run, but some aided by
the government, where English is the medium of instruction and
Hindi and the regional language are taught as subjects. The
majority of people who can afford to pay fees prefer an ‘English’
medium education, since higher education and professional
training courses use English as the medium of instruction.
In the context of English being a major language of
education and communication, and the dearth of studies focusing
on children in India who were learning to read in English, this
study was undertaken to investigate certain psycho-sociological
factors associated with reading achievement. Specifically, the
objective is to explore which of these factors were associated
with reading achievement at the end of secondary school stage
i.e. Class VIII.
Academic Achievement
Academic achievement has been considered as an
important factor in the educational life of students. It encourages
the students to work hard and learn more. It is the status or level
of a person's learning and his ability to apply what he has learned
(Pressey & Robinson, 1944).

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 Academic achievement, in general, refers to the scores
obtained in the annual examination or refers to the degree or
level of success or proficiency attained in some specific area,
concerning scholastic or academic work. Academic or
educational age, accomplishment quotient or achievement
quotient are the most commonly used means to interpret the level
of academic achievement of pupils in general or in a specific
given subject matter.
Academic achievement of the pupils continues to be the
primary concern in education and main area of educational
research. The study of academic achievement and its factors had
claimed the attention of researchers even before 1930, and a
number of studies had been reported. They were reviewed by
Harries (1931). In the year between 1930 and 1937, greater
research enthusiasm was shown in this area and Harries (1940)
published another 328 studies during this period.
The term ‘academic’ has been derived from the Greek
word ‘akademia’ which means ‘a school where special types of
instructions are imparted’. Academic achievement has been
assessed in a variety of ways such as Grade Point Average
(GPA), performance on standardized tests such as the Stanford
Achievement Test (SAT), the Science Research Associate Test
(SRA) and scores on essay type examination etc. In many
studies, performance in various courses such as mathematics,
reading and other areas has been linked with yet another aspect

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of performance in the classroom, the verbal behaviour of high
and low achieving children.
Academic achievement is the core of a wider term i.e.
educational growth and plays on important role in the life of a
child. High academic achievement in the school builds self-
esteem and self-confidence which leads to better adjustment with
the group. Achievement encompasses enhancement, self-
actualization, self-improvement and some form of
competitiveness.
Achievement as the status or level of a person's learning
and his ability to apply what he has learned. According to them,
achievement would not only include acquisition of knowledge
and skills but also attitudes and values.
Academic achievement as the attained ability or degree
of competence in school tasks usually measured by standardized
tests and expressed in grades or units based on norms, derived
from a wider sampling of pupil’s performance.
Good (1973) in Dictionary of Education refers to
academic achievement as the knowledge attained or skills
developed in the school subjects, usually designated by test
scores or marks assigned by the teachers.
Academic achievement is the level of proficiency
attained in academic work or as formally acquired knowledge in
the school subjects which is often represented by percentage of
marks obtained by students in examination.

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 According to Taneja's Dictionary of Education (1989),
academic achievement refers to performance in school or college
in a standardized series of educational test.
Achievement in itself has become more or less a power
symbol and way of life. However even if the course of life is not
determined by achievement, it is essentially directed by it. Hence
every individual is obsessed by social and psychological
pressures later leads to various tensions and strains. Such
resulting tensions are more often disruptive and resulting
performance decrements and discrepancies between potential
and performance. In the realm of educational measurement, the
most meaningful achievement is almost certainly academic
success. Academic achievement constitutes a socially desirable,
equally relevant and integral aspect of all students’ lives such
that all students are motivated to seek academic excellence.
Academic achievement is the outcome of training imparted to a
student by the teacher in school situation.
Academic achievement of an individual is so far
considered to be influenced in part by his ability to make adjust
to his environment, in part by his special abilities, aptitude and
intelligence, which are integral part of his personality and in part
by the intensity of drives and motives which serves as the
impelling for his activities. Thus, academic achievement refers
to the degree or level of success and that of proficiency attained
in some specific area concerning scholastic and academic work.
In the view of Good (1959), there seem to considerable
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similarities in as much as all of them place emphasis on
knowledge attained or skills developed in academic subjects and
designated by test score. It is different from proficiency in the
area of different arts or physical skills. Academic or educational
age, accomplishment quotient or achievement quotient are the
most commonly used means to intercept the level of
achievement of pupils in general or in specific subject matter.
Achievement means performance in school or college in a
standardized series of educational tests. The term is used more
generally to desirable performance in the subjects of curriculum.
Achievement is of vital importance, particularly, in the
present socio economic and cultural contexts. Great emphasis is
placed on achievement right from the early childhood education.
A considerable number of students from secondary schools join
colleges and prosper with good opportunities in their life only on
acquiring better knowledge through wide reading. Hence it is
very important to ensure, students acquire the requisite
competence and reading habits so as to help them prosper more
out of professional education. Setting the stage of achievement
of the youth is thus a fundamental obligation of the educational
systems of all times especially in India where human resources
are abundant.
Achievement is a multidimensional phenomenon and is
affected by two main types of factors viz., subjective and
objective factors. Subjective factors are related to the individual
himself, intelligence, learning abilities, aptitudes, self-concepts,
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perceptions of his/her school, reading methods, interest in
reading activities, levels of aspiration, reading motivation,
reading attitudes, attitudes toward teachers and courses, and
adjustment with the self and the community. Objective factors
lie within the social environment, socio economic status, family
traits, value system, educational system, system of reading
evaluation, school/college environment, number of students in
the class and size of the school/college.
The importance of achievement has raised several
important questions for educational administrators and
investigators. What factors promote vocabulary, comprehension
and achievement in students? How far do the different factors
contribute toward achievement? Many factors have been
hypothesized and investigated upon.
Importance of Academic Achievement
In the present world thing is changing is very fast. There
is an explosion of knowledge in all walks of life. The growth of
science and technology has brought changes in socioeconomic
condition of the society. Because of explosions of aspirations,
every parent today sets high goals to educate his child. Thus,
academic achievement has become a case of educational growth.
Good academic achievement helps to develop self-esteem self-
respect and self-confidence and helps the individual to create a
niche for himself in the competition ridden society. Academic
achievement has a great importance in personal life. Success in
academic subjects act as an emotional tonic and any damage
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done to a child in the home or neighborhood may be partially
repaired by success in school or college. It motivates the students
to set high goals for themselves. Importance of academic
achievement can be judged when we realize fuller and happier
life, which we wish for every student, would be impossible
unless he has attained high degree of proficiency in his subjects.
Academic achievement to a great extent predicts the future of
student. At the time of admission, for entrance in job or for
further studies, good academic achievement record is the only
recommendation. Therefore, academic achievement is the
unique responsibility of all educational institutions established
by society to promote a whole sum scholastic development of
the student.
Factors affecting Academic Achievement
Academic Achievement depends upon numerous factors
which are responsible for high, average or low academic
achievement of students. These factors are
1. Cognitive factor: it includes intelligence; creativity and
language ability.
2. Non-cognitive factors: It includes variables such as self-
concept, adjustment and level of aspiration, needs
motivation, aptitude, anxiety values and self-confidence.
3. Home environmental factors: It includes demographic
variables i.e. socioeconomic status, residential
background, parental aspiration and expectations,
parental education and occupation, sex etc.
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 4. Social environmental factors: It includes personality,
attitude, method of teaching, curriculum, emotional
climate of school etc.
Reading and demographic factors
Pressures of social environment show significant impact
on the reading levels of the individuals. How one reads depends
upon one’s personal characteristics and also the societal
influences.
Achievement in reading is dependent on many variables
such as demographic and environmental factors. Demographic
factors are related to variables such as grade, age, gender, type
of school, etc. and environmental factors are related to variables
such as family background, socio economic status, caste, etc.
Studying these variables and their effects on reading
achievement can help education to consider some antecedents to
reading achievement and possible mediations to their teaching
strategies where they might be appropriate.
Socio-economic Factors
The more important issue of educational differentiation
is its relationship with socio economic inequality. It is argued
that social selection is inherent in highly tracked systems; it is
biased towards privileged groups and increases socio economic
inequalities.
The fact that there is some relationship between the
socio-economic background of the child and his achievement in
reading is a topic of interest to educationists and psychologists.
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Almost all educationists agree that there is a sort of relation
between socio economic status and reading achievement, the
former influencing the later. In some cases, this influence may
be less and influence depends upon the complexity of the socio-
economic status of the parents.
The term ‘socio economic factors’ tend to include the
social, educational, professional or occupational and economic
status of the parents. The environmental facilities are also will
be considered. In countries like India educational status goes
with professional status and both go a great deal to count the
social status. Merchants and landlords are often richer than the
educated officers. Therefore, income can be considered as a
separate factor viz. economic status.
If a person’s place in society is defined in terms of his
age, sex, nationality, occupation, caste and economic status,
friendly circle and immediate background, his opportunities in
education are likewise influenced by these factors. Any major
event in home, neighbourhood or community ramifies into the
school through the child.
Socio-economic factors have been widely researched as
likely correlates of school achievement and findings indicate a
strong association due to reduced educational and employment
opportunities, deprived living conditions, less educationally
stimulating experiences and discrimination on grounds of race,
religion or colour. A recent study focusing on the relationships
between self-concept and academic achievement shows a
25
significant contribution of parental socio-economic status on
academic achievement. Indian studies have also reported similar
findings in the context of underachieving children from
scheduled castes and tribes and lower income groups. Mothers’
educational level has been found to be significantly associated
with wider vocabulary and higher scores in all aspects of
language development and attainment in reading at the end of
nursery.
In the Indian context, due to the large economic and
social disparities, home background is likely to be an important
factor influencing reading achievement. It was defined in the
study as including family income, parents’ education and
occupation. Family structure is also important in India in terms
of educational opportunity and access, as families include both
‘extended’ families in which members of perhaps two or three
generations live together as one household, and ‘nuclear’
families consisting of a couple and their children. An additional
factor is the number of children in the family as it is likely that
in a hugely populated nation such as India, family size could be
associated with the extent of educational opportunities and
ultimately influence the levels of reading achievement.
Types of Schools
Educational differentiation or the allocation of students
to different types of schools or different locations within schools
is a common feature of modern education systems. In most

26
countries, student reading achievements vary considerably, both
by school and academic location within schools.
Education system differs in the number of school tracks
and the age at which students are first selected into tracks. In
some countries tracking begins as young as 10 years of age. In
addition, there are other types of schools - private, religious,
selective, international, bilingual, ethnic and special schools
which are often associated with different student outcomes.
Furthermore, there are other sources of between-school
differences in student performance. For example, schools in
wealthy areas tend to have substantially better outcomes than
schools in poorer areas.
There are also differences in student performance within
school of same-aged students those in higher grades tend to
perform better. This may be because of student ability. Less able
students are more likely to repeat a grade and start school at a
very later age; and similarly high ability students start school at
a younger age or less commonly were promoted to a higher grade
at some point in their schooling.
Early Literacy Experiences and Exposure to the Second
Language
The value of early reading and writing experiences at
home in the context of reading achievement has been suggested
in many studies. The extent of literacy-related knowledge at
school entry has also been found to be a powerful predictor of
children’s reading achievement in the early years of school.
27
Furthermore, if reading is viewed from a psycholinguistic
perspective the link between the individual’s language
development and literacy need are to be kept in mind as an
important variable, which may influence achievement in
reading. However, in the case of the students who were the focus
of this study, competence in the mother tongue, may not have
helped in acquisition of literacy in English. It was important to
consider, therefore (a) whether literacy related activities at home
were associated with reading achievement in school, and (b) if
exposure to literacy related activities in English and exposure to
the English language were significant factors associated with
reading achievement.
Importance of reading
Students’ educational and psychological developments
have been the areas of many investigations for a long period of
time, because these areas of development are important aspects
of educational development for students themselves, the
students’ family and educational authorities.
Reading proficiency is the royal road to knowledge and
change in human behaviour. It is essential to success in all
academic subjects. Reading has been identified as crucial
curriculum area for student success across grade levels and
curricular areas. It has been largely identified that word decoding
and reading fluency are two key components of successful
reading instructional programmes.

28
 Literacy is conceived as a measurable, contextualized,
constructed, communicative act encompassing both reading and
writing. Reading competence depends on the personal
experience brought to the reading task, the students’ language
base in vocabulary and language strategies, the complexity of
textual information and task difficulty.
Reading difficulties
Children who do not discover the alphabetic principle
almost invariably develop problems in learning to read. For
some, the consequences affect both subsequent achievement in
school and social-emotional aspects of their lives.
The difficulties associated with problems in learning to
read are not surprising. The ability to read is the traditional
criterion of beginning school achievement and is basic to success
in school. Initial experiences in learning to read influence both
subsequent accomplishment in reading and the development of
reading related self-perceptions. Beginning readers who
experience initial success in learning to read can engage in
reading for information as well as for pleasure, whereas those
who experience difficulty are usually encumbered by less
rewarding process of developing basic word level competence.
Student’s self-beliefs include a variety of related factors
such as self-concepts, self-efficacy and casual attributions. Self-
concept refers to the perceptions, knowledge, views and beliefs
that individuals hold about themselves as learners. Examples of
items on self-concept scales that assess these self-perceptions
29
include “I am good at reading”, “I find English difficult”, “when
school gets tough, I give up”, and “I am one of the smartest kids
in the class”. Self-efficacy represents the judgments that students
form of their ability to organize and execute the actions that are
needed to accomplish specific learning related tasks. These
judgments are usually assessed by having students rate their
level of confidence about whether they could perform specific
tasks. Casual contributions are the beliefs that individuals form
about what causes the outcomes of the learning related tasks in
which they are involved. Self-system factors such as these are
associated with reading achievement through their effect on
motivation and meta cognition. Students with reading difficulties
have mal-adaptive achievement related self-systems. Given the
importance of learning to read and the influences on reading
behaviours of child’s self-system, it is not surprising that reading
related self-perceptions have been viewed as increasingly
important.
The development of successful reading skills requires
that children acquire efficient word recognition strategies, which
are necessary for development of rapid word decoding skills.
High levels of automaticity in word recognition in turn make
available greater cognitive resources for allocation to
comprehension and text integration processes, both essential for
making progress in learning to read.

30
Reading models: identifying sub-skills
As the reader gains reading experience, words are
repeatedly encountered and orthographic memories that include
letter clusters are also stored in memory. Utilization takes place
when phonological, orthographic and semantic representations
of words are simultaneously connected in memory so that word
recognition is no longer attention-demanding, so words are
recognized automatically and unconsciously.
Word reading and reading comprehension are thought to
be supported by four basic sub-skills: (1) phonemic awareness,
(2) decoding, (3) listening comprehension, and (4) efficiency or
processing rate of written/printed symbols. Importantly, each of
these skills can be taught in regular classrooms by
knowledgeable regular education teachers.
Comprehension of text is the goal of all reading. Reading
comprehension has been previously represented with
parsimonious models. This simple model of reading
comprehension identified two sub-skills necessary for reading
comprehension: decoding and listening comprehension. A
person who has no measurable decoding or listening
comprehension skill will also have no reading comprehension.
The simple model of reading comprehension was
originally created to measure reading difficulties within a
bilingual population. Reading subskills can be identified through
reading models that are valid and predictive across a wide variety
of readers.
31
 Two complex reading skills, word recognition and
reading comprehension can be represented by parsimonious
models of teachable sub-skills. It is vital to identify the most
salient teachable sub-skills supporting these two complex
reading skills because the goal of all reading is to comprehend
the information contained in the text and reading failure most
often occurs at the word level.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary learning is one of the important steps in
language acquisition. Popular books and academic volumes have
proposed a central place for vocabulary in learning language.
Psychometric studies suggest that vocabulary is a central factor
in reading achievement along with other specific factors such as
decoding, comprehension and rate of reading.
Words can be defined as verbal labels for concepts that
represent concrete things, actions and observable qualities or
relations are relatively easy to develop, whereas concepts that
represent abstract things, actions, qualities or relations are
acquired with more maturity. Abstract language has less access
to nonverbal imagery whereas concrete language has direct
sensory reference.
Evaluation of Vocabulary Acquisition
In reviewing the available evidence on developmental
changes, from childhood there is a shift with increasing age from
lexical representations that are related to syllabic and/or
rhythmic features to word-initial and word-final features, with
32
word-initial features being prominent in adulthood. Existing
lexical knowledge and short-term memory are both significant in
predicting children’s learning about the phonological structure
of new words.
Research in learning of vocabulary in context, whether
related to first language (L1) or to second language (L2), shows
that gains are often limited because, firstly, most learners find it
difficult to make correct inferences based on context, and
secondly, not all natural contexts are equally conducive. In fact,
certain contexts do not encourage vocabulary acquisition; and
even in favorable environments, it is very difficult for learners to
grasp the precise meaning of certain words. Shortcomings in
many contexts, coupled with difficulties experienced by most
students in using contextual cues approximately to infer or guess
at meanings and to retain new words have led a number of
researchers in the field of language learning to call for a specific
training that would stimulate the development of effective
strategies for expanding vocabulary. Such strategies must take
facts into account such as:
1. The extent of first language knowledge which determines
one’s ability to draw inferences from internal contextual
cues within words themselves and from external cues
contained in sentences and texts. In this respect the
language maturity of a child is not sufficient to permit
inference.

33
 2. Knowledge of the second or foreign language, which is
also important source, the ability to infer depends on
being familiar with a minimal number of words.
3. Previous knowledge which can help vocabulary
acquisition.
Studies have revealed that the ability to infer improves
with age and that, since adults have acquired most concepts due
to their greater background knowledge, the difficulties they
experience tend to be more linguistic than inferential.
Research has also shown, for example, that certain
conditions facilitate inference, such as: when the word in
question is close to a contextual cue and is used for emphasis
such as synonym and when it occurs a number of times and in a
variety of context; frequent exposure of the learner to know
words for purposes of comprehension and production promotes
automatic lexical processing for these words by the learner.
We know that explicit learning based on definitions and
word morphological analysis yields results but progress is slow
and occurs only under conditions such as repeated use of words.
Therefore, though this approach may be effective to some extent
it must be coupled with some implicit or contextual learning to
achieve rapid vocabulary gains.
Since explicit learning is tedious and time consuming,
students must learn substantial number of words on their own,
usually through reading and listening to conversations. The

34
results of many studies point to a preference for mixed
approaches to vocabulary building.
Recognition and production of words in both, their oral
and written forms occur through implicit learning and are a
function of frequency and context. Grasping all meanings of a
given word requires conscious learning along with more in-depth
strategies such as semantic techniques related to explicit
learning. In-depth knowledge of a word requires learning of its
spelling, pronunciation, syntactic properties and relationships to
other words in the semantic network.
Word Familiarity
Readers routinely encounter words that vary widely in
familiarity from extremely common function words to words
that they have never seen before. Estimates of vocabulary growth
suggests that skilled readers 18-25 years’ old learn more than
five new words a day and that most of these words are learned
from text without benefit of explicit instruction. There is also a
substantial body of evidence demonstrating that readers
successfully acquire word meaning from silent reading. This
evidence come primarily in the form of performance on
vocabulary tests administrated after the reading task is
completed.
Vocabulary Acquisition through Context alone
Learning vocabulary is an important aspect of language
development. Vocabulary knowledge is closely linked to reading

35
proficiency, and additionally it leads to greater success in
schools.
Several recent studies have found that contextual
guessing by second language learners can be very problematic.
For example, one problem is that second language
learners sometimes misrecognise word forms and this
misrecognition results in unsuccessful cases of contextual
guessing. If readers think they have successfully identified a
word-form, they will naturally access the standard meaning for
that form and not necessarily consider the context for
confirmation. Therefore word-form identification has an
important role even before the contextual guessing starts.
Second, second language learners sometimes do not use context
clues properly because of their poor vocabulary knowledge.
Third, a single context hardly gives enough information for
second language reader to guess the full meaning of a word.
Fourth, contextual guessing involves non-linguistic background
knowledge.
Home Influences on Vocabulary
Children whose working-class parents interact with them
as much as do parents from advantaged families, have
vocabulary levels as high as those of children from advantaged
families. Children mainly use words parents use with them in
conversation and acquire larger vocabulary when their parents
use more words.

36
 Using and explaining high level words was strongly
associated with the acquisition of larger vocabulary, even among
children from disadvantaged families.
Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Reading Growth
and Development
Word recognition, comprehension and vocabulary are
essential components of a balanced reading programme.
Estimates of children’s vocabulary acquisition indicate that they
learn approximately 800 to 900 root words a year through the
age of 12. A substantially higher figure in that children acquire
about 10 words per day beginning at 2 years of age and would
have about 14000 words by the time they were six years.
Regardless of accuracy of the estimate of words acquired, the
key is that children’s acquisition of vocabulary is essential for
gains in reading comprehension and reading development.
Struggling readers often do not make gains in their reading
comprehension because of a limited vocabulary. Enhancing the
development and growth of vocabulary of children who are
experiencing reading difficulties enables them to better
comprehend what they read, make inferences within and
between texts they read and increase their abilities to
comprehend.
Vocabulary is partially an outcome of a reader’s
comprehension capabilities and reading comprehension is
partially an outcome of a reader’s vocabulary knowledge. Thus,
reading comprehension and vocabulary share a nurturing
37
relationship, each supporting the growth and development of the
other.
Researchers focus on essential features of vocabulary
instruction in the effective teaching of reading to struggling
readers. They educate the importance of both wide reading and
explicit vocabulary instruction. The interwoven themes may be
briefed as follows:
• Vocabulary is an important relationship between
decoding and comprehension. Vocabulary is perceived
as words and meanings in the shared experiences of the
reader and the author. This relationship increases as
reading becomes a primary tool of learning in the middle
grades and high school.
• A Dual Coding theory of reading provides a variable
conceptualization between reading vocabulary and
comprehension and supports effective teaching methods
with strong research records.
• Effective teaching of vocabulary demands that it be an
active process that engages student in learning new
words in order to build conceptual representations of
vocabulary in multiple contextual situations.
• Application of remedial vocabulary instruction requires
the linking of instructional strategies to the type of
designed learning outcomes and students’ learning
capabilities.

38
Researchers focus broadly the following
• Vocabulary knowledge supports the reader’s processing
of text and interacting with the author, which in turn
supports the formation and validation of concepts and
new learning.
• Vocabulary knowledge is an indicator of student’s real
and vicarious experiences. Children can neither
comprehend nor understand what they read unless they
have some knowledge of the concepts represented by the
print. Knowing the meaning of words goes beyond
simple definitions and getting the gist from the context.
Vocabulary instruction is most effective when it is based
on the association of children’s experiences and concepts
with the words they are learning.
• Readers’ conceptual and experimental backgrounds are
key components in vocabulary development.
Background experiences enable readers to develop and
refine the concepts that words represent.
• Vocabulary instructions should include explicit
instruction, appropriate practice and broad-based
opportunities for reading and language development in a
variety of texts.
Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension
The ability to pronounce the written or printed word is
referred to by several related terms such as word recognition,
lexical processing, phonological decoding and grapheme-
39
phoneme conversion. Decoding skill, even though essential for
successful reading comprehension is not a sufficient condition;
numerous skills associated with comprehension component are
also important. Usually, children who perform poorly on terms
of phoneme awareness are poor readers and that training to
phoneme awareness improves their reading comprehension.
Vocabulary knowledge is very important for reading
comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge is the best predictor of
success in listening as well as reading comprehension. Large
recognition of vocabulary allows for skillful language use, that
in effective reading, which will, in turn, increase vocabulary
knowledge because the reader will be able to guess the new
vocabulary from context.
If learners know the most frequent 1000 words in English
which includes words like “put, end, difficult, come and
material”, then they will be able to understand 75% of all the
words on a typical page.
As with first language reading, vocabulary knowledge in
second language is very important for reading comprehension.
There is a strong relationship between vocabulary knowledge
and reading skill. Thus, those having more vocabulary
knowledge are better able to comprehend.
There are some 2000 words that account for almost 80%
of the running words in an average text and that these words
therefore occur frequently enough to justify significant
commitments of instructional or learning time.
40
 According to interactive theory of reading both top-down
and bottom-up processes occur during fluent reading. Readers
do grapho-phonemic processing of word-forms and retrieval of
their meaning, as well as inferencing from global and local
context”. The important point is that with more fluent readers
vocabulary processing is automatic, which, in turn, allows for
more cognitive processing attention to be given to top-down
interpretation.
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension assessment is an area of vital
concern to researchers, educators and policy makers. Accurate
assessment of reading comprehension is essential for monitoring
children’s progress in reading and for determining the
effectiveness of various approaches to reading instruction and
intervention.
The question-answer format has typically involved the
use of multiple-choice type questions.
Componential Model of Reading
The componential view of reading proposes that reading
comprehension is made up of two components, viz. decoding
and linguistic comprehension and that each of the two
components can fail to develop independent of the other.
Therefore, a student whose decoding skill is extremely poor will
be a virtual non-reader. Similarly, a student who has severe
comprehension problems will also be a non-reader. Gough and
his associates (1986, 1990) have described this model in more
41
formal terms by proposing that reading comprehension (R)
equals the product of decoding (D) and linguistic comprehension
(C), that is R = D X C. It follows then, if decoding (D) = 0, then
Reading (R) is also 0; conversely, if linguistic comprehension
(C) = 0, then also reading comprehension is 0.
Even though the component model of reading takes into
consideration decoding and comprehension, it has not
incorporated speed of processing into the model. This is because
speed becomes an important factor from grade 3 on when the
written word is recognized instantly and automatically as sight
word. Sight word reading skill, however, seems to be built on
decoding skills. If decoding skill is poor, sight word reading skill
will also be poor. Thus, the two-component model can provide a
parsimonious explanation of reading disabilities.
Reading Comprehension and Misconceptions
A common misconception is that all standardized tests of
reading comprehension are equal. This is not true because the
tests differ in the way they assess comprehension. For example,
the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test and Gates-MacGinitie
Reading Tests require the subject to read a passage and answer
questions. Under such a format, the ability to remember the
passage also can affect the scores.
Another strategy used for assessing reading
comprehension is the cloze procedure. In the cloze procedure,
the reader is required to furnish words which are systematically
deleted from sentences. The assumption is that the reader cannot
42
supply the correct word unless he or she had understood the
meaning of the sentence. Tests that follow this format do not
usually impose time restriction. Even though the cloze format
reduces memory demands, a problem with this form of
assessment is that some reading disabled individuals with high
level of cognitive skills can guess many of the missing words
correctly. This can lead to false conclusions in the sense that the
comprehension score obtained under such conditions could be
inflated. Another weakness of this form of assessment is that
tests in cloze format are somewhat removed from reading a
paragraph or a story and comprehending text. Thus, scores
obtained using sentences in cloze format may not be ecologically
valid measures of comprehension. The Woodcock Reading
Mastery Test-Revised, the Woodcock Language Proficiency
Battery-Revised, and the Woodcock Diagnostic Battery have
subtests that assess reading comprehension by relying on the
cloze format. The Peabody Individual Achievement Test-
Revised follows a different technique to assess reading
comprehension. In this test, the individual reads a sentence and
chooses one picture from among four that fits the sentence. Even
though this form of testing reduces the memory load, correct
understanding of the pictures requires a good deal of reasoning
ability. This is particularly true at higher grades. Moreover, the
picture format cannot assess comprehension of central ideas and
themes contained in connected prose. Many of these tests take

43
45 minutes or more to complete and are meant to be given in a
single session.
Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary
Even though in the Component model, ‘vocabulary’ is
not accorded the status of a separate component, vocabulary
knowledge is a prerequisite of comprehension skill. The
coefficients of correlation between vocabulary and reading
comprehension ranges from 0.66 to 0.75. A meta-analysis of
vocabulary studies by Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) suggested that
vocabulary knowledge very likely plays a causal role in
comprehension. Not surprisingly, the reading vocabulary of
children with specific reading disability tends to be lower than
that of their normally achieving peers. This is not surprising
since reading experience is an important source of vocabulary
development, particularly in upper grades, and that poor readers
tend to avoid reading. However, the poor reading vocabulary
score of a child with reading disability could be the result of
decoding problems rather than the consequence of impoverished
vocabulary. In order to obtain true estimate of the students’
vocabulary knowledge, it is desirable to administer tests of both
reading and listening vocabulary. The Woodcock Language
Proficiency Battery-Revised has subtests of both listening and
reading vocabularies.
Reading Comprehension and Listening Comprehension
Townsend, Carrithers and Bever (1987) concluded
that apart from differences that arise from modalities of input,
44
reading comprehension and listening comprehension are
mediated by the same cognitive mechanism. Reading
comprehension can be predicted almost perfectly by a listening
comprehension measure. Joshi et al. (1998) found among a
group of normal fourth graders, the coefficient of correlation
between listening comprehension and reading comprehension
was 0.69. Savage (2001) found the correlation coefficient
between listening and reading comprehension to be 0.74.
Therefore, listening comprehension can be used to assess
comprehension without being confounded by decoding skill.
Listening comprehension can be assessed in more than one test
and consequently results can vary somewhat depending on the
test used.
Reading attitudes
Reading attitude plays an important role in the
development and use of life-long reading skills. The ultimate
success of instruction is strongly affected by the reader’s
attitude. The student’s attitude towards reading is a central factor
affecting reading performance. Several researchers have
postulated that attitudes affect one’s motivation and subsequent
reading achievement by increasing or decreasing the amount of
time that learners engage in reading. And some others noted that
even accomplished readers with average to poor attitudes toward
reading may not read when other options such as television
viewing are available and reported that poor and remedial
readers express more negative attitudes than better readers.
45
Interactive Achievement of Reading Achievement and
Reading Attitude
Variables that will demonstrate a positive impact on
children’s reading achievement are important for both theory and
practice.
Nevertheless, very little time is devoted to developing
positive reading attitudes in the schools. However, the
importance of affective reading development is beginning to
receive more emphasis and has been expanded into an integrated
model that includes an attitudinal component. This model
proposes that reading attitudes develop as the result of three
factors: (a) self-perceived judgments about reading outcomes,
(b) self-perceived judgments about expectations of others, and
(c) specific reading experiences. This model of reading attitude
predicts a long-term cumulative process, which is formed by
actual reading experiences as well as by influences from parents
and teachers.
Although it is believed that positive reading attitudes
produce students with increased reading achievement, there is a
chance of that causal relationship occurs in the opposite
direction: from achievement to attitude. Hence, we can say that
achievement attitudes and reading experiences appear to
mutually reinforce one another with a bi-directional influence.
Using a longitudinal design, Aarnoutse and Van Leeuwe
(1998) found that reading comprehension, reading pleasure and
reading frequency, measured later in life could be predicted by
46
earlier measures of the same variables. However, reading
pleasure and reading frequency were found to run autonomously
with reading comprehension. Empirical studies have found a
general decline in positive reading attitudes as children progress
through school.
The development of positive attitudes toward reading in
children produces adults who continue to engage in sustained
reading throughout their life. And while relationship between
attitudes toward reading and reading achievement has been well
established, the causal relationship between these constructs
remains unclear. Reading attitudes develop through repeated
success or failure with reading activities. Students with well-
developed reading skills are likely to have positive attitudes
toward reading, while students with poor reading skills often
have to overcome negative skills. However, it may only be after
repeated failure that attitude and achievement become more
closely linked.
Self-concepts and Attitudes toward Reading
Self-concept is the individual’s way of looking at
himself/herself his/her way of thinking, feeling and behaving.
Self-concept may influence his/her behaviour, action, abilities,
attitudes, feelings and every aspect of his/her life.
Contemporary reading theories underscore the
importance of reader’s self-concepts and attitudes towards
reading as factors influencing reading comprehension. A basic
promise in this regard is that those affective aspects influence
47
readers’ motivation to read and make effort on the reading task.
Specifically, readers who are interested in the material are more
likely to persist in reading than their uninterested counterparts.
Similarly, readers with positive self-concepts enjoy their reading
experience, identify with what they read, and are likely to be
intrinsically motivated. Conversely readers with negative
attitudes and poor self-concepts avoid reading, which may have
a negative effect on their comprehension. Thus, it is important to
examine the connection between the affective aspects of reading
and the situational variables that may influence these aspects.
Parental Involvement
There is currently a call for more parent involvement in
children’s education. Across a wide range of studies and reports,
it has been concluded that parental involvement in early
childhood through adolescent education generally benefits
children’s learning and school success, particularly in literacy.
Empirically based outcome studies of diverse parent-
involvement programmes have been very positive. Efforts to
improve children’s outcomes are more effective if children’s
families are involved. Parental tutoring, communication, home
visits, home interactions, parent training and general
relationships on students from kindergarten through high school,
in a variety of curriculum areas found good mean size of parental
involvement.
Parents with the highest level of education and living in
large cities are best acquainted with the choices available and
48
most interested in actually choosing a school for their children.
Parents with less education tend to be less concern about school
issues. Parents’ educational background, occupation and related
economic status also have a bearing on family’s resources
beyond school in support of their children’s learning. Hence the
economic, cultural and social capital of the family does influence
their child’s learning in various ways, either promoting or
hindering it.
Role of Parents in Motivating Struggling Readers
Research has shown that supportive home environments
foster motivating for reading, which leads to more frequent
voluntary reading, which improves reading achievement. Many
collaborative interventions involving home and school have
enhanced the reading motivation of struggling readers as they
enhanced comprehension.
Parents play a critical role in the development of reading
of the children. What parents believe, say, and do, does make a
difference. Interest is currently high among researchers and
practitioners on the role of the family and the value of home-
school collaboration.
A survey of elementary school teachers indicated that six
of the ten most frequently cited concerns were directly pertinent
to the aspects like creating interest in reading intrinsic desire for
reading, parent-school partnerships, instructional programmes
for children placed at risk, increasing the amount and breadth of

49
children’s reading, the role of teachers, peers, and parents in
motivation.
Parental Support for Reading
Several studies have shown that parental support for
reading is associated with greater amounts of voluntary reading
by students. Parental support includes such factors as the
availability of reading materials in the home, parental reading
behavior, and the frequency of reading to the child. Students
from supportive environments also have more positive attitudes
toward reading, and they more strongly endorse the view that
enjoyment is an important reason for reading. Rowe (1991)
further extended this line of research by demonstrating that
attitudes toward reading and reading activity at home predicted
achievement in a large sample of Australian students aged 5-14
years. In addition, reading activities at home predicted the
children’s reading attitudes, and these relations grew stronger
with increasing age. Longitudinal studies have provided
evidence that early interest in reading influences subsequent
reading achievement. For example, Olofson and Niedersoe
(1999) reported that children whose parents said they showed a
very low interest in books and story reading before age 5 had
weak reading skills in Grade 4. Similarly, Weinberger (1996)
found that children who were experiencing reading difficulties
at age 7 were less likely to have a favorite book at age 3 and were
read to less frequently by their parents at age 5. The data from
the available research converge in suggesting that children who
50
have more opportunities to engage in literacy-relevant activities
at home have more positive views about reading, engage in more
leisure reading, and have higher reading achievement.
Nevertheless, research has documented large numbers of
‘‘aliterate’’ students, that is, capable readers who do not choose
to read. In other words, enhancing reading motivation should be
a concern not only for struggling readers but all readers.
Shared Reading
The value of parents reading to their children has been
organized and strongly supported by research. Shared book-
reading was the single most important activity for developing
knowledge require for eventual success in reading. Language
abilities of pre-schoolers have been found to be correlated with
frequency of shared reading of picture books in the home.
Further a child’s readiness for instruction in literacy has been
found to be correlated with frequency of shared book reading as
well. Some has suggested that limited opportunity for home
literacy activities may have a significant negative effect on later
reading achievement.
Whitehurst, et al. (1994) have postulated that shared
reading and letter recognition (Pre-school literacy activities) are
related to emergent-literacy abilities (such as language use,
writing, linguistic awareness and print concepts) and that these
abilities have a relationship to reading and reading
comprehension. It can be concluded that shared book-reading is
not just a minor part of the literacy environment, but rather a
51
main condition for developing the knowledge necessary for
eventual success in reading achievement.
Home Involvement Programmes in Reading
Topping (1996) posited the following parental
advantages of home involvement programmes in reading:
• Extra practice at home with an encouraging adult may
increase reading skill;
• The child may experience a sense of security and benefit
psychologically from the feeling that both his or her
teacher and parents are working together;
• A home reading programme may help create a similar
and consistent set of attitudes and expectations from both
home and school;
• Instituting a parental involvement programme allows
teachers to learn about family literacy practices and to
incorporate this understanding into the school curriculum
Young (1994) refers to some of the many ways in which
parents exert attitudinal influence, such as ‘through discussion,
by encouraging participation in foreign language exchange
programmes and excursions, helping the child with homework,
encouraging the child to read material written in foreign
language and by making the target language country, the
destination for family holiday’.
The parental role most frequently is conceptualized in
terms of the material resources and opportunities parents provide
for their children to interact with print. Research provides
52
evidence that children who have more opportunities to engage in
literacy-relevant activities at home more positive views about
reading, engage in more leisure reading, and have better reading
achievement.
Anxiety
In the contest of globalization and privatization of
education many professional students (medical and engineering)
are often subjected to a lot of anxiety and academic stress. The
importance of anxiety as a powerful influence in contemporary
life is increasingly recognized, and manifestations of current
concern with anxiety phenomena are ubiquitously effects in
literature, science and technology as well as in many other facts
of our culture.
Anxiety can be defined as an unpleasant feeling
accompanied by a premonition that something undesirable is
about to happen.
Anxiety, stated briefly, is the signal of danger, which
mobilizes the human organism’s resources at all levels of
functioning in the interests of conservation, defense and self-
preservation. At all levels of anxiety, there are various
combinations in degree of loss of homeostatic control and
attempts to mastery to regain control.
Freud distinguished three varieties of anxiety. Objective
anxiety, neurotic anxiety and moral anxiety. These varieties
referred to three different sources of danger that cause the
anxiety signal to be sounded. Freud indicated that the “ego” is
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the only seat of anxiety”. When the source of danger is sensed
by the ego from the external world, objective anxiety exists.
When it is from the id, there is neurotic anxiety, and when the
super ego senses the danger, there is moral anxiety.
The main symptoms of neurotic anxiety typically include
inability to concentrate, difficulty in making decisions, extreme
sensitivity, discouragement, sleep disturbances, excessive
sweating, sustained muscle tension.
The anxiety neurotic lives in a relatively constant state of
tension, worry and diffuse uneasiness. He is oversensitive in
interpersonal relationships, and frequently feels inadequate and
depressed. Usually, he has difficulty concentrating and making
decisions, dreading to make a mistake. His high level of tension
is often reflected in strained postural movements, over reaction
perspires profusely and his palms are often clammy. He may
show cardiovascular challenges, such as elevated blood pressure
and increased pulse rate, and he may experience heart
palpitations for no apparent reason.
Situations that provoke anxiety:
Although the causes of anxiety are difficult to pinpoint,
there appear to be five situations in which it is most likely to
occur when
1. We have conflicting motives (such as wanting to dedicate
our lives to helping others, yet at the sometime wanting
the solitude to write great novels).

54
 2. We experience a conflict between our behavior and an
inner standard. (As when we do something we believe to
be wrong).
3. We encounter some unusual event that we cannot
immediately understand and adjust to (For example,
when arriving on many denotes anxiety which is shared
by a group. The term normal anxiety may also be used to
refer to a reaction resulting from a genuine outside
danger whether the response though disproportionate is
only so to a minimal degree.
4. We are faced events whose outcome is unpredictable (for
example, the sure we will make on an important test.)
5. We confront the loss of a beloved person (for example,
when a close friend or parent becomes desperately ill.)
In all these cases, the emotion of anxiety is clearly related
to, conflict between motives, conflict between motive and an
inner standard, frustration of the motive for certainty and
frustration of the affiliation motive.
The term anxiety is often used to describe an unpleasant
emotional state or condition which is characterized by subjective
feelings of tension, apprehension and worry and by activation or
arousal of the autonomous nervous system. Anxiety state is
evolved whenever a person perceives a particular stimulus on
situation as potentially harmful, dangerous or threatening to him.
Anxiety state varies in intensity and fluctuates overtime as a

55
function of the amount of stress that impinges upon an individual
a new campus, not knowing what kind of behaviour is expected.
Anxiety is an inevitable part of student’s life is
contemporary society. Anxiety corrupts a person’s ability to
think, perceive and learn. A student suffering from anxiety
usually experiences difficulties in concentrating, remembering
the learned material and establishing what the necessary
relations among events or people are.
The present era of modern age comprises of new socio-
cultural and socio-economic processes where severe
competition, conflicts disrupted family relations, desire for
economic upliftment, social differentiation, and more awareness
towards rights combine together to make a disorganized society.
Therefore, the modern age has been rightly called the “age of
anxiety”.
HOME ENVIRONMENT
“A measure of the quality and quantity of social,
emotional and cognitive support that has been available to the
child within the home” is called as home environment. Studies
have shown that the home environment affects the academic
achievement in children. Many people are raising children and
looking to others for answers, whether it is day care centers,
schools, evangelists, counselors, or the government, shifting the
blame for children’s problems and decreasing parental
responsibilities are becoming a societal norm.

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 Home itself is a complex unit. The assessment of its
psychosocial environment is not an easy matter. This is due to
complexity of the phenomenon. Under investigation the number
of possible approaches that can be taken and the conceptual and
methodological difficulties within each approach one of the
major aims of the education is the development of whole some
personality. The student’s life is influenced by the home, school,
teachers and peer group. Home is the primary agency to develop
is responsibility to fulfill the requirements and emotional needs
of the children.
We have stressed in this text that children are motivated
to work on activities and learn new information and skills when
their environments are rich in interesting activities that arouse
their curiosity and offer moderate challenges. The same can be
said about the home environment. Unfortunately, there is much
variability in motivational influences in homes. Some homes
have many activities that stimulate children’s thinking, as well
as computers, books, puzzles, and the like. Parents may be
heavily invested in their children’s cognitive development and
spend time with them on learning. Other homes do not have these
resources and adults in the environment may pay little attention
to children’s education.
Within the home environment, we must examine both the
roles of mothers and fathers, because differential parent behavior
has often been implicated as a variable affecting children’s

57
development. Six potential parental beliefs that can influence
children’s motivational beliefs:
➢ Attributions for the child’s school performance,
➢ Perceptions of the task difficulty of schoolwork,
➢ Expectations and confidence in children’s abilities,
➢ Values for schoolwork,
➢ Actual achievement standards, and
➢ Beliefs about barriers to success and strategies for
overcoming these barriers.
There is much evidence supporting the hypothesis that
the quality of a child’s early learning in the home environment
relates positively to the development of intelligence and reading
skills and parental involvement in schooling also predicts
achievement. Various home factors have been shown to be
important: mother’s responsiveness, discipline style, and
involvement with the child; organization of the environment;
availability of appropriate learning materials; opportunities for
daily stimulation. Parents who provide a warm, responsive, and
supportive home environment; encourage exploration; stimulate
curiosity; and provide play and learning materials accelerate
their children’s intellectual development.
In the role of cognitive stimulation in the home on
children’s academic intrinsic motivation, the home environment
variable measured included family discussions; attendance at
cultural events; library visits; trips taken; importance of reading;
provision of private lessons; access to play equipment; and
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family interest in music, art, and literature. The authors assessed
home environment when children were age 8 and academic
motivation at ages 9, 10, and 13.
The results showed that children whose homes had
greater cognitive stimulation displayed higher academic
motivation from ages 9 through 13. The effect of SES was
indirect: Families of higher SES were more likely to provide
cognitively stimulating home environments, which in turn
directly increased academic motivation. The fact that home
environment effects were both short- and long-term suggests that
home environment continues to play a role in early adolescence
when peer influence becomes more powerful. These results
highlight the need for parent awareness programs that teach them
how to provide rich learning experiences for their children.
ACADEMIC STRESS
The concept of stress was first introduced in the life
sciences by Hans Selye in 1936. It is a concept borrowed from
the natural sciences, derived from the Latin word ‘stingere’.
Stress was popularly used in the seventeenth century to mean
hardship, strain, adversity or affliction. It was used in the
eighteenth century and nineteenth centuries to denote force,
pressure strain or strong effort with reference to an object or
person. In engineering and physics, the term implies an external
force or pressure exerted on something with the extension to
distort and being resisted by the person or object on which it is
exerted. In physiology, stress refers to some stimulus resulting
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in a detectable strain that cannot be accommodated by the
organism and which ultimately results in impaired health or
behavior. In common, however the term ‘stress’ and ‘strain’ are
used synonymously in anon scientific manner. The popularity of
this concept has dwindled into the physiological field where it
was first introduced. But the use of stress terminology continues
to flourish in psychological and social sciences also.
Mason (1975) reviewed literature on stress and
concluded that there was confusion and a lack of consensus
regarding its definition. The term stress has been approached in
at least four different ways. First, as the stimulus or external fore
acting on organism; second as the response or changes in the
physiological functions; third, as the interaction between an
external force and the resistance opposed and finally, as a
comprehensive phenomenon encompassing all the three.
Stress is the ratio of resulting internal forces to the area
over which the external forces acted. The term strain was applied
to disruptions or distortion of the material being acted on, such
as building beam or a floor.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define stress as a
“particular relationship between the person and the environment
that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her
resources and endangering his or her well-being.
To psychologists, as has been said, the term stress
implies to the body’s reaction to outside pressure-in other words,
to the physiological wear and tear caused by attempting to adjust
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to events that cause emotional and other forms of arousal.
Psychologists refer to such events as stressors.
Academic stress among professional students has been a
topic of interest for many years. Professional college students
experience high stress at predictable times each semester due to
academic commitments, financial pressures and lack of time
management skills. When stress is perceived negatively or
becomes excessive, it can affect both health and academic
performance.
A disturbing trend in college student health is the
reported increase in student stress nationwide. Stresses affecting
students can be categorized as academic, financial, time or health
related and self-imposed. Academic stresses include the
student’s perception of the extensive knowledge base required
and the perception of an inadequate time to develop it. Student’s
report experiencing academic stress at predictable times each
semester with the greatest source of academic stress resulting
from taking and studying exams, grade competition and the large
amount of content to master in a small amount of time.
The haunting devil that reins the lives of many students
in academic institutions is “Academic stress”. With the rapid
changes in the society stress has become an inevitable part of the
modern-day educational system which is not sound and
encouraging. The curriculum aims at loading the students with
knowledge which exerts tremendous pressure fostering a
repulsive state of mind in them at the formative stage itself. The
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load of curriculum is evident from the pathetic right of the
children marching wearily with a hunch caused by their
overstuffed satchels.
Despite the fact that education is universally given a high
priority the academic institutions today do not show a motivating
atmosphere. Medical and Engineering students are often
subjected to various stress related tests, examinations, project
work, seminars, faculties (Biased attitude, inefficient) peer group
(self-oriented) etc. the major challenges of professional students
are: Poor retention and recall, lack of appreciation from their
faculty, college environment, personal anxieties, fear of
professors, exam phobia, perpetual insecurity, conflicting
expectations from the parents and the society, the growing
competition, and fear of failure.
Some amount of academic stress is essential in
mobilizing the potentialities of the students to work more
efficiently. But increased amount for a prolonged period will
have deleterious effects on the physical and mental health and
academic achievement of the students. The common symptoms
include diminished pleasure in learning, addition to drugs or
alcohol, smoking, irritability, fatigue, depression, insomnia and
physical problems ranging from migraine and back pains to
ulcers. A general survey of related literature shows adaptation of
various resources or strategies by students in an effort to cope
with the academic stress at work. Some of them may be adequate
and others inadequate causing further stress and pushing the
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students into a vicious circle of academic stress and maladaptive
behavior.
In a developing country like India, we cannot afford to
waste our precious resources, in the name of academic stress.
Something needs to be done to save the professional students
from its oppressive grip so as to enable them to function in a
congenial environment and deliver the best of their potentials.
There is no question that modern life is filled with
stresses of various sorts. Whether life is more difficult today than
in the past is questionable. Some psychological counselors
believe that stress is more severe than ever before for college
students. They note that today’s students are under pressure from
the high cost of education, an uncertain job outlook and stiff
competition from their peers for everything from seat at a
varsity/college slot in a graduate program. As a result, serious
stress-related illness such as depression, migraine headache and
eating and sleeping disorders are seen as a new syndrome, or
pattern of processes and symptoms that characterize a disease
called “Student Shock”, the syndrome is emerging not only
among young people with long-time problems but even among
those who were formerly well adjusted.
The reality is that grades are important for admission
eligibility, scholarships, job applications and more. Grades are
the center of host complex challenges, motivations, rewards and
problems. A central cause of grade related distress is test anxiety.
Positive stress can be very helpful in motivating to peak
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performance. Yet too much stress can interfere with preparation,
concentration and performance, this is test anxiety. The key is to
attain optimal arousal, optimal anxiety and optimal tension;
other common difficulties with grades are fear of failure and fear
of success.
Now a days many college students face financial
difficulties and they are under pressure. This pressure may be
temporary but nevertheless real. This takes its toll in several
ways. Included are anxiety and distraction, associated with
wondering about one’s ability to pay the next set of bills,
including registration fees, tuition and books. Most of the
students work longer hours at more jobs in order to make ends
meet. This can cause time pressure, erode sleep and decrease
time devoted to exercise, healthy play and friendship.
Daily hassles also play a vital role in producing distress
among college students. Too little money, too little time,
constant pressure of studying, writing term papers, taking tests,
future plans, boring instructors, getting up in the morning,
weight are some of daily hassles that act as a source of stress
which lead to lower levels of internal control, more depression,
more emotional tension, lower life satisfaction, less vitality and
energy lower self-esteem, less fun and playfulness and lower
levels of happiness.
Role difficulties, role overload, role conflict, role strain
and role ambiguity also lead to higher distress and increase stress

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– related illness, emotional disturbance and troubled behavior
among college students.
Srinivasa Murthy (1998) opines that globalization and
consumerism are increasingly contributing to the pressures on
professional students. He says that the cause for the over
ambition of parents creates the deep chasm between their ethics
and their children’s value system. Recent reports from Mumbai
have shown a steep increase in the number of suicide attempts in
the city by student of +2. There were around 2000 exam related
suicides in 1996-97. Experts feel that the number will supersede
that of Japan which will have the highest suicide incident rate by
the turn of the next millennium.
Students doing professional courses, such as medicine
and engineering, undergo more stress than students pursuing
other courses. There are six basic reasons that led to stress among
professional students and they include doing things at great
speed and wanting to achieve maximum goals in a short span of
time, bad health care and eating habits, negativity, and focus on
failure, holding onto the past, uncertainty of the future and
judging others by their own standards. Many young students turn
to smoking, alcohol, excessive intake of coffee, drugs and bad
eating habits. These only give momentary relief but prove
harmful in the long run.
Medical education is perceived as being stressful. IT is
characterized by many psychological changes in students.
Medical students encounter multiple anxieties in transformation
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from innocent student to young knowledgeable physician. There
is growing concern about stress in medical training due to high
incidence of personal distress during their undergraduate course.
This can lead to mental distress and has a negative impact on
cognitive functioning and learning.
In most medical schools, the environment itself is an all-
prevailing pressure providing, an authoritarian and rigid system
one that encourages competition rather than co-operation
between learners; studies suggest that mental health worsens
after student begins medical school and remains poor throughout
training. The majority of the studies on stress in medical
education focus on the documentation of stress and information
on the correlation of stress. It is not undergraduate study period
which brings the stress, but it may continue later in internship,
postgraduate study period and later in physician’s practical life
and it may reach burnout.
STUDY HABITS
Study habits are defined as those techniques, such as
summarizing, note taking, outlining or locating material which
learners employ to assist themselves in the efficient learning of
the material at hand. The term “Study Habit” implies a sort of
more or less permanent method of studying. According to
Good’s dictionary of education, “Study habit is the tendency of
pupil to study when the opportunities are given, the pupil’s way
of studying whether systematic or unsystematic, efficient or
inefficient”. Study habits are the essence of a dynamic
66
personality. A proper study habits enables an individual to reap
a good harvest in future. The present society is a competitive
society, where the principle of struggle for existence and survival
for fittest exists. Pen has become mightier than sword. Study-
habit is a process from which an individual gets proper input to
feed his hunger and to quench his thrust for knowledge. The
study habits thus are of great assistance to actualize the
potentialities of the individual. Good study habits lead to good
academic record and bad study-habits lead to poor academic
record as there is direct relationship between study habits and
academic achievement. Study habits play an important role in
human performance in academic field.
Many educators explore the fact that a number of
children have not learnt well in high school and elementary
grades. Because of this, children now seem to know less and
apply knowledge, despite the availability of the study materials.
Likewise, children do not know how to think and study properly
and effectively. Only few teachers gave much attention to the
improvement of these skills. To this effect, many children were
able to proceed to the higher level of instruction without
developing the habit of scheduling their study time. Thus, many
talents and potentialities remain underdeveloped due to less
attention given to their academic and personal growth.
Children frequently under-achieve because of negative
attitudes, poor planning and unawareness of basic approaches to
the use of books, note taking, essay writing and revision.
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 If a book or chapter is read straight through, particularly
in a comfortable chair, it is all too easy to let the eyes slip over
the lines without taking in anything of what is read. This is
because the mind is passive not active. To understand it, active
concentrated effort must be made. It is not for nothing that we
speak of grasping a subject.
Studying consists of transferring ideas from lectures,
books or other recorded forms to one’s own mind, digesting
them, fitting them into one’s own experience and make them
one’s own.
Study is not simple reading. To gain knowledge is its
personal effort. Study is the sum of all the habits, determined
purposes and enforced practices that the individual uses in order
to learn. Thus, study means (1) application of the mind to a
problem or subject (2) a branch of learning and (3) an
investigation of particular subject or the published findings of
such investigation. According to Armstrong (1956) “study is
hard work; no easy substitute is available”. Success of the
student is measured by his ability to study. According to
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology, study is a “Research
project that is less formal than a controlled experiment that
involves independent and dependent variables”.
A good organized and systematic approach to study gives
the student to a sure and speedier successes. Lincoln said the
desire to learn in many speeches and letters what others was
beginning to feel and could not express. He became one of the
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greatest masters of the English prose, although he had no one to
teach how to study and very little with which to study. No one
provided him books, classes and study habits. He snatched his
study period between hours of hewing away the wilderness and
fighting hunger (Bhatia Narang, 1972).
According to William James “Habit is the enormous fly-
wheel of society. It is a most precious conservative agent”.
Habits are not simple reactions that are carried out by the
organism. They are built into it as an integral part of its structure.
Our surrounding environment and activities influence habits.
Habit is the most striking and useful characteristic of the growing
child. This tendency gets finally conditioned during the
adolescent period. The general task is cultivation of proper
habits, the sole aim of education and these are fly wheels of
Academic Achievement.
The best any one can do is to make the children cultivate
a taste for reading and this can be done only helping children to
build up sound study habits. Onubugwu (1990) defines study
habits as the techniques a student employs to go about his or her
studies, which are consistent, and have become stereotyped as a
result of long application or practice.
Study habits may therefore be defined as the complex of
reading behaviour of a person, resulting from the varying
degrees of interaction of a number of variable factors, when he
seeks graphic records for acquiring information or knowledge.
The concept of a study habit means the ability of the learner to
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schedule his time, the plan of his study, the habit of
concentration, note taking, mental review, over learning, the
judicious application of whole and part method, massed and
distributed learning and so on.
Ways to improve good study habits
Pupils in their childhood, they have more interest and
self-descriptive in everything. In their childhood if we inculcate
the good habits in the study, it is useful for their future studies.
The following points are useful to improve good study habits
(Srinivasa Rao, R. 1975).
1. Use good lighting, good air, comfortable chair etc.
2. Study at the same time each day, routine is valuable tool
that sets our internal clock.
3. Prepare a plan of action and budget the time properly for
a day and for a week too.
4. Give more time for studying difficult subjects in the time
schedule and follow up it sincerely.
5. Favourable environment gives good concentration.
6. studies have not been conclusive concerning the noise
level. Do remember that if you have too many
distractions around you, you will have trouble
concentrating on the subject you are studying. If the
television is on, make sure you are not watching it.
7. Before you begin, have all the supplies you need. You
waste time interrupting yourself and running little

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 errands, you are also not concentrating or studying when
looking for things.
8. The whole material should break up into small
paragraphs, practice summarizing each paragraph
quickly in the mind.
9. Develop the attitude of the questioning him and others
about points what he read.
10. Prepare brief notes what he read, besides note down the
book name and page number in it, if using other books.
11. For re-check, better to underline the important points,
topics and questions.
12. Keep your assignments organized in a notebook or
planner, you will be able to follow a study plan at home
and get a feeling of accomplishment when you check off
each completed task.
13. Memorize the formulas, principles, symbols and rules
etc. that are needed again and again.
14. Understand what the meaning is before you want to
memorize.
15. Think a while before you write, because it should be
specific and definite.
16. Do not study for long time. It gives you strain.
17. Clarify the doubts with the subject teachers, specialists,
family members and friends as early as possible.
18. Evaluate yourself, what goals are achieved by you?
19. Develop positive attitude, at the time of examination
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 20. Develop the psychomotor skills like drawing, painting,
etc.
21. Develop the attitude, utilizing the resources for his study.
22. Work without interruption, Phone calls in the middle of
study time will detract from work completion. Hold
those calls until your homework and study time are
complete.
23. Participate in discussions, debates, quiz programmes etc,
either in the class or in the competitions conducted by
college or other organization.
24. Develop the correct usage and language skills.
25. Watch the good T.V. programmes, Radio lessons etc.,
that should be useful for your studies.
26. Develop the interest in special fields as fiction, science,
etc.
27. Develop the comprehensive study of words, phrases and
idioms for enriching functional vocabulary.
28. Develop the power of speaking and writing.
29. Develop the collection of non-textual matter from
library, magazines etc.
30. Develop your handwriting by using copy writing books
SELF-CONCEPT
The term self-concept was originally proposed by
“Lecky” in 1945 and adopted by “Rogers” in 1951 as the key
stone of his system of non-directive counseling. This concept is
of major importance in education, particularly in the more
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personal aspects such as motivation and adjustment which, in the
final analysis, are the foundations up on which school and doubt
of school success must ultimately rest.
The self-concept is best conceived as a system of
attitudes towards oneself. All attitudes are import determinants
of behaviour, but attitudes concerning the self are much more
basic than those in which the individual is less ego-involved and
are therefore, correspondingly more potent in deferring
behaviour.
A person’s self is the sum of all that he possesses. This
self includes among other things a system of ideas, attitudes,
values and commitments, the attitudes, values and commitments.
The self is a person’s total subjective environment. It is the
distinctive center of experience and significance. The self-
constitutes a person’s inner world as distinguished from the outer
world consisting of all other people and things.
Since the self is differentiated as a result of the
experience one undergoes if follows that underlying the
development of the self-concept are the individual assets and
liabilities in relation to the various components of his
environment.
According to Lecky, preserving one’s perception of
oneself intact is the prime motive in all behaviour, self-
consistency is necessary to maintain (or) preserve the identity of
the self. Even a person who believes that his “self” is weak, bad
or stupid will adhere to all perceptions that bolster this picture of
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himself and refuse to see (or) accept any perception that suggests
he is good, strong and clever.
This theory resembles “Sullivan’s concept like “Me” and
the “Not-me”.
According to Sullivan, the “Me” concept may be
distressing or even humiliating but the self must hold to
everything that reinforces it and will call “Not-me” anything that
doesn’t fit into a consistent picture of the self.
Lecky proceeded to apply his theory of self-consistency
to learning difficulties. According to him, the child not seen as
bright by his parents, come to see himself as stupid and incapable
learner. He holds that concept in himself when he goes to school.
In school such a child may be free to explore and follow to where
his curiosity leads and to learn new things.
According to dictionary / the mental image or perception
that one has of oneself, “According to medical”, an individual’s
assessment of his or her status on a single trait or on many human
dimensions using societal or personal norms as criteria”.
The self-concept or self-identity is the mental and
conceptual awareness and persistent regard that sentient beings
hold with regard their own being.
Components of a being’s self-concept include physical,
psychological, and social attributes; and can be influenced by its
attitudes, habits, beliefs and ideas. These components and
attributes can each be condensed to the general concepts of self-
image and the self-esteem.
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 Children enrolled in a selected admissions program, in
which there are a limited number of student positions available,
were assessed for academic self-concept using the dimensions of
self-concept upon entry into the programme. This study was
performed to explore successful completion of an academic
program and the impact of self-concept scores on academic
achievement and professional leadership.
PERSONALITY
A planned educational action aimed at the development at
proper attitudes, emotions and characters, in the learners. It
covers all aspects of personality development physical,
intellectual, social, economic, political, cultural, moral and
spiritual.
Every action and thought of ours leaves an impression in
our mind. These impressions determine in our behaviour at a
given moment and our responses to a given situation. The sum
total of all our impressions is what determines our character. The
past has determined the present and even so our present thoughts
and actions will shape our future. This is a key principle
governing personality development. The human values are
resolved having lasting impact necessary for bringing about
change in thought and conduct, in the 21 st century.
Stern observes, “We have the right and obligation to
develop a concept of trait as a definitive doctrine, for in all
activity of the person, there besides a variable portion, likewise

75
a constant purposive portion, and this latter we isolate as the
concept of trait”.
Allport’s contention is equally forceful. He asserts,
“Traits are discovered not by deductive reasoning, not by faith,
not by naming, and are themselves never directly observed. They
are discovered only through the inferences made necessary by
the demonstrable consistency of the separate observable acts of
behaviour”.
Vernon (1963) says that a person’s behaviour in any
situation depends, of course, on specific features of that situation
and on his temporary feeling or state of mind, but it also depends
on his more enduring characteristics abilities, habits and more
general dispositions which may be called traits.
Cattell (1961) says that the source traits, as measured by
the HSPQ test, are the spring of human behaviour. He defines
personality as “That which permits a prediction of what the
person will do in a given situation”. (Cattell,1950). This
definition is consistent with the contention of Marri and Hillix
(1973) that the theory of personality is really identical with
general theory of behaviour, for Cattell’s definition would fit
theories of behaviour.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Achievement continues to be one of the most important
variables held in high esteem in all cultures, countries and times.
Hence the research related to the area of achievement is an ever-
growing concern of the researchers, educationists and
76
administrators. The review of related literature suggested that
studies related to the area of achievement may be broadly
classified into the following categories: (i) studies on
vocabulary, (ii) studies on comprehension and (iii) studies on
achievement; and each category of these three are further
reviewed in lieu of demographic factors, study habits, self-
concepts, socio economic factors and personality factors.
Some outstanding studies conducted by Dave (1958),
Hetzitheologou (1997), Bornstein et al. (1998), Trancy et al.
(2000), Juel, connie et al. (2003) and Smitha Sinha (2006) have
focused their attention mainly on demographic factors related to
vocabulary acquisition. The emphasis in these studies was on the
variables such as age, family size, gender, social competence,
parental involvement, income of the family and effects of mother
tongue on vocabulary acquisition by the children.
Rachal, John et al. (1991), Thornton, Mary (1992),
Patterson, Janet (2002), Collins et al. (2002) emphasized the
influence of reading habits on vocabulary acquisition.
Koteswara (1997), Al-Khataybeh et al. (2000),
Bosacki et al. (2000), Bauer et al. (2002) and
Ananthasayanam et al. (2005) studied the relationship between
vocabulary and personality factors of the individuals.
Dolan and Terry (1994), Selvaraj Gnanaguru (1994),
Rosen and Joy (1995), Kita et al. (1996), Barat Joshi (1996),
Flynt et al. (1997), Koteswara (1997), Wilkinson, Ian (1998),
Droop et al. (1998), Murad et al. (2000), Lehto et al. (2001),
77
Silbent, Jerry (2002), Brantmeir, Cindy (2003), Anbuchelvan
et al. (2005) have studied the influence of demographic variables
on comprehension.
Nimen, Maureen (1992), Sheveland and Dawn (1996),
Koteswara (1997), Leung, Ching Yon (2002) conducted
outstanding studies to explore the relationships between reading
comprehension and study habits of the students.
Abu-Rabia Salim (1996), Koteswara (1997),
Campbell et al. (2000), Burt et al. (2000) have studied the
relationships between comprehension and self-concepts of the
students.
Subramanyam (1981), Shakiba (1983), Meesin
Chaaroon (1983), Ramaswamy (1990), Ramila Salvi (1991),
Dulancy (1994), Selvaraj Gnanaguru (1994), Mac Donald
(1995), Wilkinson (1998), Viswanadhan Nair (1998),
Koteswara (1998), Diamond (2001), Motfese (2003) have
studied the relationship between achievement and different
demographic variables.
Wrenn (1933), Subramanyam (1981), Premalatha
Sarma (1986), Gary Lee (1990), Sheorey et al. (1994),
Rodriguez (1998), Biswas (2001), Coles, Martin et al. (2002)
studied the relationships between achievement and study habits
of the students at different grade levels.
Padelford (1969), Lyon (1993), Hay, Ian (1998),
Chapman (2000) have investigated the relationship between
achievement and self-concepts of the students.
78
 Koteswara and Ramachandra Reddy (1998) studied
the relationship between achievement and fourteen personality
factors of HSPQ.
Though there are considerable number of studies related
to demographic factors, study habits, self-concepts and personal
factors at different grade levels, very few studies were found
particularly at high school level where students are studying
English purely as a foreign language in other than English
medium schools.
The present investigation tried to explore the
relationships between vocabulary, comprehension and
achievement on one hand and demographic factors, reading
habits, self-concepts and personal factors on the other hand.
There is no research study on the vocabulary, comprehension
and achievement levels of high school students in English in
relation to multilevel combinations of the different types of
variables. Hence there is a need of an investigation to study the
influences of psycho-sociological factors on achievement of
secondary school students. Another interesting feature observed
is that majority of the studies in the area of achievement confined
to simple correlational analysis between predictors and the
criterion variables. Individual and cumulative effects of many
independent factors on achievement could be assessed more
accurately by employing regression analysis. Therefore, one of
the main objectives of the study is to predict multiple effect of
the independent factors on vocabulary, comprehension and
79
achievement of high school students studying in Telugu medium
schools and further to suggest suitable regression equations to
predict the vocabulary, comprehension and achievements of the
students who are going to leave the secondary schools.
RESUME OF THE SUCCEEDING CHAPTERS
The study culminated in the presentation of a
consolidated research report consisting of six chapters. They are:
Chapter-II deals with an analytical presentation of
research work conducted so far in the area, in which the
investigator is interested to investigate further.
Chapter-III deals with present study, which includes:
Statement of the problem, Need for the present study,
Operational definitions of various terms, Objectives of the study,
Hypotheses to be tested and variables included.
Chapter-IV deals with tools employed, methods of
collecting data, and statistical techniques employed in the
analysis of data.
Chapter-V deals with analysis of data, and a detailed
discussion of the results of the present study.
Chapter-VI deals with summary of investigation, major
findings, conclusions, educational implications,
recommendations and suggestions for further research.
Bibliography and Appendices are given at the end of the
thesis.

80
 CHAPTER -II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with the internal review of the

literature. It is an attempt to discover relevant material published
in the area of reading achievement, which is the problem area for
the present study. This chapter discusses in brief the empirical
research studies that had been done previously in the problem
area. The investigations done during the last few decades in the
field of reading achievement that are more relevant and pertinent
to the present investigation are discussed in this chapter.
NEED TO KNOW ABOUT RELATED LITERATURE
For any worthwhile study in any field of knowledge, the
research worker needs an adequate familiarity with the library
and its many resources. Only then an effective search for
specialized knowledge will be possible. The search for reference
material is a time consuming, but very fruitful phase of a
research programme. Every investigator must know what
sources are available in his field of enquiry, which of them
he/she is likely to use and where and how to find them (Sukhia,
et al., 1980).
Availability of adequate information and possession of
sufficient familiarity with it, however, is not one and the same
thing. Availability of adequate information about educational
thought and research does not by itself result in possession of its
knowledge by the investigator. The researcher must apply
81
himself keenly to the task. On the other hand, an investigator
may be very keen to possess up-to-date information regarding
his field, and may try hard to be posted up-to-date, and yet fail
to get enough information due to the non-existence of sources of
such information. In India, the research workers quite often
come across the later handicap (Sukhia, et al., 1980).
The related literature forms the foundation upon which
all future work will be built. It enables the investigator to know
the means of getting to the frontier in the field of his research. It
also provides ideas, theories, explanations, hypotheses or
methods of research, valuable in formulating and studying the
problems. It furnishes the researcher with indispensable
suggestions about comparative data, good procedures, likely
methods and tried techniques. The information about the
activities of previous investigations, stimulate the investigator to
use each bit of knowledge as a starting point for new and further
progress.
Research in the field of reading was first done in the
laboratories of Europe. Psychologists studied the nature of
reading act and the way in which words are perceived and
recognized. The study of word perception became the primary
focus of reading research. The word perception studies
emphasized the individual differences and tests were constructed
to measure the speed and comprehension of silent reading.
There are number of studies relating to the Reading
Achievement done in the past. However, only the literature
82
pertaining to the independent variables used in the present study
are referred in the succeeding pages.
There are number of studies relating to the scientific
attitude and achievement in science done in the past. However
only the literature pertaining to the independent variables used
in the present study is referred to in the succeeding pages.
Therefore, the studies are presented under the following
subheadings:
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and locality
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and
management
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and gender
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and age
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and annual
income of the family and economic position of the
family
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and father
education
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and mother
education
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and
occupation of parents
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and size of the
family
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and
community
83
 ❖ Studies related to academic achievement and study
hours at home
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and interest of
the subject
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and leisure
time activities
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and library
facility
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and
encouragement of the teacher
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and anxiety
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and home
environment
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and academic
stress
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and study
habits
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and self-
concept
❖ Studies related to academic achievement and
personality factors
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND LOCALITY
This variable is a neglected one in educational research,
particularly on the influence of locality on academic
achievement in English. As the investigator is interested in
84
English, locality is included as one of the variables in the present
study to examine its impact on the academic achievement in
English. Some of the earlier studies in this direction are
presented below.
Padmini (2010) investigated that locality has significant
influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class students in
biological sciences.
Prabhu Swamy (2010) revealed that rural area D.Ed.
trainees scored better marks in multiple choice type, Match the
following type and over performance. Urban area students have
scored better marks in classification type and true/false. So,
locality has significant influence on the marks scored.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that native place has
significant influence at 0.01 level on the Scholastic Achievement
of IX class students in Physical sciences.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that locality has significant
influence on the language marks, group subjects marks and total
marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the locality
has significant influence on the reading achievement of X class
students.
Manpreet Kaur, Ram Niwas and Rai, V.K (2015)
found that there is no significant difference was found between
rural and urban students of XII standard on achievement in
science.

85
 Sana Hemavathi and Dayakara Reddy (2016)
investigated that locality has significant influence on the
achievement of IX class students in mathematics.
From the above observations, it is clear that a few studies
have shown a relationship between locality and academic
achievement and hence gender has been eluded as one of the
variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND MANAGEMENT
The management of the school in which a student studies,
may have some impact on the academic achievement in English.
Some of the studies conducted earlier in this direction are
presented here under.
Padmini (2010) investigated that management has
significant influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class
students in biological sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that management has
significant influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class
students in physical sciences at 0.01 level of significance.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that management has
significant influence on the academic achievement of B.Ed.
students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that management has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.

86
 Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the
management has significant influence on the reading
achievement of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that management has significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
Shaik Khadar Valli (2015) found that management has
significant influence on the Reading comprehension in English
of X class students.
Sana Hemavathi and Dayakara Reddy (2016)
investigated that management has significant influence on the
achievement of IX class students in mathematics.
From the above observations, it is clear that a few studies
have shown a relationship between management and academic
achievement and hence gender has been eluded as one of the
variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND GENDER
In a male dominated society, girls are deprived in all
aspects in the society. Pre-determined notion of Parents,
Partiality in treatment, restrictions in their mobility, lack of
freedom, social evils like dowry system, have been the biggest
impediments in the progress of the girls in the field of education.
Gender is one of the important variables in the academic
achievement. The following are some of the studies reviewed on
this aspect.

87
 Chandran and Lim (2010) concluded that gender
contribute to poor academic achievement during the early school
years.
Padmini (2010) studied that sex has significant influence
on the scholastic achievement of IX class students in biological
sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that sex has significant
influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class students in
physical sciences at 0.01 level of significance.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that gender has significant
influence on the academic achievement of B.Ed. students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that gender has significant
influence on the language marks, group subjects marks and total
marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the gender
has significant influence on the reading achievement of X class
students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that gender has significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
Srivastava, Stuti (2014) found that knowledge,
comprehension and application in science do not contribute to
the scientific attitude in intent among male students. Male
students with more ability to comprehend in science are not
likely to have better scientific attitude in their action. Among
female students comprehension in science has been found to be
a predictor of scientific attitude in intent and knowledge in
88
science is found to be the best predictor of scientific attitude in
their action.
Manpreet Kaur, Ram Niwas and Rai, V.K (2015)
found that there is no significant difference was found between
male and female students of XII standard on achievement in
science.
From the above observations, it is clear that a few studies
have shown a relationship between gender and academic
achievement and hence gender has been eluded as one of the
variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND AGE
Age of the students may have some relationship with
their academic achievement. Some of the related studies are
presented here.
Fayegh Yousefi and Rumaya Juhari (2010) Studied
that Age and academic achievement were significantly
correlated.
Junani and Redzuan (2010) studied that age and
academic achievement were significantly correlated.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that age has significant
influence on the academic achievement of B.Ed. students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that age has significant
influence on the language marks, group subjects marks and total
marks of Junior college students.

89
 Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the age has
significant influence on the reading achievement of X class
students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that age has significant influence
on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
It is observed from the above studies that there are very
few studies showing the relation between the age and academic
achievement of students. Hence age is taken as one of the
variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND ANNUAL INCOME/ECONOMIC POSITION OF
THE FAMILY
Annual income/economic position of the family may
have some impact on the academic achievement of students.
Studies related to annual income/economic position of the family
and academic achievement, conducted earlier, are presented here
under.
Sanandaj and Jouhari (2010) showed that family
income significantly affected academic achievement.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that annual income has
significant influence at 0.01 level on the Scholastic Achievement
of IX class students in Physical sciences.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that annual income of the
family has significant influence on the academic achievement of
B.Ed. students.

90
 Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that annual income has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the annual
income of the family has significant influence on the reading
achievement of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that annual income has significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
From the above observations, it is clear that there was no
much previous study conducted on the significance of annual
income in respect of academic achievement of students in
English. Hence annual income of the family has been included
as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND FATHER EDUCATION
Education of the father may have some influence in the
academic achievement of the pupils. General assumption is that
educated fathers would assist their children in their studies in the
form of counseling and guidance. Hence there may be some
relationship between the academic achievement and father’s
education. Some of the studies reviewed in this regard are given
below.
Moula (2010) found that there is significant relationship
between father’s education and academic achievement.

91
 Padmini (2010) investigated that father education has
significant influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class
students in biological sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that father education has
significant influence at 0.01 level on the Scholastic Achievement
of IX class students in Physical sciences.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that father education has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the father
education has significant influence on the reading achievement
of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that father education has significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
It is noticed from the above studies that very few studies
are found showing relationship between the academic
achievement of students in English and education of father.
Hence father’s education is included as one variable in the
present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND MOTHER EDUCATION
Educational status of the mother may have influence on
the academic achievement of the students. If mother is educated,
it would have an impact on the child’s performance. Some of the
studies reviewed are presented hereunder.

92
 Moula (2010) found that there is significant relationship
between mother’s education and academic achievement of
standard eight pupils.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that mother education
has significant influence at 0.01 level on the Scholastic
Achievement of IX class students in Physical sciences.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that mother education has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the mother
education has significant influence on the reading achievement
of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that mother education has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students
It is noticed from the above studies that very few studies
are found showing the relation between academic achievement
of students in English and mother’s education. Hence mother’s
education is included as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND OCCUPATION OF PARENTS
Academic achievement of students may vary depending
upon the occupation of parents. Some of the earlier studies are
shown hereunder.

93
 Moula (2010) found significant relationship between
father’s occupation and mother occupation and academic
achievement of standard eight pupils.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that father occupation
and mother occupation has significant influence at 0.01 level on
the Scholastic Achievement of IX class students in Physical
sciences.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that father and mother
occupation has significant influence on the academic
achievement of B.Ed. students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that father and mother
occupation has significant influence on the language marks,
group subjects marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the parents
occupation has significant influence on the reading achievement
of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that parents’ occupation has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students
It is noticed from the above studies that very few studies
are found showing relationship between the academic
achievement of students in English and occupation of the
parents. Hence occupation of the parents is included as one
variable in the present study.

94
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND SIZE OF THE FAMILY
It is assumed that the size of the family (i.e.) the total
number of persons in the family may have some impact on the
studies of the children and hence on the academic achievement.
Some of the earlier studies are presented hereunder.
Moula (2010) found significant relationship between
family size and academic achievement of standard eight pupils.
Padmini (2010) investigated that number of members in
the family has significant influence on the scholastic
achievement of IX class students in biological sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that total number of
children in the family have significant influence at 0.01 level on
the Scholastic Achievement of IX class students in Physical
sciences.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that number of members in
the family and number of children in the family has significant
influence on the academic achievement of B.Ed. students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that size of the family has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the size of the
family has significant influence on the reading achievement of X
class students.

95
 Ravi, S (2014) found that size of the family has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
From the above limited studies, it is clear that there were
no much studies on the effect of family size on the academic
achievement. Hence size of the family is included as one of the
variables of the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND COMMUNITY
Cultural background of the students may have some
influence on the academic achievement of the students.
Community/religion may also have some impact on the
academic achievement. With this view, studies related to
community/religion and academic achievement are presented
hereunder.
Padmini (2010) investigated that religion has significant
influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class students in
biological sciences.
Rohani and Ahmad Tormizi (2010) identified that the
significant relationship between students beliefs about
importance of mathematics and beliefs on one’s ability in
mathematics with mathematics achievement.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that religion have
significant influence at 0.01 level on the Scholastic Achievement
of IX class students in Physical sciences.

96
 Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the
community has significant influence on the reading achievement
of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that religion has significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and community. Hence Religion is
included as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND STUDY HOURS AT HOME
It is assumed that the study hours at home may have some
impact on the studies of the children and hence on the academic
achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the study
hours at home has significant influence on the reading
achievement of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that study hours at home has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and study hours at home. Hence study
hours at home is included as one of the variables in the present
study.
97
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND INTEREST OF THE SUBJECT
It is assumed that the interest of the subject may have
some impact on the studies of the children and hence on the
academic achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the interest of
Telugu language has significant influence on the reading
achievement of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that interest in science has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and interest of English language. Hence
interest of English language is included as one of the variables
in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND LEISURE TIME ACTIVITIES
It is assumed that the leisure time activities may have
some impact on the studies of the children and hence on the
academic achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the leisure
time activities has significant influence on the reading
achievement of X class students.
98
 Ravi, S (2014) found that leisure time activities has
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and leisure time activities. Hence leisure
time activities is included as one of the variables in the present
study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND LIBRARY FACILITY
It is assumed that the library facility may have some
impact on the studies of the children and hence on the academic
achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the library
facility has significant influence on the reading achievement of
X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that library facility has not
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and library facility. Hence library
facility is included as one of the variables in the present study.

99
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE TEACHER
It is assumed that the encouragement of the Teacher may
have some impact on the studies of the children and hence on the
academic achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) found that the
encourage of the Telugu teacher has significant influence on the
reading achievement of X class students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and encouragement of the English
Teacher. Hence encouragement of the English Teacher is
included as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND ANXIETY
It is assumed that the anxiety may have some impact on
the studies of the children and hence on the academic
achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Sitara, V.R (2010) investigated that the anxiety has
significant influence on the academic achievement.
Detlef Urhahne, Sheng-Han Chao, Maria Luise
Florineth, Silke Luttenberger and Manuela Paechter (2011)
investigated that anxiety levels of the students are significantly
correlated with their academic achievement.
100
 Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and anxiety. Hence anxiety is included
as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND HOME ENVIRONMENT
It is assumed that the home environment may have some
impact on the studies of the children on the academic
achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Baskaran, M and Selvaraju, R (2015) found that there
is significant relationship between home environment and
academic achievement of higher secondary students.
From the above limited studies, it is clear that there were
no much studies on the effect of home environment on the
academic achievement. Hence home environment is included as
one of the variables of the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND ACADEMIC STRESS
It is assumed that the academic stress may have some
impact on the studies of the children and hence on the academic
achievement. Some of the earlier studies are presented
hereunder.
Sitara, V.R (2010) investigated that the stress has
significant influence on the academic achievement.

101
 Narendra Kumar (2015) found that stress has
significant influence on the academic achievement of Senior
Secondary Science Students.
Form the above shown studies, it is clear that there were
no many studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement in English and academic stress. Hence academic
stress is included as one of the variables in the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND STUDY HABITS
Individual study habits play an import role in
determining the academic achievement of pupils in different
subjects. The students performance in the class room depends
upon several factors namely, the interest in the subject, study
facilities, own study habits etc. Most of the previous
investigators pointed out that there is much impact of study
habits on the academic achievement. Some of the studies already
made previously on the relation between the academic
achievement and study habits of the individuals are presented
here under.
Padmini (2010) investigated that study habits has
significant influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class
students in biological sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) found that all the seven areas of study
habits and total score on study habits have significant influence
at 0.01 level on the scholastic achievement of IX class students

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in Physical sciences. It is observed that the students with better
study habits achieved significantly better in physical sciences.
Vema Narayana Reddy, G (2012) investigated that
home environment, Reading and note-taking, Planning of
subject, Preparation for examinations, General habits and
attitudes, School environment and Study habits total has
significant influence on the reading achievement of X class
students.
Ravi, S (2014) inferred that environment and planning of
work (SH1), Reading and note-taking (SH2), Home Planning of
subject (SH3), Preparation for examinations (SH 5) and School
environment (SH7) and Study habits total (SHT) have significant
influence on the scientific attitude and Habits of concentration
(SH4) and Preparation for examinations (SH 5) have significant
influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
Kritika Mishra and Vasanta, D (2016) concluded that
teaching with mathematical games proves to be highly beneficial
in increasing the academic achievement of low achievers,
students could learn by playing mathematical games that are
successfully integrated with the curriculum. The transformation
of mathematical phobia to the projection of relationship between
mathematics and real life and friendly feeling can be developed
among low achievers with mathematics. The finding reveals that
teaching with mathematical games makes the classroom
environment enthusiastic and increases learning abilities of low
achievers.
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 From the above limited studies, it is clear that there were
no much studies on the effect of personality on the academic
achievement. Hence personality is included as one of the
variables of the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concepts play an important role in the life of pupils.
Muktha Rani Rasthogi’s (1974) self-concept scale is adopted in
this study to examine the impact of self-concepts on the
academic achievement of students in mathematics. Some of the
earlier studies showing the relationship between academic
achievement and self-concepts are presented hereunder.
Padmini (2010) investigated that self-concept has
significant influence on the scholastic achievement of IX class
students in biological sciences.
Philias Oulatunde (2010) showed that students of
secondary schools have good self-concept of themselves in
performing well in mathematics.
Siddi Raju (2010) found that the computed values of ‘F’
for the self-concepts namely (i) Health and sex appropriateness
(SC1) (ii)Abilities (SC 2), (iii)) Worthiness (SC5), (iv) present-
past-future (SC6), (v) Beliefs and convictions (SC7), (vi)
Emotional Maturity (SC10) and (vii) Self-concepts total score
(SCT), are far greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2
and 1797 df at 0.01 level of significance. It is clear from the mean
values that who are better in Health and Sex appropriateness,
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Abilities, Worthiness, Present -Past -Feature, Believes and
convictions and total self-concept are also significantly better in
scholastic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
It is found that the computed values of ‘F’ for the Self-concepts
namely (i) Self-confidence (SC3) and (ii) Sociability (SC9) are
greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and 1797 df at
0.05 level of significance. The areas of self-concepts namely (i)
Self-acceptance (SC4) and (ii) Shame and Guilt (SC8), do not
have significant influence at 0.05 level on the scholastic
achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that Health and Sex
appropriateness, Abilities, Self-confidence, Self-acceptance,
Worthiness Present, past and future Beliefs and convictions
Feelings of shame and guilt, Sociability, Emotional maturity and
Self-concept total have significant influence on the language
marks, group subjects marks and total marks of Junior college
students.
Vema Narayana Reddy, G (2012) found that Self-
confidence, Self-acceptance, Worthiness and Self-concept total
has significant influence on the reading achievement of X class
students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that self-confidence (SCE),
Feelings of Shame and Guilt (SCS2) Emotional Maturity (SCS4)
and Self Concept Total (SCT) have significant influence on the
scientific attitude and Health and Sex appropriateness (SCA) on
the achievement in science of 9 th class students.
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 Baskaran, M and Selvaraju, R (2015) found that there
is significant relationship between self-concept and academic
achievement of higher secondary students.
From the above limited studies, it is clear that there were
no much studies on the effect of self-concepts on the academic
achievement. Hence self-concepts are included as one of the
variables of the present study.
STUDIES RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
AND PERSONALITY FACTORS
Personality of a student plays an important role in his/her
academic achievement. Some Indian researchers have attempted
to isolate the personality structure of good and poor students. A
few studies are comprehensive, while a few others, have
concentrated on specific aspects and dimensions of personality
assessment. Some of the studies showing the relationship
between personality and academic achievement are given below.
Anca Munteanu and Iuliana Coatea (2010) showed
that psychological personality type does not significantly
influence school performance, meaning that students, even if
have or not these personality features can have similar school
achievements. Energetic pattern of personality and emotional
pattern are not conditions for school performance in adolescents.
Martinsen and Swanberg (2010) showed that
conscientiousness and openness were mediated by the strategic
and an indirect effect on achievement through the surface
approach.
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 Padmini (2010) investigated that Personality Factor – A,
Personality Factor – B, Personality Factor – E, Personality
Factor – G, Personality Factor – I, Personality Factor – J,
Personality Factor - Q2, Personality Factor – Q3 and Personality
Factor – Q4 has significant influence on the scholastic
achievement of IX class students in biological sciences.
Siddi Raju (2010) investigated that the computed values
of ‘F’ for the Personality Factors namely (i) Factor (B): Less
Intelligent vs. More Intelligent;(ii) Factor, (D): Phlegmatic vs.
Excitable; (iii) Factor (E): Obedient, Mild, Conforming,
submissive vs. Assertive, Independent, Aggressive, Stubborn,
Dominant; (iv) Factor (H): Shy VS. Venturesome (v) Factor (I):
Though Minded VS. Tense Minded and (vi) Factor (Q 3):
Undisciplined Vs controlled are far greater than the critical value
of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2 and 1797 df at 0.01 level of significance.
Hence the above personality factors have significant influence
on the scholastic achievement of IX class students in physical
sciences. It is found that the computed values of ‘F’ for the
Personality Factors namely; (i) Factor(A): Reserved vs. outgoing
and (ii) Factor (F): Sober Vs. Happy - Go-Lucky, Gay
Enthusiastic, Impulsively lively are greater than critical value of
‘F’(2.99) for 2 and 1797df at 0.05 level of significance. Hence
the above personality factors have significant influence on the
scholastic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
It is found that the computed values of ‘F’ for the Personality
Factors namely;(i) Factor (C): Emotionally Less Stable vs.
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Emotionally Stable (ii) Factor (G): Moral standards Vs. super
ego-strength (iii) Factor (J): Vigorous Vs Doubting (iv) Factor
(O): Placid Vs Apprehensive (v) Factor (Q 2): Group dependent
Vs self-sufficient and (vi) Factor (Q4): Relaxed Vs Tensed are
less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and 1797 df at 0.05
level of significance. It is concluded that the above personality
factors do not have significant influence on the scholastic
achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
Sujatha (2011) investigated that all personality factors
have significant influence on the academic achievement of B.Ed.
students.
Sekhar, K (2012) inferred that Personality factor – A,
Personality factor – B, Personality factor – C, Personality factor
– D, Personality factor – G, Personality factor – I, Personality
factor – J, Personality factor – O and Personality factor – Q4 has
significant influence on the language marks, group subjects
marks and total marks of Junior college students.
Vema Narayana Reddy, G (2012) found that
Personality factor – D, Personality factor – E, Personality factor
– G, Personality factor – I and Personality factor - Q4 has
significant influence on the vocabulary and reading achievement
of X class students.
Ravi, S (2014) found that Personality factor – A,
personality factor – C, personality factor – D, personality factor
– E, personality factor – G, personality factor – H and personality
factor – O and personality factor – Q3 have significant influence
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on the scientific attitude and personality factor – B, personality
factor – I, personality factor – J and personality factor – Q3 have
significant influence on the achievement in science of 9 th class
students.
Neeti Naveen (2016) indicates that need achievement is
significantly associated with students’ academic
underachievement. Lower level of this need appears to adversely
affect the academic under achievement. It constitutes the
personality syndrome of the underachievers. It seems to be
functioning demodulating factor of academic underachievement.
From the above limited studies, it is clear that there were
no much studies on the effect of personality on the academic
achievement. Hence personality is included as one of the
variables of the present study.

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 CHAPTER -III
THE PRESENT STUDY

This chapter deals with the statement of the problem, title

of the problem, need for the present study, scope of the study,
definitions of various terms, objectives of the study, hypotheses
formulated, and variables included.
INTRODUCTION
Achievement in English is of vital importance,
particularly, in the present socioeconomic and cultural contexts.
Great emphasis is placed on achievement in English right from
the early childhood education. A considerable number of
students from secondary schools join colleges and prosper with
good opportunities in their life only on acquiring better
knowledge through wide reading. Hence it is very important to
ensure, students acquire the requisite competence and reading
habits so as to help them prosper more out of professional
education. Setting the stage of achievement in English of the
youth is thus a fundamental obligation of the educational
systems of all times especially in India where human resources
are abundant.
Achievement in English is a multidimensional
phenomenon and is affected by two main types of factors viz.,
subjective and objective factors. Subjective factors are related to
the individual himself, intelligence, learning abilities, aptitudes,
self-concepts, perceptions of his/her school, reading methods,
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interest in reading activities, levels of aspiration, reading
motivation, reading attitudes, attitudes toward teachers and
courses, and adjustment with the self and the community.
Objective factors lie within the social environment,
socioeconomic status, family traits, value system, educational
system, system of reading evaluation, school/college
environment and number of students in the class and size of the
school/college.
The importance of achievement in English has raised
several important questions for educational administrators and
investigators. What factors promote vocabulary, comprehension
and achievement in English in students? How far do the different
factors contribute toward achievement in English? Many factors
have been hypothesized and investigated upon.
Learning to read involves identifying letters, combining
letters as words, words as sentences and so on. The sheer volume
of words that children are expected to read quickly and
accurately is daunting. This means that they must be able to
recognize these words and know their meanings. Research
indicates that early school development of vocabulary and world
knowledge is especially critical for children who come from
impoverished homes.
We know that one route to learning vocabulary and world
knowledge is through reading. Children who learn to read early
can read considerably more than their peers who are still
struggling to decode, and through reading they learn things that
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increase their text comprehension. Reading, itself, helps
studying gain both world knowledge and word recognition skill.
Once a child can read enough words to independently enter the
world of books, additional words are learned as a consequence
of seeing them several times in print.
Word recognition must become something children can
do on their own, because they will quickly be expected to read
words they have never before seen in print. Only a few thousand
words usually receive direct instruction in the primary and
secondary grades. It would be impossible to directly teach
children all the words they encounter in print.
In one’s life, reading success is highly valued as all
intellectual capabilities of an individual are assessed by his
achievement in English. In the present educational system, the
reading programmes are no longer confined to text books only.
Reading is being connected with the real-life activities of
students and with the things going on in the community. The
unprecedented expansion of the educational system, the
enormous financial investments in schools by governments, and
the need to point out priority areas of educational expenditure
necessitate the identification of the factors contributing most to
achievement in English and student learning. Achievement in
English of the learners is the outcome of the combined efforts of
teachers, parents, students, as well as the types of schools.
There is an educational and social need to study the
factors that influence achievement in English of high school
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pupils to draw up conclusions for the poor/better achievement in
English, to prepare a tool to predict the achievement levels of the
individuals who are studying English as mother tongue and to
suggest measures for further improvement of achievement in
English.
It would be useful to think of the present period as the
age of communication. We can talk directly to the people who
live on the far side of the globe. The airwaves everywhere
vibrates with words. Scientific discoveries have made possible a
succession of inventories which have overcome the barriers of
communication among the nearly three billion human
inhabitants of the planet. Telephone, telegraph, radio, television,
teletype, and various methods of voice recording are examples
of the ways in which language symbols have now become the
means of bringing human beings together.
However, technology has not replaced reading. The
printed page reaches millions still untouched by electronics and
for those who can take advantage of the newer devices, Reading
still serves unique purposes, it is many things to many people. It
is a telescope, because through it we can look at the distant stars
and speculate about life upon them. It is a microscope, because
through it we can not only examine the chromosomes and the
atoms, but also infer those minute particles whichever the finest
lenses cannot reveal. It is a never-ending widescreen film on
which the human pageant passes in review. It is still the only
known time machine that can recreate the events of the past and
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open up the vistas of the future-primitive man calls reading a
magic, and he is right.
Reading, one of the major avenues of communication is
essential to the existence of our complex system of social
arrangements. But it is more than that; it is the means by which
every age is linked to every other. It makes possible man’s
capacity for ‘time binding’, the ability to perceive himself in the
historic process and the fluid universe around him. If all the
inventions of a hundred years were destroyed and only books
were left, man could still be man, in the sense intended by the
idealists, the poets, the creators. Reading nourishes human
capabilities and through it the fruit of education starts.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The present study is concerned with achievement of the
VIII class students in English in relation to certain variables. It
examines the differences in the performance of VIII class
students residing in rural and urban areas, boys and girls and
among the managements of Government and Private. It
establishes the relationships between achievement and other
variables namely, socio-demographic variables, anxiety, home
environment, academic stress, study habits, self-concept and
personality factors of the VIII class students studying in high
schools of Y.S.R. district in Andhra Pradesh.
TITLE OF THE PROBLEM
“Influence of Certain Psycho-Sociological Variables on
English Achievement of Class VIII Students”.
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NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY
There is an educational and social need to identify the
factors, which influence the achievement of VIII class students
in English as a foreign language (studying as a second language)
and suggest remedial measures and further studies.
As early as 1956, the Official Language Commission
stressed the need for the Teaching of English principally as a
language of comprehension.
Achievement in English is of prime important
particularly in the present scenario of globalization. The students
of Class VIII are having a sense of difficulty in learning English
and in getting success in their terminal and annual examinations.
Researchers have not given much importance in India to study
achievement in English for VIII class students to find
relationship of achievement in English with other variables like
socio-demographic variables, anxiety, home environment,
academic stress, study habits, self-concept and personality
factors, etc.
For the majority of Indian students who are getting
school education in their mother tongue (regional language), the
English class in the school is likely to be the only place for
listening, speaking, reading and using English. Next to school, at
home and in society, the parents and others may contribute to the
vocabulary acquisition directly or indirectly.
The socio-economic status of parents, reading materials,
the child’s own personal characters, attitudes and aptitudes seem
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to affect the learning and usage of English language. Intelligence
and health of the child influence the achievement.
The fear and anxiety, poor attendance, home and school
environment, personality traits, study habits and some other
personal variables contribute to the poor or better achievement
of the students of Class VIII in English.
There is an educational and social need to identify the
psycho-sociological factors which influence the achievement of
VIII class students in English to draw up conclusions for the
backwardness in reading ability in these children and to suggest
remedial measures for the improvement of these skills.
Achievement continues to be one of the most important
variables held in high esteem in all cultures, countries and times.
Hence the research related to the area of achievement is an ever-
growing concern of the researchers, educationists and
administrators.
The above crucial conditions lead the researcher to make
an attempt in this area to cater the needs of VIII class students of
Y.S.R. district.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The present study aims at investigating the ability of the
VIII class students in achievement in English. The purpose of the
study is an attempt to answer the following aspects.
1. What is the general ability of the VIII class students
achievement in English?

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2. Whether there is any significant influence of main effects
namely; gender, management, locality and their
interaction effects on the achievement in English of VIII
class students?
3. Whether there is any relationship between socio –
demographic variables and achievement in English of
VIII class students?
4. Whether there is any relationship between anxiety and
achievement in English of VIII class students?
5. Whether there is any relationship between home
environment and achievement in English of VIII class
students?
6. Whether there is any relationship between academic
stress and achievement in English of VIII class students?
7. Whether there is any relationship between study habits
and achievement in English of VIII class students?
8. Whether there is any relationship between self – concept
and achievement in English of VIII class students?
9. Whether there is any relationship between personality
and achievement in English of VIII class students?
10. Whether it is possible to predict achievement in English
of VIII class students with the help of socio -
psychological factors?
11. What is the percentage of variance explained by all
independent variables in estimating achievement in
English of VIII class students?
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SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The main intention of the study is to find the achievement
in English of VIII class students in relation with socio-
demographic variables, anxiety, home environment, academic
stress, study habits, self-concept and personality factors.
Achievement test in English was constructed and standardized
by the investigator to measure the achievement in English of VIII
class students. The socio-demographic variables, anxiety, home
environment, academic stress, study habits, self-concept and
personality factors are measured by using the relevant
instruments. The study attempted to predict the achievement in
English of VIII class students with the help of different psycho-
sociological variables.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS
The definitions of some of the important terms used in
this study are given below:
1. Study: Study is “The application of the mind to acquisition of
knowledge by reading, investigation and reflecting etc.”.
Benefits derived from the study are:
➢ Builds vocabulary
➢ Increase reading comprehension and verbal scores
➢ Establishes precise word usage in written and oral
communication
➢ Cultivates the habit of critical thinking.
➢ Produces deductive reasoning skills (cause and effect)
➢ Sharpens discernment of truth from error
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2. Habit: Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what
keeps you going – Jim Rohn
Happiness is a hit – Cultivate it. – Elbert Hubbard
In our desire for eternal life, we pray for an eternity of
our habit and comfort, forgetting that immortality is in
repeatedly transcending the definite forms of life in order to
pursuer the infinite truth of life. – Rabindranath Tagore
3. Study Habit: The complex of reading behaviour of a person
resulting from the varying degrees of interaction of a number of
variable factors.
Study habits are regularly regarding hours and routine
characterizes most of the general features. In preparing for
examinations, greater reliance is placed on textbooks and self-
prepared text. – Kunclu (1989)
The word ‘study habits’ is used to refer to the pupils or
children way of studying whether systematic or unsystematic,
efficient or inefficient. – Good (1945)
4. Study Skill: “A technique utilized in studying such as
outlining, under scoring, silent recitation”. – James P. Chaplin
(1970)
5. Pupil / Student: “A person studying under relatively close
supervision and tutelage of a teacher”. – Good (1959)
“Refers to those enrolled in a school, college or
university to follow a particular course of study”. – Taneja
(1991)

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6. Academic Achievement: It is the achievement related to
academic performance. Good (1973) defines Academic
Achievement as the knowledge attained or skills developed in
the school subjects, usually determined through test scores or
through marks assigned by teachers or both.
According to Chamber’s Twentieth century Dictionary
“Achievement means to perform to accomplish”. Academic
Achievement According to the Dictionary of Education,
academic achievement means the knowledge attained or skills
developed in the academic subjects usually designated by test
scores or marks assigned by the teacher or both.
Academic achievement is the indicator of a teacher’s
future success in general and in the field of education in
particular.
7. Psycho-sociological Factors: Behavioral and social
indicators of an individual.
8. Psychological Test: A general term for any effort (usually a
standardized test) that is designed to measure the abilities or
personality traits of individuals or groups. Broad term referring
to any type of standardized test, interest inventory, personality
evaluative instrument, or other device developed with the
techniques of the special tests and measurements in psychology
(John Bellingham, 2004).
9. Social Indicators: Statistical measures that aid in the
description of the conditions in the social environment (e.g.,

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measures of income distribution, poverty, health and physical
environment) (John Bellingham, 2004).
10. Socio-Economic status: The background or standing of one
or more persons in the society on the basis of both social class
and financial situation (John Bellingham, 2004).
11. Factor: A cause or determiner, which may be unique to one
variable or common to several variables, that may be used to
account for the correlations among a set of variables (Good,
1973).
➢ An element in the composition of anything, or in bringing
about a certain result.
➢ A fact which has to be taken into account or which affects
the course of events (Davidson et al., 1988).
12. Variable: Any trait that changes from one case or condition
to another: more strictly, the representation of the trait, usually
in quantitative form, such as a measurement or an enumeration
(Good, 1973).
In educational research, any entity that can vary. An
“independent” variable is one that the researcher manipulates,
eg., a type of instructional programme. A “dependent” variable
is one that changes in consequence with changes in the
independent variable (John Bellingham, 2004).
13. Personality: A psychological term that refers to the
predictable and unique indicators of the way an individual might
respond to the environment. A personal reference that usually

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connotes acceptability and liability (Madhu Raj, 1996, John
Bellingham, 2004).
14. Personality Test: A test designed to measure any of the non-
intellectual aspects of an individual’s psychological disposition.
It seeks information on a person’s motivations and attitudes as
opposed to this or her abilities (Madhu Raj, 1996, John
Bellingham, 2004).
15. Personality Trait: A general aspect of a person that may
pre-dispose how he or she react to particular situations (Madhu
Raj, 1996; Jo0hn Bellingham, 2004).
16. Questionnaire: A list of planned written questions related to
a particular topic, with space provided for indicating the
response to each question, intended for submission to a number
of persons for reply, commonly used in normative survey studies
and in the measurement of attitudes and opinions (Good, 1973).
17. Attitude Scale: Any series of attitude indices that have given
quantitative values relative to each other (Madhu Raj, 1996;
John Belligham, 2004).
18. Attitude Test: An examination to measure the mental and
emotional set or pattern of likes and dislikes held by an
individual or group, often in relation to such consideration as
controversial issues and personnel adjustments (Madhu Raj,
1996; John Bellingham, 2004).
19. Reading: Reading involves looking graphic symbols and
formulating mentally the sounds and ideas they represent.
Concepts of reading have changed subsequently over the
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centuries. Although specialists agree that reading involves a
complex organization of higher mental functions, they disagree
about the exact nature of the process.
According to Bond and Tonker (1957), reading involves
the recognition of printed symbols, which serve as stimuli for
recall of meanings, built up through the reader’s past experience.
New meanings are derived through manipulation of concepts
already in reader’s possession.
Harris (1970) assumes that reading is the meaningful
interpretation of printed or written verbal symbols.
Gray (1990) suggests that there are four main
components in the reading act: (i) Word perception (ii)
Comprehension of the ideas represented by the words, (iii)
reaction to these ideas, and (iv) Assimilation or integration of the
ideas with previous knowledge or experience.
Reading implies not merely the ability to recognize and
say about the words printed on a page, but the ability to
comprehend them and say what they mean. As the first of the
three 'R's, reading has been the key subject in the curriculum for
young children for centuries, and continues to be an area of
considerable research activity and controversy. (Derek
Rowntree, 1981)
Perception of written symbols as meaningful, involving
recognition of words, fluency, comprehension, etc. (R.P.
Taneja, 1991 and A Group of Experts, 2003)

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Instructional: Designed to develop the skills necessary to
perceive and react to patterns of written symbols and to translate
them into meaning. The teaching of reading is differentiated
according to a number of levels and objectives. The continuous
development of reading skills and vocabulary applies to all
subjects-matter areas, emphasizing selected skills and
vocabulary appropriate to pupil’s needs in different learning
situations. (Madhu Raj, 1996 and Singh, D.R. 2002, John
Bellingham, 2004)
20. Reading Habit: An acquired predisposition to engage in the
act of reading, select for reading a particular type of material,
and perform the reading act in a specific or idiosyncratic way. A
pattern of reading behaviour which have become habitual and
are performed without hesitation. (Good, C.V., 1973)
21. Reading Rate: Speed of reading; usually measured in terms
of the number of words or letters recognized and comprehend
per minute or per second. (Good, C.V., 1973)
The speed with which one is able to read printed
materials. (Madhuraj, 1996)
An individual’s speed on reading with adequate
comprehension normally expressed in number of words per
minute. (John Bellingham, 2004)
22. Reading Comprehension: The ability to infer meaning from
printed words. (Madhu Raj, 1996)
The ability to infer meaning from printed words. The
extent to which an individual understands the material that has
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been read and is able to recall both such meaning and factual
details of the reading; such capabilities are evaluated on a
reading comprehension test. (John Bellingham, 2004)
Reading comprehension is understanding a text that is
read, or the process of “constructing meaning” from a text.
Comprehension is a “construction process”, because it involves
all of the elements of the reading process working together as a
text is read to create a representation of the text in the reader’s
mind. (Mayer, Richard, 2005)
23. Comprehension test: The act of understanding the meaning
of printed or spoken language as contrasted with ability to
perceive and pronounce words without reference to their
meaning. The ability to read entire paragraphs with full and exact
understanding. (Good. C.V. ,1973)
From Bloom’s taxonomy, a thinking or learning process
involving an understanding of relationships between more than
one piece of previously learned information and/or a simple
interpretation of new information. Contrast with Knowledge-
Level, Application-Level, Analysis-Level, Synthesis-Level, and
Education-Level. (Madhu Raj, 1996)
The act of understanding the meaning of written and
spoken language. (R.P. Taneja, 1991 and A Group of Experts,
2003)
Comprehension involves recognizing the linguistic code,
inferring the meanings in terms if the discourse features in a text
or material given (supplying presuppositions, wherever
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necessary to negotiate coherent meaning) and evaluating the
communication in terms of the purpose of the reading activity
and the reader’s ‘prior’ knowledge of the code and the topic of
the text. So, a test of comprehension should be a test of the
performance of the reader in these respects and questions of
comprehension for teaching reading comprehension should be
such as to develop in the language learner the abilities to
comprehend tests, not to guide him to the comprehension of a
text. (Good, 1973)
It is the understanding capacity of the pupil through silent
reading. Some passages have been selected by the investigator
from various fields of knowledge. The total number of responses
of the student for the questions given under each passage was
considered as the “score of comprehension” of the pupil.
24. Reading Comprehension Test: A test that measures the
power to grasp meanings, as contrasted with a ‘rate test’, which
measures speed of comprehension. (Good C. V., 1973)
25. Anxiety: An unpleasant feeling accompanied by a
premonition that something undesirable is about to happen.
(Good C. V., 1973)
26. Home environment: “A measure of the quality and quantity
of social, emotional and cognitive support that has been available
to the child within the home” is called as home environment.
(Good C. V., 1973)
27. Academic stress: Stress as a “particular relationship
between the person and the environment that is appraised by the
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person as taxing or exceeding his or her recourses and
endangering his or her wellbeing. (Lazarus and Folkman)
28. Regression: The tendency for observations that show a high
deviation from the mean and a low degree of variability among
themselves in regard to one trait to display wider variability and
markedly less deviation (on the average) from the mean in a
second trait.
The psychological mechanism of retreat from difficulties
of adult world of reality to an imaginary world patterned on an
earlier, more comfortable mode of life, as in childhood; normally
seen in adults as play and make believe;
A movement of the eyes, backward from right to left
along the line of type being read;
An error in silent or oral reading in which the reader
retracts or goes back over what he has seen reading – (Good,
1973).
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study has been designed with the following specific
objectives
1. To know the ability of VIII class students achievement in
English.
2. To study the influence of main effects of gender,
management, locality and their interaction effects on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.

127
 3. To establish the relationship between socio –
demographic variables and achievement in English of
VIII class students.
4. To establish the relationship between anxiety and
achievement in English of VIII class students.
5. To establish the relationship between home environment
and achievement in English of VIII class students.
6. To establish the relationship between academic stress
and achievement in English of VIII class students.
7. To establish the relationship between study habits and
achievement in English of VIII class students.
8. To establish the relationship between self – concepts and
achievement in English of VIII class students.
9. To establish the relationship between personality factors
and achievement in English of VIII class students.
10. Which of the 53 independent variables (all the variables
in the study) turnout to be significant predictors of
achievement in English of VIII class students?
11. To predict the achievement in English of VIII class
students with the help of all independent variables in the
investigation?
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
In the light of the above objectives, the following major
null hypotheses have been set up for the purpose of this
investigation.

128
1. All the VIII class students would not have the same
achievement in English.
2. Locality, management and gender would not have
significant influence of main effects and their interaction
effects on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
3. There would not be significant influence of socio –
demographic variables on the achievement in English of
VIII class students.
4. There would not be significant influence of anxiety on
the achievement in English of VIII class students.
5. There would not be significant influence of home
environment on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
6. There would not be significant influence of academic
stress on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
7. There would not be significant influence of study habits
on the achievement in English of VIII class students.
8. There would not be significant influence of self – concept
on the achievement in English of VIII class students.
9. There would not be significant influence of personality
factors on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
10. No independent variable out of 53 (all independent
variables in the study) turn out to be significant
129
 predictors of achievement in English of VIII class
students.
11. It would not be possible to predict the achievement in
English of VIII class students with the help of all
independent variables.
VARIABLES INCLUDED IN THE STUDY
The following variables were taken into consideration in this
study.
Dependent Variable
Achievement in English: The present study considers
achievement as the dependent variable that is the composite
scores arrived at combining vocabulary and comprehension
score.
Independent Variables
Psychological Variables
1. Anxiety
2. Home environment
3. Academic stress
4. Study habits
1. SH1 Home environment and planning of work
2. SH2 Reading and note-taking
3. SH3 Planning of subject
4. SH4 Habits of concentration
5. SH5 Preparation for examinations
6. SH6 General Habits and attitudes
7. SH7 School environment
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 8. SHT Study Habits Total
5. Self – concept
1. SCA Health and Sex appropriateness
2. SCB Abilities
3. SCE Self-confidence
4. SCF Self-acceptance
5. SCH Worthiness
6. SCP Present, Past and Future
7. SCS1 Beliefs and Convictions
8. SCS2 Feeling of Shame and Guilt
9. SCS3 Sociability
10. SCS4 Emotional Maturity
11. SCT Self-concept Total
6. Personality factors
1. Personality factor – A
2. Personality factor – B
3. Personality factor – C
4. Personality factor – D
5. Personality factor – E
6. Personality factor – F
7. Personality factor – G
8. Personality factor – H
9. Personality factor – I
10. Personality factor – J
11. Personality factor – O
12. Personality factor – Q2
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 13. Personality factor – Q3
14. Personality factor – Q4
2. Socio-Demographic variables
1. Locality
2. Management
3. Gender
4. Age
5. Annual income of the family
6. Father education
7. Mother education
8. Father occupation
9. Mother occupation
10. Size of the family
11. Community
12. Economic position of the family
13. Study hours at home
14. Interest of English language
15. Leisure time activities
16. Library facility
17. Encouragement of the English teacher
Total numbers of variables in the investigation are 1
dependent variable and 53 independent variables.
METHODS OF STUDY
The present study is survey type investigation. Various
procedures that are followed in the construction and
standardization of data gathering instruments and the tools
132
adopted to measure the impact of different variables that are
included in the study are discussed. The methods adopted in
selection of the sample, collection of data, scoring and analysis
are as follows.
To measure the achievement in English (vocabulary and
comprehension) of the students, the Achievement Test in
English is prepared and standardized by the investigator. Pilot
study is conducted by the investigator. The pilot study of
achievement test consists of 130 items for vocabulary test and 12
paragraphs for comprehension test in the sample of 200 VIII
class students in Y.S.R. district. The final achievement test in
English is prepared after deleting, the invalid 30 items from
vocabulary and two paragraphs from comprehension whose
validity index is less than 0.30, from the preliminary test. This
procedure of item analysis is adopted from the prescribed
standardized procedure, for construction and use of tests for
classroom examinations. For the present study, the difficulty
index and validity index of each item are computed, by following
the procedure in the textbook “Statistics in psychology and
Education” by Garrett (1973) given in the pages 365 to 368.
A questionnaire is prepared to collect the necessary
information about the VIII class students regarding their
personal characteristics, home background, school facilities and
socio – economic conditions of the family. To measure the
anxiety of the students, the Anxiety scale developed by Sinha
(2002) was adopted from Sitara, V.R (2010) and it is worth
133
using for the present investigation. To measure the home
environment of the students, the Home environment Inventory
developed by Elizabeth Eva (1991) was adopted from Venkata
Ramana, M (2013) and it is worth using for the present
investigation. To measure the Academic stress of the students,
the Academic stress scale developed by Sreenivas and Kumar
(1999) was adopted from Sitara, V.R (2010) and it is worth
using for the present investigation. To measure the study habits
of the students, the Study Habits Inventory developed by Patel,
B. V (1975) was adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M (2012)
and it is worth using for the present investigation. To measure
the self – concepts of the high school teachers, self – concept
scale developed by Mukta Rani Rastogi (1974) was adopted
from Arunachalam Reddy, M (2012) and it is more suitable for
the purpose of present study. To measure the personality traits of
VIII class students, High school personality questionnaire Form
– A, developed by Cattell (1950) is adopted from Arunachalam
Reddy, M (2012) and it is more suitable for the purpose of
present study. A sample of 1200 VIII class students representing
all categories of high schools is selected by following the
standardized procedures. The necessary data is collected in a
planned way and are analyzed using appropriate statistical
techniques and the results are interpreted accordingly.
DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The following are the delimitations of the present study.

134
1. The study is confined to only Y.S.R. district of Andhra
Pradesh
2. The study is confined to 1200 sample only.
3. The study is confined to two managements (i.e.) Government
and Private schools of Y.S.R. district only.
4. The study is confined only to the VIII class students of the
above mentioned schools of Y.S.R. District.
5. The present study concerns itself for the subject of English
of VIII class students only.
6. The effect of only a few independent variables on the
achievement in English of VIII class students has been
studied.
7. The achievement scores are taken only from the achievement
test constructed and standardized by the investigator.
8. The study is based on survey research, where in the
techniques of analyzing the data, are based on the
questionnaires only.
9. The achievement of VIII class students depends on a number
of psychological, sociological, demographic and
environmental factors. It is not possible to include each and
every factor in this investigation.
10. It is only a presage – product study in the area of achievement
in English.

135
 CHAPTER -IV
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

This chapter deals with various procedures followed in

the construction and standardization of data gathering
instruments to measure the different variables, included in the
present investigation. A brief description of methods adopted in
the selection of the sample, collection of data, scoring, analysis
and statistical techniques employed, are presented here under.
The tools used in the present study are shown here under:
1. Achievement Test in English: To measure the achievement
(vocabulary and comprehension) of the students, the
Achievement Test in English is prepared and standardized by
the investigator as mentioned above.
2. Anxiety Scale: To measure the anxiety of the students, the
anxiety scale developed by Sinha (2002) was adopted from
Sitara, V.R (2010) and it is worth using for the present
investigation.
3. Home environment inventory: To measure the home
environment of the students, home environment inventory
developed by Elizabeth Eva (1991) was adopted from
Venkata Ramana, M (2013) and it is more suitable for the
purpose of present study.
4. Academic stress scale: To measure the Academic stress of
the students, the Academic stress scale developed by

136
 Sreenivas and Kumar (1999) was adopted from Sitara, V.R
(2010) and it is worth using for the present investigation.
5. Study Habits Inventory : To measure the study habits of
the students, the Study Habits Inventory developed by Patel,
B. V (1975) was adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M
(2012) and it is worth using for the present investigation.
6. Self – Concept Scale: To measure the self – concept of the
students, self – concept scale developed by Mukta Rani
Rastogi (1974) was adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M
(2012) and it is more suitable for the purpose of present
study.
7. High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) Form –
A: To measure the personality traits of the students, High
school personality questionnaire Form – A, developed by
Cattell (1950) is adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M
(2012) for the study.
8. Socio – Demographic Scale: To know the socio –
demographic characteristics of the students, Socio –
Demographic Scale developed by the investigator to measure
the socio – demographic variables.
The flow chart showing the procedure followed in the
present investigation is given in Figure – 1.
ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH TEST
It is found that there are no standardized objective tests
in English language to measure achievement in English of VIII
class students. For this purpose, one test was developed on the
137
lines of the well-known Nelson reading test in English. A brief
review of test construction and various steps followed in
developing the test was envisaged by Nelson are described in the
following paragraphs.
There are a lot of progresses in test construction and
improvement since World War II. For example, the pilot study
undertaken by Taxler (1953) established the validity of
vocabulary test used by senior high school and college students,
and secured high reliability level 0.90, to permit its use for
individual as well as group purpose the development of
cooperative test of reading comprehension. The Davis reading
test has also remarkably expanded the scope of measurable
aspects of reading comprehension at college and high school
levels. Similarly, the development of such test as the reading
comprehension of the IOWA tests of the basic skills has exposed
the children to the comprehension tasks of realistic reading.
An achievement in English test is essentially a tool or
device of measurement that helps in ascertaining quantity and
quality of learning as a subject of study or group of subjects after
a period of instruction by measuring the present ability of the
individual concerned.
Various writers highlighted the paucity of reading tests.
In the first Mental Measurement Yearbook of India, Long and
Mehte covered 326 tests, in all of which only two tests were in
the area of reading, one by Budrul Islam-Burts Test of English
(reading) and the other by Dave, a test of Reading and
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Comprehension in Gujarathi. Dave in the third Indian Yearbook
of Education reviewed 407 studies under research in educational
evaluation from 1941 to 1966. Their studies covered individual
research papers published in journals, M.Ed. dissertations and
Ph.D. studies. By these, only five are in the area of reading and
its measurement. Passi and Padma (1979) in their trend report
on educational evaluation and examination pointed out that
achievement test construction and languages at national and
regional level needs more extensive and concentrated efforts.
Chall and Stani (1982), Pearson (1986) pointed out that the
decade of 1970’s can be characterized as the decade in which the
reading research field mood from comparisons of competing
methods of teaching reading to attempts to understand and
reading process itself.
Reading involves the recognition of printed symbols,
which serves as stimuli for recall of meanings, built up through
the reader’s past experience. New meanings are derived through
manipulation of concepts already with in reader’s possession
(Bond and Tonker, 1957). Reading is the meaningful
interpretation of printed or written verbal symbols (Harris,
1970). Gray suggested that there are four main components in
the reading act: (1) Word perception (2) Comprehension of the
ideas presented by the words. (3) Reaction to these ideas, and (4)
Assimilation or integration of the idea with previous knowledge
or experience.

139
 An achievement is “successful accomplishment or
performance in particular subjects, areas or courses, usually by
reasons of skill, handwork and interest. Typically summarized in
various types of grades, marks, scores or descriptive
commentary”. (John Bellingham, 2004)
An achievement test is “an examination that measures the
extent to which a person has acquired certain information or
mastered certain skills, usually as a result of specific
instruction”.
Achievement in English is “attainment in any of a
number of reading skills, habits and attitudes, usually estimated
by performance on some criterion measure such as formal or
informal reading tests or by reading grade levels”. (Good, C.V.,
1973)
Many of the standardized tests give information relating
to the child’s silent reading abilities-regarding child’s ability to
recognize and recall words to respond to questions that are asked
by the examiner, to summarize what has been read and
application of reading skills in various situations. Reading tests
also measure paragraph comprehension, word meaning, word
discrimination, word recognition, word analysis skills, ability to
draw inferences from what has been read, retention of details,
ability to locate specific information, rate of reading, speed of
comprehension, visual perception of words and letters, ability to
determine intent of the writer, ability to grasp the general idea,
ability to deduce the meaning of words from context and ability
140
to perceive relationships in written or printed material. The
standardized tests are the levels of performance at particular
place and time under certain conditions. Their scores represent a
relationship between the test and performance in a real life.
(Roger Farr, 1970)
Planning for Achievement in English Test
After carefully examining the literature in the area, it was
decided to construct the present achievement in English test in
English.
Students who have made normal progress in reading
would have mastered the basic word analysis and word
acquisition skills by the time they reach secondary school.
Following is a list of basic word skills over which the
student should have adequate control by tenth grade.
A meaning vocabulary large for him to understand ninety
five percent of the non-technical words in his textbooks.
1. A sight vocabulary (instant recognition) that permits him
to read recreational materials appropriate for his age and
interest in fluent manner and that enables him to readily
recognize eighty-five to ninety percent non-technical
vocabulary of his text books.
2. The sight perceptual skill to recognize familiar words
with high accuracy at one-fourth of a second.
3. The ability to use sentence context to anticipate the
meanings of the familiar words as well as to help analyze
the meanings of unfamiliar words.
141
 4. Skills of individual word analysis and synthesis that in
combination allow the student to unlock the
pronunciation and meaning of unfamiliar words.
With this idea vocabulary was included as part one of the
test to examine the familiarity of the student with the meanings
of the words. It was divided into parts for the convenience of the
investigator to test the student’s abilities in various ways such as
a) meaning identification from a given context, b) identifying a
word suitable for a phrase in the context, c) completion of a
sentence with the suitable word from the choice of the words
given, d) identifying the suitable word for a given definition, e)
recognizing the antonyms/opposite words, f) identifying the
opposite words by adding suitable prefixes, g) identifying
relative categorical word, h) recalling the word associations and
i) matching the related words.
Other skills like ability to draw inferences from what is
read, ability to understand the central idea of the passage, ability
to locate specific information, ability to understand the concepts
and generalizations were measured in part two of the
achievement in English test through paragraph comprehension.
Accordingly, some passages were selected, keeping in
view the standard of the students to be tested and included in the
test.
The achievement in English test is divided into two parts,
vocabulary test consisting of 130 multiple choice questions
under various headings mentioned above, and comprehension
142
test consisting of 12 passages with 60 questions with multiple
choice answers.
The syllabus described for tenth class was thoroughly
examined with the aims and objectives of teaching English
subject (Mother tongue) in the high schools of Andhra Pradesh.
English textbook prescribed by the Government of Andhra
Pradesh, which are being used in the VIII class for detailed study
was carefully examined with regard to the vocabulary. One
hundred and thirty vocabulary items were collected out of which
one hundred items were selected which have high frequency in
the usage and also the words that refer to the daily usage. Various
parts of speech namely nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs and
adjectives were given due weightage in the selection.
Twelve passages were collected from different areas like
small stories, description or narration of some events, scientific
information, some cultural events, conversational type, etc., for
incorporating them in the comprehension part of the test. The
paragraphs collected were given to some experienced teachers in
English language teaching for their comments and suggestions.
Out of twelve passages ten passages were selected basing on the
opinions of the experts. The criteria used for selecting the
comprehensive paragraphs were
1. The paragraphs should be novel and interesting
2. The content should be neither too easy nor too difficult
3. The vocabulary and the style of the language should be
simple and easy to understand
143
 4. The information in the paragraphs should be previously
unknown by the students
5. The comprehension test should be as per as possible brief
and effective
Multiple choice type questions were given in this
comprehension test. All the passages were followed by glossary
and then five questions to be answered by the students after
reading the passages. Four distracters were given under each
vocabulary item except for matching type and three were given
under each comprehension question. All the items were
evaluated by a panel of judges consisting of experienced
teachers, educationalists and experts in the field of test
construction. They were requested to give comments and
suggestions for the refinement of the items in view of their
suitability to the standards of the students with regard to the
language used, vocabulary, sentence structure and the
appropriateness of the distracters given under each item. The
suggestions given by them were carefully followed while
finalizing the test for the pilot study. Some of the items were
modified and some of the items were revised.
Pilot Study
The preliminary forms of achievement in English test
were administered on a sample of 200 VIII class students.
Sample design for the study is shown in Table – 1.
The investigator obtained prior permission from the
Headmasters of the respective schools. The purpose and the date
144
of visit were informed to the students through the Headmasters.
As per the schedule the investigator visited the schools selected
for the pilot study. The booklets of reading tests were
conveniently duplicated and were thoroughly tested before use
for their clarities, expressions, spelling, punctuation and other
language aspects while administrating the test. The students
were motivated to respond to the test carefully. Clear instructions
were given before the test was administered and they were given
sufficient time to answer all the items.
Table 1: Sample Design for the Pilot Study
Management Government Private
Gender  Total
Boys Girls Boys Girls
Locality 
Rural 25 25 25 25 100
Urban 25 25 25 25 100
Total 100 100 200

Scoring
All the answer scripts were valued based on the scoring
key prepared for the test. One mark is awarded for every correct
answer. The correct answer for vocabulary test and
comprehension test are separately counted and the total marks of
each student was indicated on the top of the answer sheet.
Item Analysis
Obtaining the validity about the items selected for the test
is the major objective of the item analysis. It provides an
opportunity to check-up the discrimination of each item between
145
the high group and the low group of students. It also enables the
investigator to study the reactions of respondents towards the test
items. The difficulty level and the discriminating power of each
item can be estimated by this procedure. Finally, the researcher
can select suitable items for the test.
The procedure of item analysis is adopted from the
prescribed standardized procedure for construction and use of
tests for classroom examinations. The difficulty index and
validity indexes of the items were computed by following the
procedure given in “Statistics in Psychology and Education” by
Garrett (1973) in the pages 363-368.
Basing on the total marks, the answer scripts were
arranged in ascending order of the total marks obtained by the
students. The lower 27 percent of the papers were placed in the
Low Group and the upper 27 percent were placed in the High
Group. The rest were excluded from the analysis. There were 54
papers each in both the High Group and the Low Group.
Papers of the High Group and the Low Groups were then
computed separately to find out how often the correct answer for
each question had been chosen by the students for vocabulary
test and comprehension test. The numbers thus obtained were
recorded.
Table – 2 shows the Difficulty Index (Difficulty Value)
and Validity Index (Discriminating Power) of each item of
vocabulary test (VT).

146
 Table – 3 shows the Difficulty Index (Difficulty Value)
and Validity Index (Discriminating Power) of each item of
comprehension test (CT).
If the Validity Index approaches to 1.00, the question
(item) tends to discriminate perfectly between high and low
achievers. As the Validity Index approaches zero the question
(item) does not differentiate high and low achievers.
As a general rule, items with Validity Index of 0.20 or
more are regarded as satisfactory; items with lower index will
often serve if the test is lengthy. Items having zero or negative
validity must be discarded, or they must be carefully examined
for ambiguities, inaccuracies and other corrections.
After ascertaining the Validity Index and Difficulty
Index of all question items in the preliminary tests, the final tests
were constructed by deleting 30 items from VT, since their
Validity Index was less than 0.30. In the same way 10 items from
CT were deleted whose Validity Index were less than 0.30. The
other items were retained for the final study.
The questions deleted from the preliminary VT are also
shown in the Table 2.
Table 2: Difficulty index and validity index of the items of
pilot form of vocabulary test
Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
1. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
2. 51 17 94 31 0.63 0.67 Retained

147
 Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
3. 45 10 83 19 0.51 0.63 Retained
4. 17 11 31 20 0.26 0.15 Deleted
5. 26 3 49 06 0.28 0.55 Retained
6. 23 4 43 08 0.26 0.46 Retained
7. 32 10 59 19 0.39 0.43 Retained
8. 26 6 48 12 0.30 0.43 Retained
9. 22 3 41 05 0.23 0.59 Retained
10. 24 27 45 50 0.48 -VE Deleted
11. 30 11 56 21 0.39 0.37 Retained
12. 36 12 67 22 0.45 0.46 Retained
13. 41 22 75 40 0.58 0.36 Retained
14. 45 39 83 72 0.78 0.15 Deleted
15. 29 14 54 25 0.40 0.31 Retained
16. 33 30 62 56 0.59 0.06 Deleted
17. 25 9 47 17 0.32 0.36 Retained
18. 28 12 51 22 0.37 0.32 Retained
19. 34 17 63 31 0.47 0.33 Retained
20. 42 23 78 42 0.60 0.38 Retained
21. 36 10 66 18 0.42 0.49 Retained
22. 29 26 53 48 0.51 0.05 Deleted
23. 46 23 85 43 0.64 0.45 Retained
24. 38 17 70 31 0.51 0.39 Retained
25. 32 6 59 12 0.36 0.52 Retained
26. 36 16 66 30 0.48 0.37 Retained
27. 49 16 91 29 0.60 0.64 Retained
28. 34 8 63 15 0.39 0.51 Retained
29. 24 22 44 40 0.42 0.04 Deleted
30. 33 17 62 32 0.47 0.31 Retained
31. 39 33 73 62 0.68 0.13 Deleted

148
 Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
32. 26 5 49 09 0.29 0.49 Retained
33. 23 6 42 12 0.27 0.38 Retained
34. 31 14 57 26 0.42 0.32 Retained
35. 33 11 62 20 0.41 0.44 Retained
36. 29 26 54 49 0.52 0.05 Deleted
37. 37 15 68 28 0.48 0.41 Retained
38. 48 17 88 32 0.60 0.59 Retained
39. 26 10 48 19 0.34 0.33 Retained
40. 19 16 35 30 0.33 0.05 Deleted
41. 44 16 81 29 0.55 0.53 Retained
42. 39 18 73 33 0.53 0.41 Retained
43. 28 11 52 21 0.37 0.35 Retained
44. 33 12 62 23 0.43 0.43 Retained
45. 26 6 48 11 0.30 0.45 Retained
46. 39 12 73 22 0.48 0.51 Retained
47. 8 13 14 24 0.19 -VE Deleted
48. 39 10 72 19 0.46 0.52 Retained
49. 29 8 53 14 0.34 0.43 Retained
50. 34 9 63 17 0.4 0.50 Retained
51. 18 14 33 26 0.30 0.06 Deleted
52. 30 14 56 25 0.41 0.33 Retained
53. 18 17 33 31 0.32 0.01 Deleted
54. 41 17 76 31 0.54 0.44 Retained
55. 15 1 28 2 0.15 0.53 Retained
56. 41 18 76 33 0.55 0.44 Retained
57. 7 14 12 26 0.19 -VE Deleted
58. 15 3 28 6 0.17 0.38 Retained
59. 24 3 44 6 0.25 0.51 Retained
60. 24 6 44 12 0.28 0.39 Retained

149
 Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
61. 21 5 39 10 0.25 0.39 Retained
62. 19 3 35 6 0.21 0.45 Retained
63. 12 1 22 2 0.12 0.48 Retained
64. 9 6 15 11 0.13 0.07 Deleted
65. 25 8 46 14 0.30 0.38 Retained
66. 29 9 54 17 0.36 0.42 Retained
67. 11 1 20 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
68. 35 3 64 6 0.35 0.65 Retained
69. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
70. 51 17 94 31 0.63 0.67 Retained
71. 8 13 14 24 0.19 -VE Deleted
72. 35 11 65 20 0.43 0.45 Retained
73. 45 10 83 19 0.51 0.63 Retained
74. 17 11 31 20 0.26 0.15 Deleted
75. 49 18 91 33 0.62 0.64 Retained
76. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
77. 51 17 94 31 0.63 0.67 Retained
78. 20 15 37 28 0.33 0.09 Deleted
79. 31 14 57 26 0.42 0.31 Retained
80. 38 13 70 24 0.47 0.46 Retained
81. 15 3 28 6 0.17 0.38 Retained
82. 24 3 44 6 0.25 0.51 Retained
83. 8 13 14 24 0.19 -VE Deleted
84. 24 6 44 12 0.28 0.39 Retained
85. 21 5 39 10 0.25 0.39 Retained
86. 19 3 35 6 0.21 0.45 Retained
87. 28 9 52 16 0.34 0.40 Retained
88. 10 9 19 17 0.18 0.06 Deleted
89. 40 13 74 24 0.49 0.50 Retained

150
 Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
90. 42 19 78 35 0.57 0.43 Retained
91. 44 16 81 30 0.56 0.51 Retained
92. 44 16 81 30 0.56 0.51 Retained
93. 13 12 24 22 0.23 0.03 Deleted
94. 15 3 28 6 0.17 0.38 Retained
95. 24 3 44 6 0.25 0.51 Retained
96. 24 6 44 12 0.28 0.39 Retained
97. 21 5 39 10 0.25 0.39 Retained
98. 15 13 28 24 0.26 0.05 Deleted
99. 28 9 52 16 0.34 0.40 Retained
100. 24 2 44 3 0.24 0.58 Retained
101. 39 10 72 19 0.46 0.52 Retained
102. 35 14 65 26 0.46 0.39 Retained
103. 15 13 28 24 0.26 0.05 Deleted
104. 48 23 89 43 0.66 0.42 Retained
105. 22 5 41 10 0.26 0.39 Retained
106. 39 18 72 34 0.53 0.39 Retained
107. 34 14 63 26 0.45 0.39 Retained
108. 18 3 33 6 0.2 0.42 Retained
109. 8 13 14 24 0.19 -VE Deleted
110. 14 8 26 15 0.21 0.14 Deleted
111. 28 5 52 10 0.31 0.49 Retained
112. 19 3 35 6 0.21 0.45 Retained
113. 22 5 41 10 0.26 0.39 Retained
114. 20 5 37 10 0.24 0.37 Retained
115. 21 3 39 6 0.23 0.48 Retained
116. 29 10 54 18 0.36 0.39 Retained
117. 10 10 18 19 0.19 -VE Deleted
118. 10 16 18 30 0.24 -VE Deleted

151
 Percentage
Correct
of correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
119. 35 3 64 6 0.35 0.65 Retained
120. 26 1 48 2 0.25 0.67 Retained
121. 18 17 33 31 0.32 0.01 Deleted
122. 15 12 28 22 0.25 0.08 Deleted
123. 17 10 31 19 0.25 0.15 Deleted
124. 12 1 22 2 0.12 0.48 Retained
125. 7 16 12 30 0.21 -VE Deleted
126. 17 2 31 4 0.18 0.49 Retained
127. 42 22 78 41 0.60 0.40 Retained
128. 40 17 74 31 0.53 0.42 Retained
129. 18 3 33 6 0.20 0.42 Retained
130. 35 11 65 20 0.43 0.45 Retained

Table 3: Difficulty index and validity index of the items of

pilot form of comprehension test
Percentage of
Correct
correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
1. 43 18 80 33 0.57 0.49 Retained
2. 35 11 65 20 0.43 0.45 Retained
3. 41 20 76 37 0.57 0.41 Retained
4. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
5. 51 17 94 31 0.63 0.67 Retained
6. 45 10 83 19 0.51 0.63 Retained
7. 24 6 44 11 0.28 0.39 Retained
8. 35 14 65 25 0.45 0.41 Retained
9. 11 1 21 2 0.12 0.45 Retained
10. 15 1 28 2 0.15 0.53 Retained
11. 41 12 76 22 0.49 0.54 Retained
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 Percentage of
Correct
correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
12. 42 20 78 37 0.58 0.43 Retained
13. 40 13 74 24 0.49 0.50 Retained
14. 42 19 78 35 0.57 0.43 Retained
15. 44 16 81 30 0.56 0.51 Retained
16. 9 1 15 2 0.09 0.40 Retained
17. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
18. 45 22 83 41 0.62 0.47 Retained
19. 43 14 79 26 0.53 0.54 Retained
20. 42 11 78 20 0.49 0.58 Retained
21. 20 15 37 28 0.33 0.09 Deleted
22. 7 11 12 20 0.16 -VE Deleted
23. 20 18 37 33 0.35 0.04 Deleted
24. 13 10 24 19 0.22 0.05 Deleted
25. 19 18 35 33 0.34 0.04 Deleted
26. 37 12 69 22 0.46 0.47 Retained
27. 42 18 78 33 0.56 0.47 Retained
28. 33 13 61 24 0.43 0.37 Retained
29. 17 2 31 4 0.18 0.49 Retained
30. 45 14 83 26 0.55 0.58 Retained
31. 23 5 43 10 0.27 0.43 Retained
32. 34 8 63 15 0.39 0.50 Retained
33. 26 8 48 14 0.31 0.40 Retained
34. 30 10 56 18 0.37 0.41 Retained
35. 10 1 17 2 0.1 0.40 Retained
36. 13 12 24 22 0.23 0.03 Deleted
37. 16 13 30 24 0.27 0.07 Deleted
38. 18 13 33 24 0.29 0.09 Deleted
39. 18 15 33 28 0.31 0.04 Deleted
40. 11 11 20 20 0.2 0.01 Deleted

153
 Percentage of
Correct
correct Difficulty Validity
S.No. responses Remarks
responses Index Index
High Low High Low
41. 40 17 74 31 0.53 0.42 Retained
42. 10 1 17 2 0.10 0.40 Retained
43. 10 1 19 2 0.11 0.45 Retained
44. 20 4 37 8 0.23 0.40 Retained
45. 18 3 33 5 0.19 0.49 Retained
46. 24 4 44 7 0.26 0.47 Retained
47. 23 5 43 9 0.26 0.47 Retained
48. 18 3 33 6 0.20 0.42 Retained
49. 23 6 43 12 0.28 0.39 Retained
50. 14 1 26 2 0.14 0.51 Retained
51. 21 5 39 10 0.25 0.39 Retained
52. 44 18 82 33 0.58 0.51 Retained
53. 22 2 41 3 0.22 0.55 Retained
54. 18 2 33 3 0.18 0.49 Retained
55. 35 12 65 22 0.44 0.43 Retained
56. 15 1 28 2 0.15 0.53 Retained
57. 41 18 76 33 0.55 0.44 Retained
58. 33 13 62 24 0.43 0.39 Retained
59. 31 14 57 26 0.42 0.31 Retained
60. 38 13 70 24 0.47 0.46 Retained

Validity:
An achievement test is a measuring instrument. It really
measures the ability level or achievement level of the students.
Its validity and reliability judge the efficiency of a test. The
validity of a test is concerned with the question of what is
measured. “The validity of a test may be defined as the accuracy
with which it measures that it is intended to measure or as the
154
degree to which it approaches infallibility in measuring what it
purports to measure”. (Lindquist, 1942)
There are various methods of estimating validity of a
measuring instrument. For the purpose of the present
investigation, the following types of validity were established for
VT, CT and Achievement in English Test.
Validity is ‘the extent to which a test or other measuring
instrument fulfils the purpose for which it is used; usually
investigated by an analysis of test content or by a study of
relationships between test scores and other variables’ (Good,
C.V., 1973)
“The extent to which a test really touches upon the
student qualities it is meant to assess” (Derek Rowntree, 1981)
Validity ‘refers to the extent to which a given test is an
appropriate measure of what it was intended to measure’.
(Taneja, R.P. 1991)
1. Content Validity: “Content Validity is estimated by
evaluating the relevance of the test items, individually and as a
whole. Each item should be a sampling of the knowledge or
performance, which the test purports to measure. Taken
collectively, the items should constitute a representative sample
of the variable to be tested. At the same time, it is essential that
the content not be compounded by introducing irrelevant
problems and materials” (Freeman, 1965).
“Validity is demonstrated by showing how well the
content of the test samples the class situations or subject matter
155
about which conclusions are to be drawn; the test user wishes to
determine how an individual performs at present in a universe of
situations that the test situation is claimed to represent”. (Good
C.V., 1973)
Validity of content should not depend upon the
subjective judgement of only one specialist. In the construction
of the inventory, related literature, empirical findings, views of
several specialists and actual subject matter were considered for
the selection of the items.
Thus content validation rested first upon the expert
analysis of the materials to be sampled and second upon the use
of available statistical procedures to refine the original selection
of items. Thus, it can be reasonably assumed that the VT and CT
have content validity.
2. Item Validity: There are many indices and procedures for
determining item validity. One of which stresses the number of
discriminations of the desired sort that the item is capable of
making. It emphasizes the content to which the item predicts
segregation of examinees into those with high criterion versus
low criterion scores. The discriminative power (Validity Index)
of each item was established before including them in the final
forms. The Validity Index calculated for each of the items is a
measure of the extent to which a given statement differentiates
the high and low groups. Thus the items in the inventories with
Validity Index equal to or greater than 0.30 for VT and 0.30 for

156
CT ensure item validities of VT, CT and Achievement in English
in combination of VT and CT.
3. Intrinsic Validity: Guilford (1954) defined intrinsic validity
as “the degree to which a test measures what it measures”. It is
“testing a type of evidence of validity, based upon the fact that
the items in a test are selected so as to simulate the criterion items
that the test is used to predict” (Good, C.V., 1973). This can also
be stated in terms of how well the obtained scores measure the
test’s true score component. This validity is given by the square
root of its reliability. Hence, the intrinsic validity of the VT was
√0.925 = 0.856 and CT was √0.887 = 0.786 as per test-retest
method.
4. Face Validity: “A term which indicates a validity referring
not to what a test actually measure but to what it appears, on the
basis of a subjective evaluation, to measure, of all the concepts
of validity, the least justifiable, valuable in the original writing
of test items” (Good, C.V., 1973).
It is a “measure of the degree to which a test appears to
be valid, while this is the most superficial kind of validity, it may
contribute significantly to the legitimacy of the test in the eyes
of the candidates” (Madhu Raj, 1996)
If a common thread of achievement runs through all the
items of the test, the resultant test has “face validity”. All the
items in the vocabulary and the comprehension tests are having
a common thread of measuring the (reading) achievement. So
there is face validity in the VT and CT.
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5. Construct Validity: Construct Validity of test measures
particular characteristics of an individual. If a test can indicate
the individual’s actual achievement of instructional objectives, it
is valid from the construct point of view.
Construct validity is “validity evaluated by investigating
what qualities a test measures, that is, by determining the degree
to which certain explanatory concepts or constructs account for
performance on a test” (Good C.V., 1973). Hence there is
construct validity for the VT and the CT.
6. Concurrent Validity: In a situation of some observable
criterion, the scale’s validity can be investigated by seeing how
good an indicator it is. This approach leads to two categories of
validity, i.e. ‘predictive validity’ and ‘concurrent validity’.
Concurrent validity is a ‘validity based upon correlation
with a criterion variable, that is, by determining the degree to
which certain explaining concepts or constructs account for
performance on the test’. (Good C.V., 1973)
7. Predictive Validity: Predictive validity is concerned with
how the scale forecast a future criterion and concurrent validity
with how well it can describe a present one. Good defined it as
‘validity based upon correlation with a criterion variable that is
not available until sometime after testing (as, for example,
school grades)’. Predictive validity can be ‘obtained by giving a
test to a group of subjects and then comparing the test results
with the job performance of those tested. Predictive validity is
the type of validity most strongly advocated by the EEOC,
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because predictive valid tests are excellent indicators of future
performance’ (Madhu Raj, 1996).
The results in the succeeding chapter show that the VT
and CT have both concurrent validity and predictive validity.
8. Criterion Validity: Validity demonstrated by comparing the
test scores with one or more external variables considered to
provide a direct measure of the characteristic or behaviour in
question; may take the form of an expectancy table or, most
commonly, a correlation relating to the test score to a criterion
measure; the test user wishes to forecast an individual’s present
standing on some variable of particular significance that is
different from the test.
It is ‘an examination for which an individual’s score
indicates the relationship of the individual’s performance to a
specified criterion’. (Madhu Raj, 1996)
FINAL STUDY
For VT, 100 items with validity indices of 0.30 or more
were selected and for CT, ten passages with 50 questions having
validity indices of 0.30 or more were selected.
Necessary instructions were given at the beginning of the
VT and CT. Each item of the VT was followed by four
alternatives and each question of the CT was followed by three
alternatives. The student was asked to choose the proper answer
and indicate its letter in the answer sheet. Printed answer sheets
were provided to the students. Achievement in English
comprises both VT and CT. The scores obtained on both VT and
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CT were put together to obtain total score for the Achievement
in English.
Time
Time is an important factor for reading tests. To fix the
time limit, the VT and CT were administered to a representative
sample of 1200 students and the time taken by 75 percent of the
individuals was fixed as the maximum time limit for the test. The
time for VT and CT was fixed separately. The time allowed was
70 minutes for VT and 80 minutes for CT.
Reliability
Next to validity, reliability is the most indispensable
characteristic of any measuring instrument. It refers to the
consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals at
different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items.
“Traditionally, the textbooks have told us that there are
three fundamental types of approach to the estimation of
reliability. All of these were designed to answer the question,
what is the self-correction of this test. There have been three
standard procedures, known as the ‘split-half’, ‘alternative
forms’, and ‘test-retest methods.’ (Guilford, 1954)
A tool is said to be reliable if it reveals similar results in
various situations. The test-retest and parallel form methods of
estimating reliability may be common and legitimate for both
power and speed tests. In the power test, each student has enough
time to respond to correct answer. Speed test usually yields
spuriously high reliability co-efficient when split-half and
160
internal consistency methods are employed. (Stanley et al.,
1978)
1. Split-half Reliability: “By means of this technique, which is
used to find internal consistency the items in a whole test were
divided into two halves which should be equivalent or very
nearly so. Thus, the two scores, one for each half, are obtained
for each individual by administering the test only once and each
score is treated as though it is represented a separate form”
(Freeman, 1965)
The score on even and odd items of the VT and CT were
obtained on a sample of 200 students. The correlation co-
efficient was computed using Pearson’s formula for product
moment correlation. This gave the reliability of half test. By
using the Spearman Brown prophecy formula for the full test, the
reliability for the vocabulary test, thus obtained was 0.925 and
for the CT was 0.887. These were significant at 0.01 level of
significance. Hence the tests were highly reliable.
2. Test-Retest reliability: In order to determine the test-retest
reliability, the test was administered on a sample of 200 students
for the second time with a gap of fifteen days. The test-retest
reliability was found out by product moment correlation co-
efficient between the test and the retest scores. The obtained
correlation co-efficient between test-retest scores for VT was
0.916 and for the CT was 0.924, which are significant at 0.01
level of significance. This revealed that the tests were highly
reliable.
161
3. K-R Formula-20: By using K-R Formula-20, the reliability
co-efficient for VT was found to be 0.926 and for CT it was
found to be 0.941, which are significant at 0.01 level of
significance. These revealed that the tests were highly reliable.
Table 4: The reliability co-efficient of the VT
S No Type of Reliability Magnitude of Reliability
1 Split-half Technique 0.925
2 Test-Retest Formula 0.916
3 K-R Formula-20 0.926

Table 5: The reliability co-efficient of the CT

S No Type of Reliability Magnitude of Reliability
1 Split-half Technique 0.887
2 Test-Retest Formula 0.924
3 K-R Formula-20 0.941

The magnitude of co-efficient of correlation in all the

above three methods is more than 0.887. Hence the reliabilities
of the VT and CT are very high.
ANXIETY SCALE
Anxiety of the subjects was assessed by using anxiety
scale developed by Sinha (2002) was adopted from Sitara, V.R
(2010). It consists of 90 statements. Each statement has two
alternative responses i.e. ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. One mark was given to
‘Yes’ response and zero mark to ‘No’ response. The maximum
possible score is 90. high score indicates high anxiety and low
score indicates low anxiety.
Reliability and Validity
For calculating reliability and validity, the procedure
suggested by Garrett (1973) was followed.
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 Test-retest reliability on a sample of 200 with a gap of 20
days was 0.955. The concurrent validity was 0.912. It reveals
that the anxiety scale is highly valid and reliable.
HOME ENVIRONMENT
Home and/or family influences the life of every student
to the greater extent. The students who lack home affection in
their life, usually, will never learn to show affection towards
others and will never get along with others. This leads to many
problems in their life. Broken family unsympathetic parental
behavior and poor financial position of the family may lead to
home adjustment problems.
It has been observed from many studies on the students
and their behaviors found that the students from the broken
families have more social and emotional problems than the
others.
Home Environment Inventory
The Home Environment Inventory was constructed and
modified by the investigator for the present study. Home
Environment situations of the students may show some influence
on the adjustment problems. Therefore, the investigator searched
items to measure the status of Home Environment. Some Parents
encourage their children at home in learning words. They speak
to them and also encourage them to participate in activities that
would increase their contract with language and their school
subjects. The Home Environment Inventory was an adopted
version, which was developed and standardized by Elizabeth
163
Eva (1991) adopted from Venkata Ramana, M (2013).
Answers to these statements were classified for analysis as
indicating Always, Frequently, Often, Seldom, and Never. The
Inventory contained 15 items; therefore, the score ranges
between 15 and 75 on an inventory.
Reliability and Validity
For calculating reliability and validity, the procedure
suggested by Garrett (1973) was followed.
Test-retest reliability on a sample of 200 with a gap of 20
days was 0.947. The concurrent validity was 0.896. It reveals
that the home environment inventory is highly valid and reliable.
ACADEMIC STRESS
Stress is the ratio of resulting internal forces to the area
over which the external forces acted. The term strain was applied
to disruptions or distortion of the material being acted on, such
as building beam or a floor.
Academic stress of the subjects was assessed by using
academic stress scale developed by Srinivas and Kumar (1999)
was adopted from Sitara, V.R (2010), which consists of 40
items divided in to five components.
1. Personal inadequacy
2. Fear of failure
3. Interpersonal difficulties with teachers
4. Teacher student relationship/teaching methods
5. Inadequate study facilities

164
 Among 40 statements, eight are related to each
component. Each statement has five options varying from the
response of ‘No Stress’ to ‘Extreme Stress’ with regard to the
degree of stress. A response of No Stress is given a score of 0, a
score of 1 is given to a response of ‘Slight Stress’, a score of 2 is
given to a response of Moderate Stress, a score of 3 is given to a
response of High Stress and a score of 4 is given to a response of
Extreme Stress. Therefore 160 is the maximum possible score
and the minimum score 40. Each factor has equal number of
items. The higher value of the score the more the academic
stress.
Reliability and Validity
For calculating reliability and validity, the procedure
suggested by Garrett (1973) was followed.
Test-retest reliability on a sample of 200 with a gap of 20
days was 0.936. The concurrent validity was 0.876. It reveals
that the Academic stress scale is highly valid and reliable.
STUDY HABITS INVENTORY (SHI)
The complex of reading behaviour of a person, resulting
from varying degrees of interaction, of a number of variable
factors, may be defined as a study habit.
The ability to schedule his aims, the habit of notetaking,
reviewing, judicious application of whole and part methods etc.,
form a learner’s study habits.
The study habits may be noted as the evaluation of
student’s behaviour in terms of attitudes, appreciation and habits
165
of work in fundamental to well-rounded study of outcomes of
teaching.
The word ‘study habits’ is used to refer to the student or
student’s way of studying whether systematic or unsystematic,
efficient or inefficient. (Good C.V., 1973)
Study habits include students’ habit of concentration,
note taking, time budgeting and study methods. (Smith, 1961)
The complex of reading behaviour of a person, resulting
from the varying degrees of interaction of a number of variable
factors. Study habits are regularly reading hours and routine
characteristics most of general features. In preparing for
examinations, greater reliance is placed on textbooks and self-
prepared text. (Kunchu, 1989)
The study habits of a student mean the ability to schedule
his time, the plan of his study, the habit of concentration, note-
taking, mental review, over learning, massed and distributed
learning and so on.
Study habits mainly depend on motivation for reading,
interest in subject, attitude, encouragement by others, personality
traits etc. Effective learning takes place with good study habits.
Factors Affecting Study Habits
Some of the noteworthy factors affecting the study habits are:
1. Home: For every child the parents are first teachers and home
is the first place of learning. Child’s parents and other family
members may influence the child’s learning methods and study

166
 habits. The educational level and the occupations of the parents
also show influence on children’s study habits.
2. Intelligence: Brilliant students can quickly develop good
study habits than the dull students.
3. Personality: A student, who can better adjust to the
environment, can develop better study habits.
4. Community: Community resources like library and meetings
with learned people inculcate good study habits among the
students.
5. School: The school administrations and teachers play an
important role in developing good or bad study habits.]
6. Curriculum: The curriculum should be suitable for the
standard of the child. It should encourage the practical, easy
learning that helps to motivate towards good study habits. If the
curriculum is above standard students may be frustrated and may
develop bad study habits.
7. Demographic Factors: Locality, sex, caste, father education,
mother education, number of members in the family, income of
the family, physical environment, social status of the family etc.,
influence the study habits of the students. The item numbers in
each area of the study habits inventory is given in Table 6.
Table 6: Item No. in each area of the Study Habits
Inventory
S. No. Description Item numbers
1. Home environment and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
planning of work P P P P N N N
2. Reading and note-taking 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
P P P P P P N N P

167
3. Planning of subject 17 18 19 20 21
P P P N N
4. Habits of concentration 22 23 24 25
P N N N
5. Preparation for 26 27 28 29 30 31
examinations P N N N N N
6. General habits and 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
attitudes P P N N P P P P
7. School environment 40 41 42 43 44 45
P P P P P N

Adoption of the Study Habits Inventory

Looking to the importance of good study habits for good
achievement in English, it was thought to adopt Study Habits
Inventory constructed and standardized by Patel, B. V (1975)
was adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M (2012) for the
present study.
Having decided to adopt Patel’s Study Habits Inventory,
it had been translated into English, the regional language of the
students. Five judges who were well versed in psychological
testing checked the English version. The statements thus
prepared were tried out on a small sample with a view to find out
the ambiguity in the wording. A few statements were corrected
to remove the ambiguity in the wording.
Scoring Procedure
The statements that are prepared thus, fall into the
following seven areas.
1. Home environment and planning of work
2. Reading and note-taking

168
 3. Planning of subject
4. Habits of concentration
5. Preparation for examinations
6. General habits and attitudes
7. School environment
There are 7 items in area one, 9 items in area two, 5 items
in area three, 4 items in area four, 6 items in area five, 8 items in
area six and 6 items in area seven, a total of 45 items in the
inventory. Among them 18 items are negative and 27 items are
positive. Five alternative choices of options were given to get
more exact responses from the students. The five points are: 1)
Always 2) Often 3) Sometimes 4) Hardly and 5) Never.
In case of the item depicting good study habits, the
student is to give five marks if he puts a tick (√) in the column
of ‘always’; four, three, two and one are to be given if he puts
the tick mark in the columns of ‘often’, ‘sometimes’, ‘hardly’,
and ‘never’ respectively. In case of the statement depicting bad
study habits, the score is to be assigned in the reverse order. Thus
the high score on the inventory will indicate good study habits
and vice-versa.
Reliability and Validity
For calculating reliability and validity, the procedure
suggested by Garrett (1973) was followed.
Test – retest reliability on a sample of 200 with a gap of
20 days was 0.935. The concurrent validity was 0.875. It reveals
that the study habits inventory is highly valid and reliable.
169
SELF-CONCEPT SCALE (SCS)
The self-concept is a theoretical construct, which allows
the integration of all areas of social and emotional development
of an individual into a single system. It has been variously
defined as “the self as known to the self” (Murphy, 1947) and
“those aspects of the individual, which seem most vital and
important to the person” (Jersield, 1960).
Children do not have any self-concepts by the time of
their birth. They acquire it by means of incidental learning like
their different relations with others in the society. Some children
are nourished in such a way that they recognize that they are
worthy of love and respect, while some others may have different
experiences. in the process of learning through interaction with
others around, the child develops self-concepts and ideals of her
own. Thus, self-concept is a key variable in behaviour and
ultimately it influences the achievement in English of the
students.
In psychological and educational discussions self-
concept has been described in many ways.
“The individual’s perception of himself as person, which
includes his abilities, appearance, performance in his job and
other phases of daily living” (Good C.V., 1973).
“How a person sees himself (e.g. Competent, amusing,
homely, etc.,). This may differ from other people’s views of him
though it will have been influenced by them (Derek Rowntree,
1981).
170
 1) An individual’s perception of self.
2) A psychological contract that is more complex than
implied or assumed by most educators. (Singh, D.R. 2002)
Self-concept ‘refers to the pictures or images a person
has of himself’. (Taneja, R.P. 1991 and A Team of Experts,
2003)
Adoption of the Self-concept Scale
The self-concept scale developed by Mukta Rani
Rastogi (1974) was adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M
(2012) for the purpose of the present study. This scale consists
of 51 items with 10 areas. It is a five point attitude scale with the
alternative answers Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided,
Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The 10 areas are:
1. Health and Sex Appropriateness
2. Abilities
3. Self-confidence
4. Self-acceptance
5. Worthiness
6. Present, Past and Future
7. Beliefs and Convictions
8. Feeling of Shame and Guilt
9. Sociability
10. Emotional Maturity
The adopted scale was translated into English. It had
been refined after obtaining the suggestions of the experts. Then
it was used for the present investigation.
171
 The item numbers related to each area of the Self-concept
Scale are shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Item No. in Each Area of the Self-concept Scale
S No Description Item Numbers
Health and Sex 6 20 29 32 34 & 46
1.
Appropriateness P P N N P & P
4 8 12 23 36 38 39 & 42
2. Abilities
P P N N P N N & P
7 9 14 16 & 44
3. Self Confidence
P P N N & P
2 10 17 & 35
4. Self Acceptance
P N N & N
1 3 19 25 27 41 & 50
5. Worthiness
P N N P P N & P
Present, Past and 18 22 26 31 & 40
6.
Future P P N N & P
Beliefs and 24 47 & 48
7.
Convictions N P & P
Feeling of Shame 5 13 28 30 & 51
8.
and Guilt N N N N & N
33 37 43 & 45
9. Sociability
N P P & N
11 15 21 & 49
10. Emotional Maturity
N N N & N

The letters ‘P’ and ‘N’ below each item show the
Positiveness (P) or Negativeness (N) of the items.
Scoring Procedures for the Self-concept Scale
Each question in the Self-concept Scale was followed by
5 alternative answers mentioned above. The students were asked
to go through the instructions before their attempt to choose from
the choice of answers. They were motivated to choose only one
answer for each question.

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 After collecting the answer sheets, the scoring was done
with the help of the answer key. The total raw score of each
student was noted on the top of the answer sheet. There are 23
positive and 28 negative items in this scale.
Reliability and Validity
For calculating reliability and validity, the procedure
suggested by Garrett (1973) was followed.
Test-retest reliability on a sample of 200 with a gap of 20
days was 0.917. The concurrent validity was 0.841. It reveals
that the self-concept scale is highly valid and reliable.
HIGH SCHOOL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE
(HSPQ)
Personality of an individual plays an important role in
his/her achievement in English. The review of related literature
revealed that there are a number of studies showing the
relationship of personality and achievement at the high school
level. Very few studies were found on the achievement in
English in English where it is being taught in the high schools.
Hence there is a need to investigate the relationship between
personality and achievement in English of high school students.
Thus the investigator searched for the personality questionnaire.
Nature of Personality
Personality is defined by many in many ways. Some
define it as ‘one’s social stimulus’. Others define it as ‘the some
total of innate dispositions, impulses, appetites, instincts,
tendencies and habits’.
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 Allpport (1937) asserted that, “Traits are discovered not
by deductive reasoning, not by faith, not by naming and are
themselves never directly observed. They are discovered only
through an inference made necessary by the demonstrable
consistency of the separate observable acts of behaviour”.
According to Cattell (1950), “Personality is that which
permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given
situation”. Personality is a dynamic organization with in the
individual of those psycho-physical systems that determined his
unique adjustment to his environment” (Allport, G.W., 1949).
The total psychological and social reactions of an
individual; the synthesis of his subjective, emotional and mental
life, his behaviour, and his reactions to the environment; the
unique or individual traits of a person are connoted to a seller
degree by “personality” than by the term “character”. (Good
C.V., 1973)
For the individual all the aspects of behaviour, thought
and feeling that make the person unique. For psychologists a
major area of theory and research. (Derek Rowntree, 1981)
i) A psychological term that refers to the predictable and unique
indicator of the way an individual might respond to the
environment.
ii) A personal reference that usually connects acceptability and
likeability. (Madhu Raj, 1996, John Bellingham, 2004)

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Selection of the Tool HSPQ
By observing one’s physical feature and sociability, one
cannot judge one’s personality. It will be possible when one
study carefully in all the aspects like biological as well as social,
he can have an idea about his personality.
The HSPQ handles the multiplicity of predictions from
the test. It helps to obtain scores on 14 dimensions of personality,
so that insightful understandings of the individual and his
development as well as statistical predictions are possible. Hence
the investigator selected the HSPQ for measuring the personality
traits of the students.
Every factor will be found here and on score and profile
records to be provided with two labels; the exact bi-polar title as
used throughout the technical psychological literature, and a
more popular dictionary phrase to use in communicating with
parents, employees, and laymen generally.
The HSPQ has factorial validity. Further, applied
research carried out over the years with the factors has produced
constant and substantial correlation of these primary factor
scales to a wide array of criteria in educational, clinical,
occupational and other areas, establishing its criterion validity.
(Cattell, 1969)
Keeping this in mind, the personality of the students was
assessed in the study, using Cattell’s Junior Senior High School
Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) Form-A. It is applicable to
the age group of students 12 to 18 years. The Form-A of HSPQ
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was translated into English, the regional language of the
respondents, for the present study. The translation was corrected
and modified after having verified by five judges who were well
versed in testing of psychological traits of the students. Then the
translated HSPQ was administered to a small group of 100
students of class X. The investigator carefully modified such
terms; those students felt any ambiguity with simple and
understandable words.
Characteristic Expressions of the Personality Factors in
HSPQ
“For purposes of cross-reference to research studies, the
factors are named, first by their technical, psychological titles,
but also, in parenthesis, by more popular but looser descriptive
labels suitable for explaining results in the discussion of cases
with the laymen”. (Cattell, 1969)
A low scorer on Factor - A tends to be more
uncompromising and earnest, prefers words or things to people,
likes working alone, favours a thinking quality in
companionship, and is introspective. A low scorer is more
penetrating in their evaluations of people and things, more
dependable in long term undertakings and requiring exactness.
A high scorer on Factor - A tends to be permeation of all
thinking by affect (feeling), a warm, easygoing relaxation,
accessible emotions and interest in people. In the questionnaire
responses a high scorer student expresses marked preference for
occupations dealing with people, enjoys social recognition, is
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 more tolerant of “difficult” people and is generally willing to “go
along” with expediency. A high scorer more readily forms active
groups, more impulsively generous in personal relationships,
less disturbed by criticism, better able to remember names of
people and shows superior social adjustments.
It measures “crystallized” rather than “fluid” general
ability. A low scorer on Factor - B tends to be slow to learn and
grasp things, dull, sluggish. He tends to have little capacity for
the higher forms of knowledge, which is a reflection of low
intelligence.
A high scorer on factor - B tends to be more intelligent
child to show better morale, more persistent, and greater school
interest. He tends to be popular with peers as a work partner, well
adjusted to school, a leader and less likely to be found in
institutionalized delinquent groups.
Personality Factor – A
Low Score Versus High Score
SIZOTHYMIA AFFECTOTHYMIA
Reserved, Detached, Critical, Vs Warm-hearted, Outgoing, Easygoing,
Aloof, Stiff Participating
Critical Vs Good Natured, Easygoing
Stands by his own ideas Vs Ready to Cooperate, Likes to Participate
Cool, Aloof Vs Attentive to People
Precise, Objective Vs Softhearted, Casual
Distrustful, Skeptical Vs Trustful
Rigid Vs Adaptable, Careless, “Goes Along”
Cold Vs Warmhearted,
Prone to Sulk Vs Laughs Readily

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 Personality Factor – B
Low Score Versus High Score
LOW INTELLIGENCE Vs HIGH INTELLIGENCE
(Crystallized, Power Measure) Vs (Crystallized, Power Measure)
(Dull) (Bright)
Low Mental Capacity Vs High General Mental Capacity
Unable to Handle Abstract Vs Insightful, Fast Learning, Intellectually
Problems Adaptable
Apt to Be Less Well Organized Vs Inclined to Have More Intellectual
Interests
Personality Factor – C
Low Score Versus High Score
EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY Vs HIGHER EGO STRENGTH
or EGO WEAKNESS
Affected by Feelings, Emotionally Vs Emotionally Stable, Mature, Faces
Less Stable, Easily Upset, Reality, Calm
Changeable
Gets Emotional when Frustrated Vs Emotionally Mature
Changeable to Attitudes and Interests Vs Stable, Constant in Interests
Easily Perturbed
Evasive of Responsibilities Tending Vs Calm
to Give Up Vs Does not Let Emotional Needs,
Obscure Realities of Situation, Adjusts
Worrying to facts
Gets into Fights and Problem Vs Unruffled
Situations Vs Shows Restraint in Avoiding
Difficulties

A low scorer on Factor – C tends to be easily annoyed by

things and people, is more often dissatisfied with his family and
his school, has emotional difficulty in keeping quite and
restraining himself, and is discouraged by his inability to meet
good standards of behaviour. He tends to be high in frustration,
low in tolerance for unsatisfactory conditions, changeable,
avoiding necessary reality demands, neurotically fatigued,

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worrying, easily annoyed, usually dissatisfied. Low score on
Factor - C is common to almost all forms of neurotic and mental
disorders.
A high scorer on Factor - C tends to be emotionally
matured, stable, calm, realistic about life, unruffled, possessing
ego strength, having an integrated philosophy of life, better able
to maintain high group morale.
Personality Factor – D
Low Score Versus High Score
PHLEGMATIC Vs EXCITABILITY
TEMPERAMENT
Undemonstrative, Vs Excitable, Impatient,
Deliberate, Inactive, Stodgy Demanding, Overactive,
Unrestrained
Stoical Vs Demanding, Impatient
Complacent Vs Attention-getting, Showing off
Deliberate Vs Excitable
Not Easily Jealous Vs Prone to Jealousy
Self-effecting Vs Self-assertive, Egotistical
Constant Vs Distractible
Not Restless Vs Shows Many Nervous
Symptoms

A low scorer on Factor - D is more temperamental,

excitable than a low scorer on Factor - C. Though he seems
likable and affectionate in quieter moods, he is apt to be regarded
as a considerable nuisance in restrictive situations, since he is so
“impulsive”.
A high scorer on Factor – D tends to be a restless sleeper,
easily distracted from work by noise or intrinsic difficulty, is hurt
and angry if not given important positions, or whenever he is

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restrained or punished, and so on. This factor shows substantial
dimension in children.
A low-scorer on Factor-E tends to be dependent and a
follower. He is often soft hearted, expressive and easily upset.
This positivity is part of many neurotic syndromes.
A high-scorer on Factor-E tends to be assertive, self-
assured, independent-minded and bold in his approach to
situations. He may at times be hard, a law to himself, hostile,
tough-minded, authoritarian and disregards authority.
Personality Factor – E
Low Score Versus High Score
SUBMISSIVENESS Vs DOMINANCE
Obedient, Mild, Easily Led, Vs Assertive, Aggressive,
Docile, Accommodating Competitive, Stubborn
Submissive Vs Assertive, Self-assured
Dependent Vs Independent-minded
Considerate, Diplomatic Vs Stern, Hostile
Expressive Vs Solemn
Conventional, conforming Vs Unconventional,
Easily Upset by Authority Vs Rebellious
Humble Vs Headstrong
Admiration Demanding

A low-scorer on Factor-F tends to be restrained and

introspective. He is sometimes incommunicative, pessimistic,
anxious and considered to be swung. He tends to be a sober,
dependable person.
A high-scorer on Factor-F tends to be active, frank,
cheerful, quick, expressive, talkative, alter and unperturbable.

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He is often chosen as an elected leader, he may be impulsive and
mercurial.
A low-scorer on Factor – G tends to be unsteady in
purpose. He is often casual and lacking in effort for group
understandings and cultural demands. His freedom from group
influence may lead to antisocial acts, but at times make him more
effective, while his refusal to be bound by rules causes him to
have less somatic upset from stress.
Personality Factor – F
Low Score Versus High Score
DESURGENCY Vs SURGENCY
Sober, Taciturn, Serious Vs Enthusiastic, Headless,
Happy-go-lucky
Silent, Introspective Vs Talkative
Full of Cares Vs Cheerful
Concerned, Reflective Vs Happy-go-lucky
Incommunicative, Sticks to Vs Frank, Expressive, Reflects
Inner Volumes Vs the Group
Slow, Cautious Quick and Alert

A high-scorer on Factor – G tends to be strong in

character, preserving, responsible, determined, consistent,
playful, energetic, cautious, well organized. He is usually
conscientious or moralistic and he prefers hard working people
to witty companions.
A low-scorer on Factor - H shows the shy, withdrawn,
careful, “well-behaved” syndrome, which may be one condition
in schizoid pre-psychotics. He reports himself to be slow and
impeded in expressing himself. He dislikes occupations with
personal contacts, prefers one or two close friends to crows,
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avoids large parties or open competition, is fearful of situations,
easily resentful and distrustful, but very considerate of others’
sensitivities, and not given to keeping contact with all that goes
on around him.
A high-scorer on Factor - H feels free to participate, but
are privately voted to be long-winded, insensitive speakers. He
is bold, ready to try new things, spontaneous and abundant in
emotional response. He tends to be pushy and actively interested
in opposite sex.
Personality Factor – G
Low Score Versus High Score
LOW SUPEREGO Vs SUPEREGO
STRENGTH STRENGTH
Disregards Rules, Expedient Vs Conscientious, Persistent,
Moralistic, Staid
Quitting, Fickle Vs Persevering, Determined
Frivolous Vs Responsible
Self-indulgent Vs Emotionally Disciplined
Slack, Indolent Vs Consistently ordered
Undependable Vs Conscientious, Dominated by
Disregards Obligations to People Sense of Duty
Vs Concerned about Moral
Standards and Rules

A low-scorer on Factor - I shows a definite fastidious

dislike of “crude” people and rough occupations, a recreational
taste for “romantic” travel and new experiences, an imaginative,
esthetic mind, a love of dramatics, and certain impracticality in
general affairs. He tends to be practical, realistic, masculine,
independent, responsible but skeptical of subjective and
‘uncultured’. He is sometimes unmoved, hard, cynical, smug. He
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tends to keep a group operating on a practical and realistic ‘no
nonsense’ basis.
A high-scorer on Factor – I receives significantly more
descriptions as fussing, slowing up group performance in
arriving at decisions, and making social-emotional, negative
remarks. He is tender-minded, daydreaming, and artistically
fastidious. He is sometimes demanding of attention and help,
impatient, dependent and impractical. He dislikes crude people
and rough occupations.
Personality Factor – H
Low Score Versus High Score
THRECTIA Vs PARMIA
Shy, Timid, Restrained, Vs Adventurous, Thick-skinned,
Threat-sensitive Socially Bold
Shy, Withdrawn Vs Adventurous, Likes Meeting
Retiring in Face of Opposite Vs People,
Sex Vs Active, Overt Interest in
Emotionally Cautious Vs Opposite Sex
Apt to be Embittered Vs Responsive, Genial
Restrained, Rule-bound Vs Friendly
Restricted Interests Vs Impulsive
Careful, Considerate, Quick to Emotional and Artistic
See Dangers Interests
Carefree, Does not See
Danger Signals

A low-scorer on Factor - J likes to go with the group

rather than acting individually. He is zestful, vigorous. He is
ready to accept common standards.
A person who scores high on Factor - J tends to prefer to
do things on his own. He is physically and intellectually
fastidious. He thinks over his mistakes and how to avoid them.
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He does not forget if he is unfairly treated. He has private views,
differing from the group, but prefers to keep in the background
to avoid argument. He has fewer friends.
A low-scorer on Factor – O tends to be placid, calm, with
unshakable stability. He has a mature, unanxious, confidence in
himself and has capacity to deal with things.
Personality Factor – I
Low Score Versus High Score
HARRIA Vs PREMSIA
Tough-minded, Rejects Vs Tender-minded, Sensitive,
Illusions Dependent, Overprotected
Unsentimental, Expects Vs Fidgety, Expecting Affection,
Little and Attention
Self-reliant, Taking Vs Clinging, Insecure, Seeking
Responsibility Help and Sympathy
Hard (to point of cynicism) Vs Kindly, Gentle, Indulgent, to
Self and Others
Few Artistic Responses (but Vs Artistically Fastidious, Affected
not lacking in taste) Theatrical
Unaffected by “Fancies” Vs Imaginative in Inner Life and in
Conversation
Acts on Practical, Logical Vs Acts on Sensitive Intuition
Evidence Vs Attention-seeking, Flighty
Keeps to the Point Vs Hypochondriacal, Anxious
Does not Dwell on Physical about Self
Disabilities

A high-scorer on Factor – O feels over fatigued by

exciting situations and has a sense of inferiority and inadequacy
in meeting the rough daily demands of life. He is unable to sleep
through worrying, is easily downhearted, and remorseful and
guilty. He gets emotionally upset by pressure from authority,
prefers books, and quite interests to people and noise. Definite
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fears, central feeling of inadequacy and loneliness are prominent.
He is tend to be rated as hinderer and is unpopular with peers,
socially maladjusted.
Personality Factor – J
Low Score Versus High Score
ZEPPIA Vs COASTHENIA
Zestful, Liking Group Vs Circumspect Individualism,
Action Reflective, Internally Restrained
Likes to Go with the Vs Acts Individualistically
Group Vs Guarded, Wrapped Up in Self
Likes Attention Vs Fastidiously Obstructive
Sinks Personality into
Group Enterprise Vs Neurasthenically Fatigued
Vigorous Vs Evaluates Coldly
Accepts Common
Standards

A low-scorer on Factor – Q2 tends to go with the group,

who strongly values social approval and is conventional and
fashionable. He prefers to work and make decisions with other
people and depends on social approval and admiration. He needs
group support as he may be lacking in individual resolution.
A high-scorer on Factor – Q2 is significantly more
dissatisfied with group integration, makes remarks which are
more frequently solutions than questions and tends to be
rejected. He is a confident and resourceful self-sufficiency, with
some apparent disdain of the “mob”, which is often mistaken for
shyness, sizothemia and other components of introversion.

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 Personality Factor – O
Low Score Versus High Score
UNTROUBLED Vs GUILT PRONENESS
ADEQUACY
Self-assured, Placid, Secure, Vs Apprehensive, Self-
Complacent, Serene reproaching, Insecure,
Worrying, Troubled
Self-confident Vs Worrying, Anxious
Cheerful, Resilient Vs Depressed, Cries Easily
Impenitent, Placid Vs Easily Touched, Overcome by
Moods
Expedient, Insensitive to Vs Strong Sense of Obligation,
people’s Approval or Vs Sensitive to People’s Approval
Disapproval and Disapproval
Does Not Care Vs Scrupulous, Fussy
Rudely Vigorous Vs Hypochondrical and Inadequate
No Fears Vs Phobia Symptoms
Given to Simple Action Vs Lonely, Brooding
Personality Factor – Q2
Low Score Versus High Score
GROUP DEPENDENCY Vs SELF-SUFFICIENCY
Sociably Group Dependent, A Vs Self-sufficient, Resourceful,
“Joiner” and Sound Follower Prefers Own Decisions
Personality Factor – Q3
Low Score Versus High Score
LOW SELF-SENTIMENT Vs HIGH STRENGTH OF
INTEGRATION SELF-SENTIMENT
Uncontrolled, Lax, Follows Vs Controlled, Exacting Will
Own Urges, Careless of Power, Socially Precise,
Social Rules Compulsive, Following Self-
image

A low-scorer on Factor – Q3 does not bother about will-

control and regard for social demands. He is not over
considerable, careful or pains-taking. He may show
maladjustment.

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 A high-scorer on Factor – Q3 tends to have strong control
over his emotions. He proves to be chosen as a leader. He makes
more group remarks than others do. He is associated with success
in mechanical, mathematical and productive organizational
activities. He is associated with all kinds of occupational and
scholastic success.
Personality Factor – Q4
Low Score Versus High Score
LOW ERGIC TENSION HIGH ERGIC TENSION
Relaxed, Tranquil, Torpid, Vs Tense, Frustrated, Driven,
Unfrustrated, Composed Overwrought, Fretful

A low – scorer on Factor – Q4 tends to be excitable, tense,

restless, impatient, ego-weakness and guilt proneness.
A high – scorer on Factor – Q4 tends to be irrationally
worried, tense, irritable and is turmoil. He feels frustrated and is
sensitively aware of being criticized by parents for untidiness,
fantasy and neglect of good goals.
One of the unique features of the HSPQ and other
personality scales developed by Cattell is that each of the items
in any factor is selected on the basis of their known correlation
with the pure factors. In other words, the HSPQ has factorial
validity. Further applied research carried out over the years with
the factors has produced constant and substantial correlation of
their primary factor scales to a wide array of criteria in
educational, clinical, occupational and other areas establishing
its criterion validity (Cattell, 1969).

187
 The HSPQ Form – A was carefully translated into
English, the regional language of the students on whom it had to
be administered. Five judges who were well versed with
psychological testing checked the translation. The ambiguous
terms were discussed and changed with suitable ones. The
English version of the HSPQ thus prepared was administered on
a sample of 100 students. They were asked to answer the items
and point out if they found any ambiguity in understanding the
terms or statements. Such of those terms or statements were
modified and substituted with simpler words or statements.
Adoption of the Instrument HSPQ
Junior-Senior High School Personality Questionnaire
(HSPQ) Form – A prepared and standardized by Cattell (1950)
is adopted from Arunachalam Reddy, M (2012) for the present
study.
Scoring Procedure for HSPQ
There are 142 items in the personality inventory HSPQ
with three alternative answers for each question. The first item
is to know whether the student has understood the instructions
and the last question is to make sure if the student has answered
all the questions. So the remaining 140 questions are related to
personality of the student.
Students were motivated to give only one answer for
each question. The answers were scored according to the
weightages given by the author. The scoring was done for each
student and for each factor.
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 Validity and Reliability of HSPQ
For calculating validity and reliability, the procedure
suggested by Garret (1973) was followed. Reliability of the two
sub-tests of each factor (based on raw scores) as obtained by
Split-Half technique, and validity, which is the square root of
reliability. The Split – Half Reliability was calculated on a
sample of 200. Retest was also conducted on a sample of 200
with a gap of 20 days. Reliability and Validity of HSPQ Form –
A using Split – Half and Test – Retest techniques are presented
in Table – 8.
Table – 8: Reliability and Validity of HSPQ Form – A using
Split – Half and Test – Retest techniques
Split – Half technique Test – Retest technique
S. No. Factor
Reliability Validity Reliability Validity
1. A 0.932 0.869 0.938 0.879
2. B 0.936 0.876 0.971 0.943
3. C 0.944 0.892 0.957 0.916
4. D 0.955 0.912 0.934 0.873
5. E 0.934 0.873 0.966 0.934
6. F 0.936 0.877 0.969 0.938
7. G 0.948 0.898 0.958 0.917
8. H 0.965 0.931 0.936 0.876
9. I 0.961 0.924 0.958 0.917
10. J 0.941 0.886 0.948 0.899
11. O 0.920 0.846 0.934 0.873
12. Q2 0.901 0.812 0.894 0.799
13. Q3 0.905 0.819 0.920 0.846
14. Q4 0.935 0.874 0.970 0.941

The results of validity and reliability of HSPQ, Form – A

show that all the factors of HSPQ are highly valid and reliable.

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Final Study (HSPQ)
The English version of the HSPQ Form – A was
administered on entire sample of 1200 Class VIII class students
and the scoring was done as per the instructions given in HSPQ
Form-A manual.
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC SCALE
The socio-demographic scale prepared by the
investigator with the help of experts in the field of education
consists of the following particulars, with regard to the student’s
personal, socio-demographic variables.
Socio-demographic variables
15. Locality
16. Management
17. Gender
18. Age
19. Annual income of the family
20. Father education
21. Mother education
22. Father occupation
23. Mother occupation
24. Size of the family
25. Community
26. Economic position of the family
27. Study hours at home
28. Interest of English language
29. Leisure time activities
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 30. Library facility
31. Encouragement of the English teacher
FINAL STUDY
The final study is conducted after the construction and
standardization of all the tools and adoption of the tools as
described in the preceding pages.
Selection of sample for final study
The sample for the investigation consisted of 1200 VIII
class students. The stratified random sampling was applied in
three stages. In the first stage locality of the school i.e. Rural and
Urban, in second stage management of the school i.e.
Government and Private school and third stage 150 Boys and
150 Girls students from high schools. In total 600 Boys and 600
Girls students included in this study. It is a 2X2X2 factorial
design with 1200 sample subjects. The sample design for the
study is presented in Table – 9.
Table – 9: Sample Design
Management Government Private
Gender  Total
Boys Girls Boys Girls
Locality 
Rural 150 150 150 150 600
Urban 150 150 150 150 600
Total 600 600 1200

Administration of Tools
Having selected the high schools, following stratified
random sampling method, the investigator consulted the heads
of institutions selected, personally and explained them, the

191
purpose of the test and took their permission for holding the test.
The test dates for different schools were intimated sufficiently in
advance. The students were thoroughly motivated for the tests
and they were given proper instructions for answering the
different sets of test tools. The investigator visited all the schools
personally, as decided and intimated earlier. The students who
attended to the school on the day of collection of data are
considered for the purpose of the investigation. The students
were given necessary instructions about the various instruments
and motivated to respond genuinely to all the items. The Socio –
Demographic Scale and the Achievement Test was administered
in the forenoon session. The anxiety scale, home environment
inventory, Academic stress scale, study habits inventory, self –
concept scale and HSPQ questionnaire were administered in the
Afternoon session. All the data gathering instruments are
collected from the students and they are evaluated following the
weightages given by the test constructing authorities concerned.
All the collected data are given for statistical analysis. Scoring is
done as already explained in the preceding pages, under each
tool. The data on each variable is properly coded to suit for
computer analysis.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
On the basis of the objectives of the investigation,
statistical analysis is carried out by employing appropriate
statistical techniques.

192
 Frequency distribution tables were prepared for the total
sample and for some other variables. Measures of central
tendency, measures of dispersion, percentages, skewness,
kurtosis and standard error of mean were computed wherever
necessary. The inferential statistical techniques such as ‘t’ test
(critical ratio) and ‘F’ test were employed to test different
hypotheses. Multiple ‘R’ was computed by carrying out Step –
Wise Multiple Regression analysis to find out whether it would
be possible to predict achievement in English of VIII class
students. For dividing the groups, quartile values and sten values
are used wherever necessary. The obtained numerical results are
adumbrated by graphical representations wherever necessary.
For statistical formulae, the following books were referred:
❖ “Statistical Methods for Research Workers”, by Fisher
(1950).
❖ “Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education”, by
Guilford (1950).
❖ “Psychometric Methods”, by Guilford (1954)
❖ “Non - Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences”, by
Sidney Siegel (1956).
❖ “Statistics in Education and Psychology”, by Yate (1965).
❖ “Experimental Design in Psychological Research”, by
Edwards (1971).
❖ “Statistical Principles in Experimental Design”, by Winer
(1971).
❖ “Statistics in Psychology and Education”, by Garett (1973).
193
❖ “Statistical Methods”, by Gupta (1974).
❖ “Applied Regression Analysis”, by Draper and Smith
(1981).
➢ “Statistics in Psychology and Education”, by Mangal
(2002).
The significant levels employed with respective symbols
are given here under:
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates Significant at 0.05 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level

194
 CHAPTER -V
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA

This chapter deals with analysis and interpretation of the

data. The analysis is presented in the following form:
• Frequency distribution tables
• Factorial designs
• ‘t’ values and ‘F’ ratios with respect to the influence of
the independent variables on the dependent variable
• Regression analysis
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLES
The frequency distribution tables for the achievement of
VIII class students in English scores are presented in the
following pages.
Frequency distribution of achievement score in English for
the whole group
The investigator measured achievement score in English
of the VIII class students by using the constructed and
standardized Achievement in English test developed by the
investigator.
The achievement score in English means the total score
of the achievement scale. The minimum and maximum scores on
achievement scale are 0 and 150 respectively.
Frequency distribution of achievement of VIII class
students in English scores for the whole group is presented in the
Table 10.
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 The Distribution characteristics namely Mean, (M),
Median (Mdn.), Mode (Mo.), Range (R), Standard Deviation
(SD), Skewness (Sk) and Kurtosis (Ku) are also presented in
Table 10.
It is clear from the Table 10 that the mean value is
105.49. The median and mode values are 106.00 and 103.00. The
values of skewness is -0.370 and kurtosis is -0.120. For normal
distribution the value of skewness is 0.00 and kurtosis is 3.00.
Hence the frequency distribution is negatively skewed and lepto
kurtic. (The values skewness and Kurtosis are computed based
on moments; Aggarwal, 1990). It implies that the scores are
massed at the high / right end of the curve and are spread out
gradually towards low / left end of the curve. The distribution is
high peaked than the normal distribution. On the whole the
achievement of the VIII class students is positive, because mean
achievement is greater than 50 percent.
Table 10: Frequency distribution table for achievement
score in English for the whole group
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 15 15 1.25
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 47 62 5.17
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 138 200 16.67
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 199 399 33.25
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 334 733 61.08
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 298 1031 85.92
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 137 1168 97.33
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 32 1200 100.00
N = 1200, M = 105.49, Mdn. = 106.00, Mo. = 103.00, R = 79.00,
SD = 14.270, Sk = -0.370, Ku = -0.120

196
Frequency distribution table for the achievement score in
English for the variable “locality”
There are two divisions in the variable ‘locality’ namely
Rural and Urban. The frequency distributions and distribution
characteristics on achievement of VIII class students in English
scores for both the groups.
Frequency distribution table for achievement of VIII
class students in English scores for rural VIII class students is
presented in Table 11.
Frequency distribution table for achievement of VIII
class students in English scores for urban VIII class students is
presented in Table 12.
Table – 11: Frequency distribution table for achievement
score in English of rural VIII class students
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 10 10 1.67
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 25 35 5.83
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 76 111 18.50
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 119 230 38.33
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 148 378 63.00
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 141 519 86.50
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 72 591 98.50
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 9 600 100.00
N = 600, M = 104.35, Mdn. = 106.00, Mo. = 102.00, R = 79.00,
SD = 14.580, Sk = -0.330, Ku = 0.310
Table – 12: Frequency distribution table for achievement
score in English of urban VIII class students
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 5 5 0.83
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 22 27 4.50
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 62 89 14.83
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 80 169 28.17
197
 5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 186 355 59.17
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 157 512 85.33
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 65 577 96.17
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 23 600 100.00
N = 600, M = 106.63, Mdn. = 107.00, Mo. = 105.00, R = 76.00,
SD = 13.870, Sk = -0.390, Ku = 0.100
From the above tables, it is observed that there are 600
rural VIII class students and 600 urban VIII class students (Total
sample N = 1200). It is observed from the above tables that the
mean of achievement of urban VIII class students (106.63) is
high than the mean of achievement of rural VIII class students
(104.35). The standard deviation of achievement of rural VIII
class students (14.580) is high than the standard deviation of
achievement of urban VIII class students (13.870). The values of
skewness for achievement of rural and urban students are -0.330,
and -0.390 respectively. The values of skewness are negative for
all distributions. It implies that the scores are massed at high /
right end of the curve and are spread out gradually towards the
low / left end of the curve.
The values of kurtosis for achievement of rural and urban
are 0.310, and -0.100 respectively. Hence all the distributions of
achievement score in English for rural and urban VIII class
students are slightly lepto kurtic. It implies that the distributions
are high peaked than the normal distribution.
Frequency distribution of achievement score in English for
the variable “management”
There are two divisions in the variable ‘management’
namely Government secondary schools and Private secondary
198
schools. The frequency distributions and distribution
characteristics on achievement of VIII class students in English
scores studying in the above two types of secondary schools.
Frequency distribution of achievement of VIII class
students in English scores for Government secondary schools is
presented in Table – 13.
Frequency distribution of achievement of VIII class
students in English scores for Private secondary schools is
presented in Table – 14.
Table – 13: Frequency distribution table for achievement
score in English of Government VIII class students
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 3 3 0.50
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 12 15 2.50
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 76 91 15.17
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 99 190 31.67
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 165 355 59.17
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 146 501 83.50
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 82 583 97.17
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 17 600 100.00
N = 600, M = 106.52, Mdn. = 107.00, Mo. = 103.00, R = 76.00,
SD = 13.790, Sk = -0.260, Ku = -0.290
Table – 14: Frequency distribution table for achievement
score in English of Private VIII class students
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint F cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 12 12 2.00
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 35 47 7.83
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 62 109 18.17
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 100 209 34.83
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 169 378 63.00
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 152 530 88.33
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 55 585 97.50
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 15 600 100.00

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N = 600, M = 104.47, Mdn. = 106.00, Mo. = 120.00, R = 79.00,
SD = 14.670, Sk = -0.440, Ku = -0.060
From the above tables, it is observed that there are 600
Government VIII class students and 600 Private VIII class
students (Total sample N = 1200). It is observed from the above
tables that the mean of achievement of Government VIII class
students (106.52) is high than the mean of achievement of
Private VIII class students (104.47). The standard deviation of
achievement of Private VIII class students (14.670) is high than
the standard deviation of achievement of Government VIII class
students (13.790). The values of skewness for achievement of
Government and Private students are -0.260, and -0.440
respectively. The values of skewness are negative for all
distributions. It implies that the scores are massed at high / right
end of the curve and are spread out gradually towards the low /
left end of the curve.
The values of kurtosis for achievement of Government
and Private VIII class students are -0.290 and -0.060
respectively. Hence all the distributions of achievement score in
English for Government and Private VIII class students are
slightly lepto kurtic. It implies that the distributions are high
peaked than the normal distribution.
Frequency distribution of achievement score in English for
the variable “gender”
There are two divisions in the variable ‘gender’ namely
Boys and Girls. The frequency distributions and distribution

200
characteristics on achievement of VIII class students in English
scores in the above two genders.
Frequency distribution of achievement score in English
of Boys is presented in Table – 15.
Frequency distribution of achievement score in English
of Girls is presented in Table – 16.
Table – 15: Frequency distribution of achievement score in
English of Boys
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 1 1 0.17
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 23 24 4.00
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 70 94 15.67
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 95 189 31.50
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 166 355 59.17
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 158 513 85.50
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 77 590 98.33
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 10 600 100.00
N = 600, M = 106.14, Mdn. = 107.00, Mo. = 120.00, R = 79.00,
SD = 13.710, Sk = -0.340, Ku = -0.390
Table – 16: Frequency distribution of achievement score in
English of Girls
S. No. CI Limits Midpoint f cf cpf
1. 61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 65.5 14 14 2.33
2. 71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 75.5 24 38 6.33
3. 81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 85.5 68 106 17.67
4. 91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 95.5 104 210 35.00
5. 101 – 110 100.5 – 110.5 105.5 168 378 63.00
6. 111 – 120 110.5 – 120.5 115.5 140 518 86.33
7. 121 – 130 120.5 – 130.5 125.5 60 578 96.33
8. 131 – 140 130.5 – 140.5 135.5 22 600 100.00
N = 600, M = 104.84, Mdn. = 106.00, Mo = 105.00, R = 78.00,
SD = 14.790, Sk = -0.380, Ku = -0. 040
From the above tables, it is observed that there are 600
Boys and 600 Girls (Total sample N = 1200). It is observed from
201
 the above tables that the mean of achievement of boys (106.14)
is high than the mean of achievement of girls (104.84). The
standard deviation of achievement of girls (14.790) is high than
the standard deviation of achievement of boys (13.710). The
values of skewness for achievement of boys and girls students
are -0.340, and -0.380 respectively. The values of skewness are
negative for all distributions. It implies that the scores are massed
at high / right end of the curve and are spread out gradually
towards the low / left end of the curve.
The values of kurtosis for achievement of Boys and Girls
VIII class students are -0.390 and -0.040 respectively. Hence all
the distributions of achievement score in English for Boys and
Girls are slightly lepto kurtic. It implies that the distributions are
high peaked than the normal distribution.
The values of N, M, SD, Sk, Ku and R for the distribution of
achievement score in English
The values of N, M, SD, Sk , Ku and R for the distribution
of achievement of VIII class students in English scores for the
different groups of the sample are presented in Table – 17.
Table – 17: The values of N, M, SD, Sk, Ku and R for the
distribution of achievement of VIII class students in English
scores for the different groups of sample
S. No. Group N M SD Sk Ku R
1. Whole group 1200 105.49 14.270 -0.370 -0.120 79.00
2. Rural 600 104.35 14.580 -0.330 -0.310 79.00
3. Urban 600 106.63 13.870 -0.390 0.100 76.00
4. Government 600 106.52 13.790 -0.260 -0.290 76.00
5. Private 600 104.47 14.670 -0.440 -0.060 79.00
6. Boys 600 106.14 13.710 -0.340 -0.390 79.00
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7. Girls 600 104.84 14.790 -0.380 0.040 78.00

It is clear from the Table – 17 that the mean achievement

for the VIII class students of urban schools is the highest
(106.63) among all the groups and the lowest (104.35) for the
VIII class students of rural schools. The standard deviation of
achievement score in English for the VIII class students of girls
is the highest (14.790) among all the groups and the lowest
(13.710) for the boys. The values of skewness for all the
distributions are negatively skewed, it implies that scores are
massed at high / right end of the curve and are spread out
gradually towards the low / left end of the curve The values of
kurtosis for all distributions are lepto kurtic. It implies that the
distributions are high peaked than the normal distribution.
FACTORIAL DESIGN
The influence of the variables locality, management and
gender and their interaction effects on the achievement of VIII
class students in English is studied with the help of factorial
design.
Factorial design for locality, management and gender
The influence of locality, management and gender on
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated by
employing 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design.
The following hypotheses are formulated.

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Hypothesis 1: There would be no significant influence of main
effects namely locality, management and gender on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
Hypothesis 2: There would be no significant impact of
interaction effects of locality, management and gender on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypotheses are tested through 2 X 2 X 2
factorial design.
The results of Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of 2 X 2
X 2 factorial design for achievement of VIII class students in
English scores are presented in Table – 18.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the main effect ‘locality’
is 8.078. It is greater than the table / critical value of ‘F’ (6.66)
for 1 and 1192 df at 0.01 level of significance. Therefore
Hypothesis – 1 for the main effect locality is rejected at 0.01
level of significance. Hence it is concluded that locality has
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the main effect
‘management’ is 6.511. It is greater than the table / critical value
of ‘F’ (3.85) for 1 and 1192 df at 0.05 level of significance.
Therefore Hypothesis – 1 for the main effect management is
rejected at 0.05 level of significance. Hence it is concluded that
management has significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.

204
Table – 18: Results of ANOVA of 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design
for achievement of VIII class students in English scores
Factor L: Locality (2 levels),
Factor M: Management (2 levels)
Factor G: Gender (2 levels)
Source of Sum of Mean
S.No. df F – value
Variance Squares squares
1. L 1564.083 1 1564.083 8.078**
2. M 1260.750 1 1260.750 6.511*
3. G 507.000 1 507.000 2.618@
4. LXM 7580.213 1 7580.213 39.148**
5. LXG 1742.430 1 1742.430 8.999**
6. MXG 356.430 1 356.430 1.841@
7. LXMXG 345.613 1 345.613 1.785@
8. Error 230809.360 1192 193.632
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
The table value of ‘F’ for 1 and 1192 df at 0.01 level is
6.66 and at 0.05 level is 3.85.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the main effect ‘gender’ is
2.618. It is less than the table / critical value of ‘F’ (3.85) for 1
and 1192 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis
– 1 for the main effect management is accepted at 0.05 level of
significance. Hence it is concluded that gender has no significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the two factor interaction
effects namely locality and management on the achievement of
the VIII class students is 39.148. It is greater than table / critical
value of ‘F’ (6.66) for 1 and 1192 df at 0.01 level of significance.

205
Therefore Hypothesis – 2 is rejected at 0.01 level of
significance. Hence it is concluded that there is significant
interaction effects of locality and management on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the two factor interaction
effects namely locality and gender on the achievement of the
VIII class students is 8.999. It is greater than table / critical value
of ‘F’ (6.66) for 1 and 1192 df at 0.05 level of significance.
Therefore Hypothesis – 2 is rejected at 0.01 level of
significance. Hence it is concluded that there is significant
interaction effects of locality and gender on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the two factor interaction
effects namely management and gender on the achievement of
the VIII class students is 1.841. It is less than table / critical value
of ‘F’ (3.85) for 1 and 1192 df at 0.05 level of significance.
Therefore Hypothesis – 2 is accepted at 0.05 level of
significance. Hence it is concluded that there is no significant
interaction effects of management and gender on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
The computed value of ‘F’ for the three factor interaction
effects namely locality, management and gender on the
achievement of the VIII class students is 1.785. It is less than
table / critical value of ‘F’ (3.85) for 1 and 1192 df at 0.05 level
of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 2 is accepted at 0.05
level of significance. Hence it is concluded that there is no
206
significant interaction effects of locality, management and
gender on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO – DEMOGRAPHIC AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES
The influence of socio - demographic variables and
psychological variables namely achievement, self – concept and
personality factors on achievement of the VIII class students is
investigated.
The impact of socio-demographic variables on the
achievement
The influence of socio-demographic variables on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is studied. The
following socio-demographic variables are considered for the
analysis.
1. Locality
2. Management
3. Gender
4. Age
5. Annual income of the family
6. Father education
7. Mother education
8. Father occupation
9. Mother occupation
10. Size of the family
11. Community
12. Economic position of the family
207
 13. Study hours at home
14. Interest of English language
15. Leisure time activities
16. Library facility
17. Encouragement of the English teacher
Locality
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of locality the 600 rural
VIII class students form as Group – I and 600 Urban VIII class
students form as Group – II. The influence of ‘locality’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of two groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of locality on
achievement is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The
following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 3: Locality would not have significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 19.
Table – 19: Influence of locality on the achievement of VIII
class students in English
S. No. Locality N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Rural 600 104.35 14.57
2.781**
2. Urban 600 106.63 13.86
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
It is clear from the Table – 19 that the computed value of
‘t’ (2.781) is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (2.58) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.01 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 3 is rejected for
208
the variable ‘locality’ at 0.01 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘locality’ has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
Supported results were reported by Chakraborthi,
Bhupal Prasad (2002), Naresh Kumar Gupta (2002), Ponda
(2002a), Suneel Kumar Singh, Saheen Malik, Singh, A. K
(2003), Anice James and Marice (2004), Gakhar and Aseema
(2004), Mehera (2004), Dwivedi R.D (2005), Krishna Reddy,
D (2008), Padmini (2010), Prabhu Swamy (2010), Siddi Raju
(2010), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) and
Sana Hemavathi and Dayakara Reddy, V (2016).
Contradictory results were reported by Panchalingappa
(2004), Muni Raja Reddy (2007) and Manpreet Kaur, Ram
Niwas and Rai, V.K (2015).
Management
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of management the 600
Government VIII class students form as Group – I and 600
Private VIII class students form as Group – II. The influence of
‘management’ on the achievement of VIII class students in
English is investigated. The corresponding achievement score in
English of two groups are analysed accordingly. The influence
of management on achievement is investigated through ‘t’ –
technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 4: Management would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
209
 The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 20.
Table – 20: Influence of management on the achievement of
VIII class students in English
S. No. Management N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio
1. Government 600 106.52 13.78
2.496*
2. Private 600 104.47 14.66
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 20 that the computed value of
‘t’ (2.496) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 4 is rejected for
the variable ‘management’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘management’ has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
Supported results were reported by Srinivasan and
Arivudayappam (2004), Krishna Reddy, D (2008), Padmini
(2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012),
Vema Narayana Reddy (2012), Ravi, S (2014), Shaik Khadar
Valli (2015) and Sana Hemavathi and Dayakara Reddy, V
(2016).
Contridictory results were reported by
Gnanasundaratharasu and Vincent De Paul (2002),
Manjuvani and Mohan (2002), Anice James and Marice
(2004), Laxmidhar Behera and Sushant Kumar Roul (2004),
Shahpur Nagappa, Panchalingappa (2004) and Muni Raja
Reddy (2007).

210
Gender
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of gender the 600 boys
form as Group – I and 600 girls form as Group – II. The influence
of ‘gender’ on the achievement of VIII class students in English
is investigated. The corresponding achievement score in English
of two groups are analysed accordingly. The influence of gender
on achievement is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The
following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 5: Gender would not have significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 21.
Table – 21: Influence of gender on the achievement of VIII
class students in English
S. No. Gender N M SD ‘t’ - Value
1. Boys 600 106.14 13.70
1.580@
2. Girls 600 104.84 14.78
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 21 that the computed value of
‘t’ (1.580) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 5 is accepted for
the variable ‘gender’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is concluded
that ‘gender’ has no significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
Supported results were reported by Govinda Reddy
(2002), Panda (2002a), Gakhar and Aseema (2004), Muni
Raja Reddy (2007), Pondey, S. N and Md. Faiz Ahmad
211
(2008), Subramanyam and Srinivasa Rao (2008) and
Manpreet Kaur, Ram Niwas and Rai, V.K (2015).
Contradictory results were reported by Mohanty A.K
(2002), Suneetha and Mayuri (2002), Mohammad Khayyer
and Philip R. Delaccy (2005), Paavola Sapiyonja (2008), Sam
Willam Bassey and Joshua (2009), Umadevi (2009),
Chandran and Lim (2010), Padmini (2010), Siddi Raju
(2010), Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana
Reddy (2012), Ravi, S (2014) and Srivastava, Stuti (2014).
Age
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups. On the basis of age the student whose
age is up to 13 years form the Group – I, Group – II form as the
age is 14 years, Group – III form as the age is 15 years above.
The influence of ‘age’ on the achievement of VIII class students
in English is investigated. The corresponding achievement score
in English of three groups are analysed accordingly. The
influence of age on achievement is investigated through one -
way ANOVA technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 6: Age would not have significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 22.
Table – 22: Influence of age on the achievement of VIII
class students in English
S. No. Age N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
1. Group – I 258 107.97 13.80 5.205** t12 = 3.235**

212
 2. Group – II 635 104.60 14.78 t13 = 2.381*
3. Group – III 307 105.24 13.28 t23 = 0.666@
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 22 that the computed value of
‘F’ (5.205) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.01 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 6 is rejected
for the variable ‘age’ at 0.01 level of significance. It is concluded
that ‘age’ has significant influence on the achievement of VIII
class students in English.
From the Table – 22, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for age of Group – I and Group – II is 3.235. It is greater
than the critical value of ‘t’ (2.58) for 1 and 891 df at 0.01 level
of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 6 is rejected at 0.01
level, for the factor ‘age’. Hence it is concluded that ‘age’ of
Group – I and Group – II has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 22, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for age of Group – I and Group – III is 2.381. It is
greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 563 df at 0.05
level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 6 is rejected at
0.05 level, for the factor ‘age’. Hence it is concluded that ‘age’
of Group – I and Group – III has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 22, it is indicated that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for age of Group – II and Group – III is 0.666. It is

213
less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 940 df at 0.05
level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 6 is accepted at
0.05 level, for the factor ‘age’. Hence it is concluded that ‘age’
of Group – II and Group – III has no significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Suneetha and Mayuri
(2002), Manchala (2007), Muniraja Reddy, A (2007),
Banarugn (2009), Sankaraiah (2009), Fayegh Yousefi and
Rumaya Juhari (2010), Junani and Redzuan (2010), Sujatha
(2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) and
Ravi, S (2014).
Contradictory results were reported by Biswas (2001)
and Govinda Reddy (2002).
Annual income of the family
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of annual income of the
family Group – I is formed with annual income of the family up
to Rs. 100000/-, Group – II is formed with annual income of the
family from Rs. 100001/- to Rs. 200000/- and Group – III is
formed with annual income of the family from Rs. 200001/- and
above. The influence of ‘annual income of the family’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of three groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of annual income of the
family on achievement is investigated through one - way
ANOVA technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
214
 Hypothesis – 7
Annual income of the family would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 23.
Table – 23: Influence of annual income of the family on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. Annual income
N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
No. of the family
1. Group – I 147 108.57 13.66 t12 = 2.264*
2. Group – II 719 105.75 14.17 6.569** t13 = 3.617**
3. Group – III 334 103.58 14.46 t23 = 2.274*
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 23 that the computed value of
‘F’ (6.569) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.01 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 7 is rejected
for the variable ‘annual income of the family’ at 0.01 level of
significance. It is concluded that ‘annual income of the family’
has significant influence on the achievement of VIII class
students in English.
From the Table – 23, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for annual income of the family of Group – I and Group –
II is 2.264. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1
and 864 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis –
7 is rejected at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘annual income of the
family’. Hence it is concluded that ‘annual income of the family’

215
of Group – I and Group – II has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 23, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for annual income of the family of Group – I and
Group – III is 3.617. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’
(2.58) for 1 and 479 df at 0.01 level of significance. Therefore
Hypothesis – 7 is rejected at 0.01 level, for the factor ‘annual
income of the family’. Hence it is concluded that ‘annual income
of the family’ of Group – I and Group – III has significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 23, it is indicated that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for annual income of the family of Group – II and
Group – III is 2.274. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’
(1.96) for 1 and 1051 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore
Hypothesis – 7 is rejected at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘annual
income of the family’. Hence it is concluded that ‘annual income
of the family’ of Group – II and Group – III has significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Govinda Reddy (2002),
Selvam and Sundaravalli (2002), Muniraja Reddy, A (2007),
Krishna Reddy, D (2008), Ekber Tomul and Kzim Celik
(2009), Sanandaj and Jouhari (2010), Siddi Raju (2010),
Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy
(2012) and Ravi, S (2014).

216
Father Education
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of father education the 830
literate fathers’ VIII class students form as Group – I and 370
Illiterate fathers’ VIII class students form as Group – II. The
influence of ‘father education’ on the achievement of VIII class
students in English is investigated. The corresponding
achievement score in English of two groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of father education on achievement
is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The following hypothesis
is framed.
Hypothesis 8: Father education would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 24.
Table – 24: Influence of father education on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Father education N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Literate 830 105.94 14.06
1.599@
2. Illiterate 370 104.49 14.66
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 24 that the computed value of
‘t’ (1.599) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 8 is accepted for
the variable ‘father education’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘father education’ has no significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.

217
 Similar results were reported by Muniraja Reddy, A
(2007).
Contradictory results were reported by Barbara, Rupa
Das (2002), Chakrabarthi, Sharmistha (2002),
Gnanasundaratharasu and Vincent De Paul (2002), Govinda
Reddy (2002), Panda (2002a), Krishna Reddy, D (2008),
Sankaraiah (2009), Moula (2010), Padmini (2010), Siddi
Raju (2010), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy
(2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Mother Education
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of mother education the
655 literate mothers’ VIII class students form as Group – I and
545 Illiterate mothers’ VIII class students form as Group – II.
The influence of ‘mother education’ on the achievement of VIII
class students in English is investigated. The corresponding
achievement score in English of two groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of mother education on achievement
is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The following hypothesis
is framed.
Hypothesis 9: Mother education would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 25.

218
 Table – 25: Influence of mother education on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Mother education N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Literate 655 105.24 14.15
0.665@
2. Illiterate 545 105.79 14.40
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 25 that the computed value of
‘t’ (0.665) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 9 is accepted for
the variable ‘mother education’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘mother education’ has no significant influence
on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Gnanasundaratharasu
and Vincent Depaul (2002) and Muniraja Reddy, A (2007).
Contradictory results were reported byBorbora, Rupa
Das (2002), Chakrabarthi, Sharmistha (2002), Govinda
Reddy (2002), Manchala (2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008),
Sankaraiah (2009), Moula (2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Sekhar,
K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Father Occupation
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of father occupation the
668 employee fathers’ VIII class students form as Group – I and
532 Non - employee fathers’ VIII class students form as Group
– II. The influence of ‘father occupation’ on the achievement of
VIII class students in English is investigated. The corresponding
achievement score in English of two groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of father occupation on achievement
219
is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The following hypothesis
is framed.
Hypothesis 10: Father occupation would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 26.
Table – 26: Influence of father occupation on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Father occupation N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Employee 668 104.74 14.20
2.040*
2. Non - employee 532 106.43 14.29
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 26 that the computed value of
‘t’ (2.040) is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 10 is rejected for
the variable ‘father occupation’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘father occupation’ has significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Goswami; Meenakshi
(2002), Govinda Reddy (2002), Krishna Reddy, D (2008),
Sankaraiah (2009), Moula (2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Sujatha
(2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) and
Ravi, S (2014).
Contradictory results were reported by Panda (2002) and
Muniraja Reddy, A (2007).
Mother Occupation
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of mother occupation the
220
219 employee mothers’ VIII class students form as Group – I
and 981 Non - employee mothers’ VIII class students form as
Group – II. The influence of ‘mother occupation’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of two groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of mother occupation on
achievement is investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The
following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 11: Mother occupation would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 27.
Table – 27: Influence of mother occupation on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Mother occupation N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Employee 219 104.62 14.23
1.004@
2. Non - employee 981 105.69 14.27
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 27 that the computed value of
‘t’ (1.004) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 11 is accepted for
the variable ‘mother occupation’ at 0.05 level of significance. It
is concluded that ‘mother occupation’ has no significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Panda (2002) and
Muniraja Reddy, A (2007).
Contradictory results were reported by Goswami;
Meenakshi (2002), Govinda Reddy (2002), Krishna Reddy, D
221
(2008), Sankaraiah (2009), Moula (2010), Siddi Raju (2010),
Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy
(2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Size of the family
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; on the basis of size of the family the
student’s size of the family is three formed as Group – I, Group
– II is formed as student’s size of the family is four and Group –
III is formed as student’s size of the family is five and above.
The influence of ‘size of the family’ on the achievement of VIII
class students in English is investigated. The corresponding
achievement score in English of three groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of size of the family on achievement
is investigated through one - way ANOVA technique. The
following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 12: Size of the family would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 28.
Table – 28: Influence of size of the family on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Size of the family N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio
1. Group – I 107 107.87 15.17
2. Group – II 712 105.29 13.99 1.642@
3. Group – III 381 105.19 14.45
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 28 that the computed value of
‘F’ (1.642) is less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and

222
1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 12 is accepted for
the variable ‘size of the family’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘size of the family’ has no significant influence
on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Manchala (2007),
Muniraja Reddy, A (2007, Krishna Reddy (2008) and
Tenibiaje Joseph (2009).
Contradictory results were reported by Agrawal,
Archana (2002), Moula (2010), Padmini (2010), Siddi Raju
(2010), Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana
Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Community
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups. On the basis of community Group – I
is formed with Hindu VIII class students. Group – II is formed
with Christian VIII class students. Group – III is formed with
Muslim VIII class students. The influence of ‘community’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of three groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of community on
achievement is investigated through one - way ANOVA
technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 13: Community would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 29.
223
 Table – 29: Influence of community on the achievement of
VIII class students in English
S. No. Community N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio
1. Group – I 520 105.50 14.67
2. Group – II 526 105.41 14.01 0.037@
3. Group – III 154 105.75 13.70
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 29 that the computed value of
‘F’ (0.037) is less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and
1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 13 is accepted for
the variable ‘community’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘community’ has no significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported byManchala (2007) and
Muniraja Reddy, A (2007).
Contradictory results were reported Agrawal, Archana
(2002), Govinda Reddy (2002), Padmini (2010), Vema
Narayana Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Economic position of the family
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of economic position of
the family Group – I is formed with economic position of the
family is rich, Group – II is formed with economic position of
the family is medium and Group – III is formed with economic
position of the family is poor. The influence of ‘economic
position of the family’ on the achievement of VIII class students
in English is investigated. The corresponding achievement score
in English of three groups are analysed accordingly. The

224
 influence of economic position of the family on achievement is
investigated through one - way ANOVA technique. The
following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 14: Economic position of the family would not have
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table-30.
Table – 30: Influence of economic position of the family on
the achievement of VIII class students in English
Economic position
S. No. N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
of the family
1. Group – I 367 105.62 13.61 t12 = 0.873@
2. Group – II 640 106.41 14.30 6.564** t13 = 2.668**
3. Group – III 193 102.19 14.87 t23 = 3.486**
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 30 that the computed value of
‘F’ (6.564) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.01 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 14 is rejected
for the variable ‘economic position of the family’ at 0.01 level
of significance. It is concluded that ‘economic position of the
family’ has significant influence on the achievement of VIII
class students in English.
From the Table – 30, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for economic position of the family of Group – I and Group
– II is 0.873. It is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1
and 1005 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis

225
– 14 is accepted at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘economic position
of the family’. Hence it is concluded that ‘economic position of
the family’ of Group – I and Group – II has no significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 30, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for economic position of the family of Group – I and
Group – III is 2.668. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’
(2.58) for 1 and 558 df at 0.01 level of significance. Therefore
Hypothesis – 14 is rejected at 0.01 level, for the factor
‘economic position of the family’. Hence it is concluded that
‘economic position of the family’ of Group – I and Group – III
has significant influence on the achievement of VIII class
students in English.
From the Table – 30, it is indicated that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for economic position of the family of Group – II and
Group – III is 3.486. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’
(2.58) for 1 and 831 df at 0.01 level of significance. Therefore
Hypothesis – 14 is rejected at 0.01 level, for the factor
‘economic position of the family’. Hence it is concluded that
‘economic position of the family’ of Group – II and Group – III
has significant influence on the achievement of VIII class
students in English.
Similar results were reported by Panda (2000), Govinda
Reddy (2002), Selvam and Sundaravalli (2002), Muniraja
Reddy, A (2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008), Ekber Tomul and
Kzim Celik (2009), Sanandaj and Jouhari (2010), Siddi Raju
226
 (2010), Sujatha (2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana
Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Study hours at home
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of study hours at home
Group – I is formed with study hours at home is above three
hours, Group – II is formed with study hours at home is two to
three hours and Group – III is formed with study hours at home
is below one hour. The influence of ‘study hours at home’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of three groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of study hours at home
on achievement is investigated through one - way ANOVA
technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 15: Study hours at home would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 31.
Table – 31: Influence of study hours at home on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
Study hours at
S. No. N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
home
1. Group – I 370 104.78 14.28 t12 = 0.475@
2. Group – II 648 105.23 14.52 3.080* t13 = 2.526*
3. Group – III 182 107.86 13.01 t23 = 2.346*
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 31 that the computed value of
‘F’ (3.080) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.990) for 2
227
and 1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 15 is rejected
for the variable ‘study hours at home’ at 0.05 level of
significance. It is concluded that ‘study hours at home’ has
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.
From the Table – 31, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for study hours at home of Group – I and Group – II is
0.475. It is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 1016
df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 15 is
accepted at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘study hours at home’.
Hence it is concluded that ‘study hours at home’ of Group – I
and Group – II has no significant influence on the achievement
of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 31, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for study hours at home of Group – I and Group – III
is 2.526. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
550 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 15
is rejected at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘study hours at home’.
Hence it is concluded that ‘study hours at home’ of Group – I
and Group – III has significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 31, it is indicated that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for study hours at home of Group – II and Group –
III is 2.346. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1
and 828 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis –
15 is rejected at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘study hours at home’.
228
Hence it is concluded that ‘study hours at home’ of Group – II
and Group – III has significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Muniraja Reddy, A
(2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008), Vema Narayana Reddy
(2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Interest in English language
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of interest in English
language is ‘yes’ form as Group – I and ‘no’ form as Group – II.
The influence of ‘interest in English language’ on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is investigated.
The corresponding achievement score in English of two groups
are analysed accordingly. The influence of interest in English
language on achievement is investigated through ‘t’ – technique.
The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 16: Interest in English language would not have
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 32.
Table – 32: Influence of interest in English language on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Interest in English language N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Yes 821 105.76 14.37
0.975@
2. No 379 104.91 14.01
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level

229
 It is clear from the Table – 32 that the computed value of
‘t’ (0.975) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 16 is accepted for
the variable ‘interest in English language’ at 0.05 level of
significance. It is concluded that ‘interest in English language’
has no significant influence on the achievement of VIII class
students in English.
Contradictory results were reported by Muniraja
Reddy, A (2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008), Vema Narayana
Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014).
Leisure time activities
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of leisure time activities
Group – I is formed with leisure time activities is reading, Group
– II is formed with leisure time activities is playing and Group –
III is formed with leisure time activities is help to others. The
influence of ‘leisure time activities’ on the achievement of VIII
class students in English is investigated. The corresponding
achievement score in English of three groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of leisure time activities on
achievement is investigated through one - way ANOVA
technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 17: Leisure time activities would not have
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.

230
 The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 33.
Table – 33: Influence of leisure time activities on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
Leisure time
S. No. N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
activities
1. Group – I 415 103.57 14.43 t12 = 2.418*
2. Group – II 386 106.05 14.50 6.161** t13 = 3.427**
3. Group – III 399 106.95 13.63 t23 = 0.894@
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 33 that the computed value of
‘F’ (6.161) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.680) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.01 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 17 is rejected
for the variable ‘Leisure time activities’ at 0.01 level of
significance. It is concluded that ‘leisure time activities’ has
significant influence on the achievement of VIII class students
in English.
From the Table – 33, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for Leisure time activities of Group – I and Group – II is
2.418. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
799 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 17
is rejected at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘Leisure time activities’.
Hence it is concluded that ‘Leisure time activities’ of Group – I
and Group – II has significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 33, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for Leisure time activities of Group – I and Group –
231
III is 3.427. It is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (2.58) for 1
and 812 df at 0.01 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis –
17 is rejected at 0.01 level, for the factor ‘Leisure time activities’.
Hence it is concluded that ‘Leisure time activities’ of Group – I
and Group – III has significant influence on the achievement of
VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 33, it is indicated that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for Leisure time activities of Group – II and Group –
III is 0.894. It is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
783 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 17
is accepted at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘Leisure time activities’.
Hence it is concluded that ‘Leisure time activities’ of Group – II
and Group – III has no significant influence on the achievement
of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Krishna Reddy, D
(2008), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012) and Ravi, S (2014)
Contradictory results were reported by Muniraja
Reddy, A (2007)
Library facility
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of library facility is ‘yes’
form as Group – I and ‘no’ form as Group – II. The influence of
‘library facility’ on the achievement of VIII class students in
English is investigated. The corresponding achievement score in
English of two groups are analysed accordingly. The influence

232
of library facility on achievement is investigated through ‘t’ –
technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 18: Library facility would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 34.
Table – 34: Influence of library facility on the achievement
of VIII class students in English
S. No. Library facility N M SD ‘t’ - value
1. Yes 749 105.02 13.94
1.443@
2. No 451 106.27 14.76
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 34 that the computed value of
‘t’ (1.443) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 18 is accepted for
the variable ‘library facility’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘library facility’ has no significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Contradictory results were reported by Muniraja
Reddy, A (2007) and Vema Narayana Reddy (2012).
Similar result was reported by Ravi, S (2014).
Encouragement of the English teacher
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into two groups; on the basis of Encouragement of the
English teacher is ‘yes’ form as Group – I and ‘no’ form as
Group – II. The influence of ‘Encouragement of the English
teacher’ on the achievement of VIII class students in English is
investigated. The corresponding achievement score in English of
233
two groups are analysed accordingly. The influence of
Encouragement of the English teacher on achievement is
investigated through ‘t’ – technique. The following hypothesis is
framed.
Hypothesis 19: Encouragement of the English teacher would not
have significant influence on the achievement of VIII class
students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ –
technique. The results are presented in Table – 35.
Table – 35: Influence of Encouragement of the English
teacher on the achievement of VIII class students in English
Encouragement of the
S.No. N M SD ‘t’ - value
English teacher
1. Yes 544 105.46 14.47
0.075@
2. No 656 105.52 14.09
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 35 that the computed value of
‘t’ (0.075) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and
1198 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 19 is accepted for
the variable ‘Encouragement of the English teacher’ at 0.05 level
of significance. It is concluded that ‘Encouragement of the
English teacher’ has no significant influence on the achievement
of VIII class students in English.
Contradictory results were reported by Muniraja
Reddy, A (2007) and Vema Narayana Reddy (2012).

234
The impact of psychological variables on the achievement of
VIII class students in English
The influence of psychological variables on the
achievement of VIII class students in English is studied. The
following psychological variables are considered for the
analysis.
1. Anxiety
2. Home environment
3. Academic stress
4. Study habits
5. Self concept
6. Personality
Anxiety
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of anxiety scores, the VIII
class students are divided into three groups using quartile values.
The children whose anxiety score is up to Q 1 value form as
Group – I, Group – II form as above Q1 and up to Q3 value and
Group – III form as above Q3 value. The influence of ‘anxiety’
on the results of VIII class students is investigated. The
corresponding results scores of three groups are analysed
accordingly. The influence of ‘anxiety’ on results is investigated
through one - way ANOVA technique. The following hypothesis
is framed.
Hypothesis 20: Anxiety would not have significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
235
 The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 36.
Table – 36: Influence of anxiety on the achievement of VIII
class students in English
S. No. Anxiety N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio ‘t’ – Values
1. Group – I 404 106.90 13.66 t12 = 1.961@
2. Group – II 426 104.97 14.64 3.053* t13 = 2.320*
3. Group – III 370 104.55 14.36 t23 = 0.404@
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 36 that the computed value of
‘F’ (3.053) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 20 is rejected
for the variable ‘anxiety’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘anxiety’ has significant influence on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 36, it is clear that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for anxiety of Group – I and Group – II is 1.961. It is less
than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 828 df at 0.05 level
of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 20 is accepted at 0.05
level, for the factor ‘anxiety’. Hence it is concluded that
‘anxiety’ of Group – I and Group – II has no significant influence
on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 36, it is observed that, the computed
value of ‘t’ for anxiety of Group – I and Group – III is 2.320. It
is greater than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 772 df at
0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 20 is rejected

236
at 0.05 level, for the factor ‘anxiety’. Hence it is concluded that
‘anxiety’ of Group – I and Group – III has significant influence
on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
From the Table – 36, it is found that, the computed value
of ‘t’ for anxiety of Group – II and Group – III is 0.404. It is less
than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.96) for 1 and 794 df at 0.05 level
of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 20 is accepted at 0.05
level, for the factor ‘anxiety’. Hence it is concluded that
‘anxiety’ of Group – II and Group – III has no significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Nwankwo and Kemjika
(2003), Abu - Rabia, S (2004), Noorjehan and Wajiha (2009),
Sankaraiah (2009), Sitara, V.R (2010) and Detlef Urhahne,
Sheng-Han Chao, Maria Luise Florineth, Silke Luttenberger
and Manuela Paechter (2011).
Home environment
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of home environment
scores, the VIII class students are divided into three groups using
quartile values. The children whose home environment score is
up to Q1 value form as Group – I, Group – II form as above Q1
and up to Q3 value and Group – III form as above Q3 value. The
influence of ‘home environment’ on the results of VIII class
students is investigated. The corresponding results scores of
three groups are analysed accordingly. The influence of ‘home

237
environment’ on results is investigated through one - way
ANOVA technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 21: Home environment would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 37.
Table – 37: Influence of home environment on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
S. No. Home environment N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio
1. Group – I 418 104.64 15.01
2. Group – II 391 105.90 13.59 1.140@
3. Group – III 391 105.99 14.06
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 37 that the computed value of
‘F’ (1.140) is less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and
1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 21 is accepted for
the variable ‘home environment’ at 0.05 level of significance. It
is concluded that ‘home environment’ has no significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Contradictory results were reported by Basantia and
Mukhopadhyaya (2001), Mohanty A.K (2002) and Baskaran,
M and Selvaraju, R (2015).
Academic stress
In the present investigation, the VIII class students are
divided into three groups; On the basis of academic stress scores,
the VIII class students are divided into three groups using
quartile values. The children whose academic stress score is up
to Q1 value form as Group – I, Group – II form as above Q1 and

238
up to Q3 value and Group – III form as above Q3 value. The
influence of ‘academic stress’ on the results of VIII class
students is investigated. The corresponding results scores of
three groups are analysed accordingly. The influence of
‘academic stress’ on results is investigated through one - way
ANOVA technique. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 22: Academic stress would not have significant
influence on the achievement of VIII class students in English.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing one - way
ANOVA technique. The results are presented in Table – 38.
Table – 38: Influence of academic stress on the achievement
of VIII class students in English
S. No. Academic stress N Mean SD ‘F’ – Ratio
1. Group – I 410 104.93 14.19
2. Group – II 404 106.02 14.66 0.590@
3. Group – III 386 105.53 13.90
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is clear from the Table – 38 that the computed value of
‘F’ (0.590) is less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and
1197 df at 0.05 level. Hence the Hypothesis – 22 is accepted for
the variable ‘academic stress’ at 0.05 level of significance. It is
concluded that ‘academic stress’ has no significant influence on
the achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar result was reported by Bisht (1980).
Contradictory results were reported by Sitara, V.R
(2010) and Narendra Kumar (2015) found that stress has
significant influence on the academic achievement of Senior
Secondary Science Students.

239
Study habits
Looking into the importance of good study habits, Dr
B.V. Patel’s Study Habits Inventory was adopted to examine
the study habits of IX class students. The impact of study
habits on the achievement of VIII class students in English
was investigated. This Study Habits Inventory consists of
seven areas:
SH1 - Home environment and planning of work (7 statements)
SH2 - Reading and note-taking (9 statements)
SH3 - Planning of subject (5 statements)
SH4 - Habits of concentration (4 statements)
SH5 - Preparation for examinations (6 statements)
SH6 - General Habits and attitudes (8 statements)
SH7 - School environment (6 statements)
This tool is consisted of 45 items. It is a five - point scale
to get exact responses from students. The five points are (1)
always, (2) often, (3) sometimes, (4) hardly and (5) never.
One-way analysis of variance is applied to study the
influence of study habits on the achievement of VIII class
students in English. The total study habits score and the scores
of different areas of the Study Habits Inventory are divided into
three groups on the basis of quartiles. Group - I represents the
scores up to Q1; Group – II represents the scores above Q 1 and
up to Q3; and Group – III represents the scores above Q 3. The
corresponding achievement of VIII class students in English
scores of three groups were analyzed. The mean values of
240
achievement of VIII class students in English for each study
habits were tested for significance by employing one-way
analysis of variance technique. The following hypothesis is
formed.
Hypothesis 23: There would be no significant effect of study
habits on achievement of VIII class students in English.
Employing one – way analysis of variance technique, the
above hypothesis was tested. The results are presented in Table
– 39.
It is evident from the Table – 39 that the computed value
‘F’ for General habits and attitudes, School environment and
study habits total are above the level of the critical value of ‘F’
(4.60) at 0.01 level of significance. Hence Hypothesis – 23 is
rejected for General habits and attitudes, School environment
and study habits total at 0.01 level of significance. It is observed
that the computed values of ‘F’ for remaining areas of study
habits are far below the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) at 0.05 level
of significance. Hence Hypothesis – 23 is accepted.
It is implied that the study habits like General habits and
attitudes, School environment and study habits total have
significant influence on achievement of VIII class students in
English. But the other areas of study habits have no significant
influence on achievement of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Nagaraju (2001),
Govinda Reddy (2002), Vamadevappa (2002), Archana and
Mona Sharma (2002), Naveen Kumar Reddy (2003),
241
Guravaiah (2004), Rajani (2004), Lakshmi (2004), Bhaskara
Rao, Somasurya Prakash Rao and Bhuvaneswara Lakshmi
(2004), Arockiadoss (2005), Ramana sood and Dalcinder
Kumar (2007), Manchala (2007), Ramana Sood and
Dalvinder Kumar (2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008),
Prabhakar, G (2008), Nalini and Ganesha Bhatta (2009),
Padmini (2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Vema Narayana Reddy
(2012), Ravi, S (2014) and Kritika Mishra and Vasanta, D
(2016).

242
 Table – 39: Impact of study habits on achievement of VIII class students in English
No. of
Mean S.D. Values F-
S. No. Study habits Observations
values
I II III I II III I II III
1. Home environment and planning 401 415 384 105.98 105.40 105.08 14.35 14.04 14.41 0.397@
of work
2. Reading and note-taking 408 413 379 104.29 106.25 105.95 13.46 14.50 14.75 2.232@
3. Planning of subject 385 421 394 104.73 105.42 106.31 13.35 14.04 15.28 1.204@
4. Habits of concentration 402 385 413 104.15 106.01 106.31 13.31 14.47 14.87 2.699@
5. Preparation for examinations 382 420 398 104.52 105.38 106.54 13.37 14.06 15.21 1.970@
6. General habits and attitudes 365 391 444 102.40 105.67 107.88 12.25 14.21 15.33 15.158**
7. School environment 347 419 434 102.65 105.24 108.00 12.55 14.18 15.16 13.939**
8. Study habits total 368 407 425 102.43 106.26 107.41 12.51 14.32 15.17 13.141**
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
The Table value of ‘F’ for 2 and 1197 df at 0.01 level is 4.60 and at 0.05 level is 2.99

243
Self concepts
The self-concept scale (SCS), developed by Dr (Miss)
Muktha Rani Rastogi (1974), was adopted to find the influence
of self – concepts on the achievement of VIII class students in
English. This self – concept scale consists of ten areas. They are:
1. SCA Health and Sex appropriateness (6 Items)
2. SCB Abilities (8 Items)
3. SCE Self-confidence (5 Items)
4. SCF Self-acceptance (4 Items)
5. SCH Worthiness (7 Items)
6. SCP Present, Past and Future (5 Items)
7. SCS1 Beliefs and Convictions (3 Items)
8. SCS2 Feeling of Shame and Guilt (5 Items)
9. SCS3 Sociability (4 Items)
10. SCS4 Emotional Maturity (4 Items)
11. SCT Self concept Total
A total of 51 items are posed for the VIII class students
to respond for their self-concepts. A five-point scale was used to
get the responses from the VIII class students. The five points
are:
1. Strongly Agree; 2. Agree; 3. Undecided; 4. Disagree; 5.
Strongly Disagree.
One-way analysis of variance is applied to study the
influence of self concepts on the achievement of VIII class
students in English. The total self concepts score and the scores
of different areas of the self concepts scale are divided into three
244
group subjects marks on the basis of quartiles. Group – I
represents the scores up to Q 1; Group – II represents the scores
above Q1 and up to Q3; and Group – III represents the scores
above Q3. The corresponding achievement of VIII class students
in English of three groups were analysed. The mean values of
achievement of VIII class students in English for each self
concepts and self concepts total score were tested for
significance by employing one-way analysis of variance
technique. The following hypothesis is formed.
Hypothesis 24: There is no significant effect of self concepts on
achievement of VIII class students in English.
By employing one – way analysis of variance technique,
the above hypothesis was tested. The results are presented in
Table – 40.
It is evident from Table – 40 that the computed value of
‘F’ for Health and Sex appropriateness, Abilities, Self-
confidence, Self-acceptance, Worthiness, Present, Past and
Future, Emotional Maturity and Self concept total are greater
than critical value of ‘F’ (4.60) for 2 and 1197 df at 0.01 level of
significance. Hence Hypothesis – 24 is rejected at 0.01 level. The
computed value of ‘F’ for remaining areas of self concepts are
less than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and 1197 df at 0.05
level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis – 24 are accepted at
0.05 level.
It is implied that the self concepts like Health and Sex
appropriateness, Abilities, Self-confidence, Self-acceptance,
245
Worthiness, Present, Past and Future, Emotional Maturity and
Self concept total have significant influence on the achievement
of VIII class students in English. But the other areas of self
concepts scale have no significant influence on the achievement
of VIII class students in English.
Similar results were reported by Malvinder Ahuja
(2006), Saritha (2006), Gordan Darlene (2007), Kumar (2007),
Anuradha Joshi (2008), Knapp et al. (2008), Krishna Reddy, D
(2008), Venden Hurl et al. (2008), Corlos and Rodrgvez (2009),
Dickinson et al. (2009), Padmini (2010), Philias Oulatunde
(2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana
Reddy, G (2012), Ravi, S (2014) and Baskaran, M and Selvaraju,
R (2015).

246
 Table – 40: Impact of self concepts on the achievement of VIII class students in English
No. of Observations Mean S.D. Values
S. No. Self concepts F - values
I II III I II III I II III
1. Health and Sex appropriateness 355 429 416 102.56 105.44 108.04 12.69 13.73 15.53 14.403**
2. Abilities 362 394 444 101.95 106.14 107.81 12.84 13.80 15.19 17.925**
3. Self-confidence 350 441 409 102.54 105.66 107.84 12.41 13.78 15.73 13.318**
4. Self-acceptance 354 430 416 102.39 106.00 107.60 12.63 14.27 15.10 13.426**
5. Worthiness 354 403 443 102.00 105.04 108.69 12.67 13.98 15.00 22.747**
6. Present, Past and Future 362 427 411 101.94 105.82 108.28 12.90 13.71 15.27 19.803**
7. Beliefs and Convictions 391 419 390 104.56 105.78 106.11 13.84 14.35 14.54 1.282@
8. Feeling of Shame and Guilt 386 426 388 104.64 105.21 106.64 13.47 14.25 14.96 2.017@
9. Sociability 413 383 404 104.44 105.82 106.26 13.78 14.45 14.51 1.819@
10. Emotional Maturity 367 407 426 103.11 105.72 107.32 12.74 14.17 15.28 8.782**
11. Self concept Total 374 427 399 102.58 105.82 107.87 13.18 13.71 15.31 13.718**
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
The Table value of ‘F’ for 2 and 1197 df at 0.01 level is 4.60 and at 0.05 level is 2.99.

247
Personality factors
The Cattell’s 14 PF questionnaire form – A was adopted
as a tool to access the personality of VIII class students. To
identify the influence of 14 PF on the achievement of VIII class
students in English. As recommended by Cattell (1950), the
criterion in the division of the groups based on the sten values,
was used the sten values 1 to 4 were grouped as low scorers, 5
and 6 as average scorers and 7 to 10 as high scorers.
One-way analysis of variance is applied to study the
influence of personality factors on the achievement of VIII class
students in English. The total personality factors score and the
scores of different areas of the personality factors scale are
divided into three group subjects marks on the basis of quartiles.
Group – I represents the scores up to Q1; Group – II represents
the scores above Q1 and up to Q3; and Group – III represents the
scores above Q3. The corresponding achievement of VIII class
students in English of three groups were analysed. The mean
values of achievement of VIII class students in English for each
personality factors and personality factors total score were tested
for significance by employing one-way analysis of variance
technique. The following hypothesis is formed.
Hypothesis – 25
There is no significant effect of personality factors on
achievement of VIII class students in English.
By employing one – way analysis of variance technique,
the above hypothesis was tested. The results are presented in
Table – 41.
248
 It is evident from Table – 41 that the computed value of
‘F’ for Personality factor – A, Personality Factor B, Personality
Factor C, Personality Factor D, Personality Factor J and
personality factor – Q2 are greater than critical value of ‘F’ (4.60)
for 2 and 1197 df at 0.01 level of significance. Hence Hypothesis
– 25 is rejected at 0.01 level. The computed value of ‘F’ for
Personality factor – F, Personality Factor Q3 and personality
factor – Q4 are greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (2.99) for 2
and 1197 df at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore Hypothesis
– 25 is rejected at 0.05 level. The computed value of ‘F’ for
remaining personality factors are less than the critical value of
‘F’ (2.99) for 2 and 1197 df at 0.05 level of significance.
Therefore Hypothesis – 25 are accepted at 0.05 level.
From the above results it is concluded that the VIII class
students with personality characteristics (1) Sizothymia;
Reserved, Detached, Critical, Aloof, Stiff (2) Low intelligence;
Crystallized, Power Measure (3) Emotional Instability or Ego
Weakness; Affected by Feelings, Emotionally Less Stable,
Easily Upset, Changeable (4) Phlegmatic Temperament;
Undemonstrative, Deliberate, Inactive, Stodgy (5) Desurgency;
Sober, Taciturn, Serious (6) Zeppia; Zestful, Liking Group
Action (7) Group Dependency; Sociably Group Dependent, A
“Joiner” and Sound Follower (8) Low Self-Sentiment
Integration; Uncontrolled, Lax, Follows Own Urges, Careless of
Social Rules and (9) Low Ergic Tension; Relaxed, Tranquil,
Torpid, Unfrustrated, Composed are significantly better on the
achievement of VIII class students in English with personality
249
characteristics (1) Affectothymia; Warm-hearted, Outgoing,
Easygoing, Participating, (2) High Intelligence; Crystallized,
Power Measure, (3) Higher Ego Strength; Emotionally Stable,
Mature, Faces Reality, Calm (4) Excitability; Excitable,
Impatient, Demanding, Overactive, Unrestrained (5) Surgency;
Enthusiastic, Headless, Happy-go-lucky (6) Coasthenia;
Circumspect Individualism, Reflective, Internally Restrained (7)
Self-Sufficiency; Self-sufficient, Resourceful, Prefers Own
Decisions (8) High Strength Of Self-Sentiment; Controlled,
Exacting Will Power, Socially Precise, Compulsive, Following
Self-image and (9) High Ergic Tension; Tense, Frustrated,
Driven, Overwrought, Fretful.
Similar results were reported by Govinda Reddy (2002),
Kagade (2002), Ayodya, P (2007), Krishna Reddy, D (2008),
Anca Munteanu and Iuliana Coatea (2010), Martinsen and
Swanberg (2010), Padmini (2010), Siddi Raju (2010), Sujatha
(2011), Sekhar, K (2012), Vema Narayana Reddy (2012), Ravi,
S. (2014) and Neeti Naveen (2016).

250
 Table – 41: Impact of personality factors on the achievement of VIII class students in English
No. of Observations Mean S.D. Values
S. No. Personality factors F - values
I II III I II III I II III
1. Personality Factor A 374 398 428 103.23 105.80 107.17 12.48 14.76 14.98 7.852**
2. Personality Factor B 364 423 413 102.64 105.84 107.65 13.19 14.35 14.67 12.328**
3. Personality Factor C 360 419 421 102.83 104.97 108.28 12.89 14.10 15.03 14.905**
4. Personality Factor D 381 386 433 102.71 105.53 107.89 12.95 14.37 14.82 13.636**
5. Personality Factor E 396 413 391 104.49 105.51 106.48 13.50 14.21 14.99 1.918@
6. Personality Factor F 409 407 384 103.90 106.86 105.73 12.95 14.04 15.61 4.477*
7. Personality Factor G 393 420 387 104.45 105.63 106.40 13.33 14.91 14.41 1.859@
8. Personality Factor H 420 377 403 104.30 105.67 106.56 13.66 13.76 15.23 2.619@
9. Personality Factor I 388 415 387 104.41 105.53 106.54 13.20 14.46 15.07 2.153@
10. Personality Factor J 412 391 397 103.77 105.57 107.20 14.08 13.64 14.84 5.931**
11. Personality Factor O 393 423 384 104.42 105.90 106.14 13.48 13.73 15.51 1.691@
12. Personality Factor Q2 398 396 406 103.64 106.67 106.15 13.18 14.01 15.32 5.157**
13. Personality Factor Q3 402 426 372 103.99 105.87 106.68 13.96 13.55 15.22 3.665*
14. Personality Factor Q4 403 404 393 104.05 106.22 106.22 13.34 14.54 14.77 3.124*
** Indicates significant at 0.01 level, * Indicates significant at 0.05 level, @ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level

251
 The Table value of ‘F’ for 2 and 1197 df at 0.01 level is
4.60 and at 0.05 level is 2.99.
STEP-WISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS
This section deals with the analysis of the relative
contribution or magnitude of the effect of each of the different
independent variables to the dependent variable. The
achievement of VIII class students in English are predicted with
the help of independent variables.
It is appropriate to know the meaning and nature of
regression analysis. Regression means to estimate or predict one
variable with the help of other variable / variables. According to
dictionary the term ‘regression’ means act of returning or ‘going
back’. In 19th century, Francis Galton for the first time used the
word ‘regression’ while studying the relationship between the
height of father and sons. Galton found that the offspring of
abnormally tall or short parents tend to ‘regress’ or ‘step back’
to the average population height. But the term ‘regression’ as
now used in statistics is only a convenient term without having
any reference to biometry. In regression analysis there are two
types of variables. The variable whose value is influenced or is
to be predicted is called dependent variable and the variable
which influences values or is used for prediction, is called
independent variables. The independent variable is also called
regressor or predictor.
Now-a-days regression analysis is employed widely in
all scientific disciplines, such as physical, natural and social
sciences.
252
 Correlation is a tool of ascertaining the degree of
relationship between two variables. The objective of regression
analysis is to study nature of relationship, between the variables.
The cause and effect relation is clearly indicated through
regression analysis than by correlation. The step-wise multiple
regression analysis is employed in the present investigation to
predict the dependent variables with the help of independent
variables.
As already mentioned, there are 43 variables in this
investigation for the purpose of step – wise multiple regression
analysis. The variable number, description of the variable and
symbol used are presented in Table – 42.
Table – 42: Variables used for Regression Analysis
Variable Number (VN) Description of the variable Symbol used
1. Locality L
2. Management M
3. Gender G
4. Age A
5. Annual income of the family AI
6. Father education FE
7. Mother education ME
8. Father occupation FO
9. Mother occupation MO
10. Size of the family ME
11. Community C
12. Economic position of the family EPF
13. Study hours at home SHH
14. Interest of English language IEL
15. Leisure time activities LTA
16. Library facility LF
17. Encouragement of the English teacher EET
18. Anxiety AN
19. Home environment HE
20. Academic stress AS
253
Variable Number (VN) Description of the variable Symbol used
21. Home Environment and Planning SH1
22. Reading and Note-taking SH2
23. Planning of Subjects SH3
24. Habits of Concentration SH4
25. Preparation for Examinations SH5
26. General Habits and Attitudes SH6
27. Social Environment SH7
28. Study Habits Total Score SHT
29. Health and Sex Appropriateness SCA
30. Abilities SCB
31. Self Confidence SCE
32. Self Acceptance SCF
33. Worthiness SCH
34. Past, Present and Future SCP
35. Beliefs and Convictions SCS1
36. Feelings of Shame and Guilt SCS2
37. Sociability SCS3
38. Emotional Maturity SCS4
39. Self – concepts Total SCT
40. Personality Factor A PFA
41. Personality Factor B PFB
42. Personality Factor C PFC
43. Personality Factor D PFD
44. Personality Factor E PFE
45. Personality Factor F PFF
46. Personality Factor G PFG
47. Personality Factor H PFH
48. Personality Factor I PFI
49. Personality Factor J PFJ
50. Personality Factor O PFO
51. Personality Factor Q2 PFQ2
52. Personality Factor Q3 PFQ3
53. Personality Factor Q4 PFQ4
54. Achievement in English AIE

Achievement in English (AIE) (i.e.) variable numbers 54

in the Table – 42 is the dependent variable in the present

254
investigation. Achievement in English of VIII class students is
very important and is related to a number of psycho -
sociological and demographic variables.
The step – wise multiple regression is employed in the
present investigation to predict the dependent variable with the
help of independent variables. There are 54 variables in the
present study. Achievement in English as the dependent variable
and seventeen demographic variables, one anxiety, one home
environment, one academic stress, seven study habits and one
study habits total, ten self-concept and one self-concept total and
fourteen personality variables as independent variables (53).
Prediction of Achievement in English
The prediction of Achievement score in English (AIE)
and the relative contribution of various variables namely Socio
– Demographic Variables, anxiety, home environment,
academic stress, study habits, self – concepts, 14 personality
factors and all independent variables on the dependent variable
(AIE) is studied, with the help of step - wise multiple regression
analysis.
Prediction of Achievement in English with the help of all
independent variables (1 – 53)
The Achievement in English score (AIE), variable
number 54 in Table – 42 is predicted with the help of all
independent variables (1 – 53) using step – wise multiple
regression analysis.

255
 The influence of all independent variables on
Achievement in English is investigated through step – wise
multiple regression analysis.
The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis 26: No single variable or a set of variables (all
independent variables (53)) included in the study do not
significantly exert their contribution to Achievement in English.
The results of the regression analysis are reported in
Table – 43.
It is seen from the Table – 43 that the first variable
entered into the step - wise regression analysis is Worthiness
(SCH). The multiple correlation (R) obtained is 0.163. It implies
that the strength of the relationship between the two variables
(AIE and SCH) is about 19.10 percent. It could be seen that R is
significant (F = 45.396) beyond 0.01 level of significance for 1
and 1198 df. The critical value of ‘F’ is 3.84 at 0.05 level and
6.64at 0.01 level for 1 and 1198 df. The coefficient of multiple
R2 is 0.037. This allows that 3.70 percent of the variance in AIE
is accounted by SCH.
The standard error of Multiple R (SER) is 14.013. From
this it may be inferred that nearly 68 percent of actual AIE value
would lie with in M ± 14.013 of AIE value predicted with the
help of this variable (SCH).
The partial regression coefficient (b) presented in the
column ‘7’ is 3.358. This value indicates that AIE value would
change by 3.358 units for every one unit of change in SCH. The
‘t’ value for b is 6.74 which is highly significant at 0.01 level.
256
The value of the constant that could be written to predict AIE at
this stage is 98.524.
The general formed of multiple regression equation may
be written as.
Y = A + b1 (X1) + b2 (X2) + b3 (X3) + ….. + bn (Xn)
Where Y is predicted score on the dependent variable; b 1,
b2, b3 … bn are partial regression coefficients; X 1, X2, X3 ….. Xn
are scores on different independent variables and A is constant.
Thus the multiple regression equation at the end of this
step, could be written as
AIE = 98.524 + (3.358) (SCH)
Personality factor – D (PFD) is entered into the step -
wise regression analysis as the second most significant variable.
The multiple correlation (R) between AIE on one side and SCH
and PFD on other side is 0.246. Thus the strength of the
relationship between AIE and the two independent variables put
together is 24.60 percent. R is significant at 0.01 level (F =
38.578, df 2, 1197)
The value of R2 is 0.061. This Allows that the two
variables put together could explain 6.10 percent of variance in
the dependent variable (AIE). Out of this 3.743 percent of
variance is explained by SCH. The remaining 2.313 percent of
variance is accounted for by PFD (Table – 43, Col. 12).
The regression equation to predict AIE with these two
variables (SCH and PFD) as predictor variables is:
AIE = 92.851 + (3.442) (SCH) + (2.691) (PFD)

257
 Where 92.851 is the constant to be considered at this step
and 3.442 and 2.691 are the partial regression coefficients of
worthiness and personality factor – D. The ‘b’ values for the
variables are significant at 0.01 level.
The regression equation at the end of 4 th step could be
written as
AIE = 84.142 + (3.254) (SCH) + (2.530) (PFD) + (2.357)
(SCF) + (2.217) (SH7)

258
 Table – 43: Prediction of Achievement in English with the help of all independent variables (1 – 53)
Step F value for ‘t’ value %
IV (VN) R R2 SER b (VN) Constant B r
No. R for b variance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
45.396** 6.74**
1. SCH (33) 0.191 0.037 14.013 3.358 (33) 98.524 0.191 0.191 3.651
(1, 1198)
38.578** 3.443 (33) 6.99** 0.196 3.743
2. PFD (43) 0.246 0.061 13.843 92.851 0.149
(2, 1197) 2.691 (43) 5.54** 0.155 2.313
3.406 (33) 6.98** 0.194 3.702
13.708**
3. SCF (32) 0.282 0.080 13.708 2.634 (43) 5.47** 87.996 0.152 0.144 2.264
(3, 1196)
2.460 (32) 4.97** 0.138 1.989
3.254 (33) 6.71** 0.185 3.537
31.361** 2.529 (43) 5.29** 0.146 2.174
4. SH7 (27) 0.308 0.095 13.598 84.142 0.151
(4, 1195) 2.357 (32) 4.79** 0.132 1.905
2.217 (27) 4.52** 0.125 1.884

259
 It is observed from Table – 43 that it could be possible
to explain 9.50 percent of variance in the dependent variable
AIE, with the help of above four variables.
There are twenty three steps in this regression analysis.
Summary of the last (23 rd) step of step-wise multiple regression
analysis to predict Achievement in English score with the help
of all dependent variables (1 – 53) is given in Table – 44.
The regression equation at the end of 23 rd step could be
written as;
AIE = 69.184 + (1.890) (SCH) + (1.449) (PFD) + (1.620)
(SCF) + (4.078) (SH7) + (1.357) (SHT) + (1.443) (SH6)
+ (1.861) (PFC) + (-2.138) (AI) + (-2.732) (SH5) + (-
1.733) (AN) + (1.561) (PFJ) + (1.489) (LTA) + (2.234)
(L) + (3.838) (PFB) + (-2.916) (SCS1) + (1.479) (SCE)
+ (-1.709) (FO) + (2.017) (FE) + (1.133) (SCB) +
(1.160) (SHH) + (1.019) (PFI) + (0.927) (HE) + (-1.043)
(EPF)
It is observed from the Table – 44 that it could be
possible to explain 21.60 percent of variance in the dependent
variable AIE, with the above twenty three variables.
Hence it is concluded that Achievement in English score
could best be predicted with the help of Worthiness,
Personality Factor – D, Self acceptance, Social environment,
Study habits total, General habits and attitudes, Personality
Factor – C, Annual income, Preparation for examinations,
Anxiety, Personality Factor – J, Leisure time activities,
Locality, Personality Factor – B, Beliefs and convictions, Self
260
confidence, Father occupation, Father education, Abilities,
Study hours at home, Personality Factor – I, Home
environment and Economic position of the family among the
fifty three (1 – 53) independent variables.
Hence, the null hypothesis that no single variable or a set
of variables (53 independent variables) included in the study do
not significantly exert their contribution to Achievement in
English is rejected.

261
 Table – 44: Summary of the last (23 rd) step of step – wise multiple regression analysis to predict
Achievement in English score with the help of all independent variables (1 – 53)
Step F value for ‘t’ value for %
IV (VN) R R2 SER b (VN) Constant B r
No. R b variance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SCH 45.396** 1.890
1. 0.191 0.037 14.013 3.78** 69.184 0.108 0.191 2.054
(33) (1, 1198) (33)
PFD 38.578** 1.449
2. 0.246 0.061 13.843 2.94** 0.084 0.149 1.245
(43) (2, 1197) (43)
SCF 13.708** 1.621
3. 0.282 0.080 13.708 3.45* 0.091 0.144 1.310
(32) (3, 1196) (32)
31.361** 4.078
4. SH7 (27) 0.308 0.095 13.598 4.83** 0.230 0.151 3.465
(4, 1195) (27)
29.178** 1.357
5. SHT (28) 0.330 0.109 13.499 2.78** 0.077 0.140 1.079
(5, 1194) (28)
27.013** 1.443
6. SH6 (26) 0.346 0.120 13.423 3.12* 0.083 0.156 1.293
(6, 1193) (26)
PFC 25.246** 1.861
7. 0.359 0.129 13.356 3.66** 0.105 0.155 1.624
(42) (7, 1192) (42)
23.931** - -
8. AI (5) 0.372 0.138 13.290 -2.138 (5) 3.53** 0.953
(8, 1191) 0.092 0.104

262
Step F value for ‘t’ value for %
IV (VN) R R2 SER b (VN) Constant B r
No. R b variance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
22.801** -2.732 -
9. SH5 (25) 0.384 0.147 13.229 3.28** 0.057 -0.881
(9, 1190) (25) 0.154
21.800** -1.733 - -
10. AN (18) 0.394 0.155 13.173 3.58** 0.649
(10, 1189) (18) 0.098 0.067
20.953** 1.561
11. PFJ (49) 0.403 0.162 13.120 3.20** 0.090 0.099 0.889
(11, 1188) (49)
LTA 20.160** 1.489
12. 0.412 0.169 13.072 3.30** 0.086 0.098 0.839
(15) (12, 1187) (15)
19.558**
13. L (1) 0.420 0.177 13.020 2.234 (1) 3.00** 0.078 0.080 0.627
(13, 1186)
PFB 18.929** 3.838
14. 0.427 0.183 12.976 4.48** 0.216 0.140 3.031
(41) (14, 1185) (41)
SCS1 18.506** -2.916 -
15. 0.436 0.190 12.925 3.41** 0.044 -0.722
(35) (15, 1184) (35) 0.165
SCE 17.884** 1.479
16. 0.441 0.195 12.892 2.94** 0.082 0.147 1.207
(31) (16, 1183) (31)
17.252** - -
17. FO (8) 0.446 0.199 12.865 -1.709 (8) 2.46* 0.413
(17, 1182) 0.064 0.065
18. FE (6) 0.450 0.202 12.841 16.657** 2.017 (6) 2.50* 0.065 0.047 0.306

263
Step F value for ‘t’ value for %
IV (VN) R R2 SER b (VN) Constant B r
No. R b variance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(18, 1181)
SCB 16.095** 1.133
19. 0.454 0.206 12.819 2.19* 0.065 0.165 1.073
(30) (19, 1180) (30)
SHH 15.562** 1.160
20. 0.457 0.209 12.800 2.06* 0.054 0.061 0.329
(13) (20, 1179) (13)
15.030** 1.019
21. PFI (48) 0.460 0.211 12.785 2.19* 0.058 0.059 0.344
(21, 1178) (48)
14.561** 0.927
22. HE (19) 0.463 0.214 12.770 1.99* 0.053 0.039 0.208
(22, 1177) (19)
14.110** -1.043 - -
23. EPF (12) 0.465 0.216 12.756 1.98* 0.292
(23, 1176) (12) 0.049 0.060

264
 CHAPTER -VI
SUMMARY, MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This chapter deals with the summary, major findings,

conclusions, educational implications and suggestions for
further research.
SUMMARY
An attempt has been made to discuss the major findings
of the study to throw more light on the unique findings and also
to suggest comprehensive ways and means of utilizing the
present information in a fruitful manner. This chapter reports a
Summary of the Study under the headings: Introduction,
Statement of the Problem, Title of the problem, Need for the
Study, Scope of the Study, Objectives of the Study, Hypothesis
of the Study, Variables Included in the Study, Tools Used,
Sample Selected, Collection of Data, Scoring and Analysis,
Statistical Techniques Employed, Major Findings of the Study,
Conclusions, Educational Implications, Delimitations and
Suggestions for further Research.
MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The statistical treatment of the data reveals the following
major findings of the study.

265
Distribution characteristics of achievement of VIII class
students in English
1. The mean value is 105.49. The median and mode values are
106.00 and 103.00. The values of skewness is -0.370 and
kurtosis is -0.120. For normal distribution the value of
skewness is 0.00 and kurtosis is 3.00. Hence the frequency
distribution is negatively skewed and lepto kurtic. (The
values skewness and Kurtosis are computed based on
moments; Aggarwal, 1990). It implies that the scores are
massed at the high / right end of the scale and are spread out
gradually towards low / left end of the scale. The distribution
is high peaked than the normal distribution. On the whole the
achievement of the VIII class students is positive, because
mean achievement is greater than 50 percent.
2. There are 600 rural VIII class students and 600 urban VIII
class students (Total sample N = 1200). It is observed from
the above tables that the mean of achievement of urban VIII
class students (106.63) is high than the mean of achievement
of rural VIII class students (104.35). The standard deviation
of achievement of rural VIII class students (14.580) is high
than the standard deviation of achievement of urban VIII
class students (13.870). The values of skewness for
achievement of rural and urban students are -0.330, and -
0.390 respectively. The values of skewness are negative for
all distributions. It implies that the scores are massed at high
/ right end of the scale and are spread out gradually towards
the low / left end of the scale. The values of kurtosis for
266
 achievement of rural and urban are 0.310, and -0.100
respectively. Hence all the distributions of achievement in
English test scores for rural and urban VIII class students are
slightly lepto kurtic. It implies that the distributions are high
peaked than the normal distribution.
3. There are 600 Government VIII class students and 600
Private VIII class students (Total sample N = 1200). It is
observed from the above tables that the mean of achievement
of Government VIII class students (106.52) is high than the
mean of achievement of Private VIII class students (104.47).
The standard deviation of achievement of Private VIII class
students (14.670) is high than the standard deviation of
achievement of Government VIII class students (13.790).
The values of skewness for achievement of Government and
Private students are -0.260, and -0.440 respectively. The
values of skewness are negative for all distributions. It
implies that the scores are massed at high / right end of the
scale and are spread out gradually towards the low / left end
of the scale. The values of kurtosis for achievement of
Government and Private VIII class students are -0.290 and -
0.060 respectively. Hence all the distributions of
achievement in English test scores for Government and
Private VIII class students are slightly lepto kurtic. It implies
that the distributions are high peaked than the normal
distribution.
4. There are 600 Boys and 600 Girls (Total sample N = 1200).
It is observed from the above tables that the mean of
267
 achievement of boys (106.14) is high than the mean of
achievement of girls (104.84). The standard deviation of
achievement of girls (14.790) is high than the standard
deviation of achievement of boys (13.710). The values of
skewness for achievement of boys and girls students are -
0.340, and -0.380 respectively. The values of skewness are
negative for all distributions. It implies that the scores are
massed at high / right end of the scale and are spread out
gradually towards the low / left end of the scale. The values
of kurtosis for achievement of Boys and Girls VIII class
students are -0.390 and -0.040 respectively. Hence all the
distributions of achievement in English test scores for Boys
and Girls are slightly lepto kurtic. It implies that the
distributions are high peaked than the normal distribution.
5. The mean achievement for the VIII class students of urban
schools is the highest (106.63) among all the groups and the
lowest (104.35) for the VIII class students of rural schools.
The standard deviation of achievement in English test scores
for the VIII class students of girls is the highest (14.790)
among all the groups and the lowest (13.710) for the boys.
The values of skewness for all the distributions are
negatively skewed, it implies that scores are massed at high
/ right end of the scale and are spread out gradually towards
the low / left end of the scale The values of kurtosis for all
distributions are lepto kurtic. It implies that the distributions
are high peaked than the normal distribution.

268
Factorial designs of achievement of VIII class students in
English
6. There is significant main of locality at 0.01 level on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
7. There is significant main of management at 0.05 level on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
8. There is significant two factor interaction effects of Locality
Vs Management and locality Vs Gender at 0.01 level on the
achievement of VIII class students in English.
The impact of socio – demographic variables on the
achievement of VIII class students in English
9. There is significant influence of locality at 0.01 level on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
10. There is significant influence of management at 0.05 level on
the achievement in English of VIII class students.
11. There is significant influence of age at 0.01 level on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
12. There is significant influence of annual income of the family
at 0.01 level on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
13. There is significant influence of father occupation at 0.05
level on the achievement in English of VIII class students.
14. There is significant influence of economic position of the
family at 0.01 level on the achievement in English of VIII
class students.
15. There is significant influence of study hours at home at 0.01
level on the achievement in English of VIII class students.
269
16. There is significant influence of Leisure time activities at
0.01 level on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
The impact of psychological variables on the achievement in
English of VIII class students
17. There is significant influence of anxiety at 0.05 level on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
18. There is significant influence of General habits and attitudes,
School environment and study habits total at 0.01 level on
the achievement in English of VIII class students.
19. There is significant influence of Health and Sex
appropriateness, Abilities, Self-confidence, Self-acceptance,
Worthiness, Present, Past and Future, Emotional Maturity
and Self concept total at 0.01 level on the achievement in
English of VIII class students.
20. There is significant influence of Personality factor – A,
Personality Factor B, Personality Factor C, Personality
Factor D, Personality Factor J and personality factor – Q2 at
0.01 level and Personality factor – F, Personality Factor Q3
and personality factor – Q4 at 0.05 level on the achievement
in English of VIII class students.
Step – Wise Multiple Regression Analysis
21. In the summary of the last step (23 rd) of step - wise multiple
regression analysis with achievement in English and fifty-
three (1 – 53) all independent variables, the value of R 2 is
0.216. This shows that these twelve variables put together

270
 could explain 21.60 percent of variance in the dependent
variable (AIE).
The regression equation at the end of 23 rd step could be
written as;
AIE = 69.184 + (1.890) (SCH) + (1.449) (PFD) + (1.620) (SCF)
+ (4.078) (SH7) + (1.357) (SHT) + (1.443) (SH6) + (1.861)
(PFC) + (-2.138) (AI) + (-2.732) (SH5) + (-1.733) (AN) +
(1.561) (PFJ) + (1.489) (LTA) + (2.234) (L) + (3.838) (PFB) +
(-2.916) (SCS1) + (1.479) (SCE) + (-1.709) (FO) + (2.017) (FE)
+ (1.133) (SCB) + (1.160) (SHH) + (1.019) (PFI) + (0.927)
(HE) + (-1.043) (EPF)
Hence it is concluded that Achievement in English
score could best be predicted with the help of Worthiness,
Personality Factor – D, Self acceptance, Social environment,
Study habits total, General habits and attitudes, Personality
Factor – C, Annual income, Preparation for examinations,
Anxiety, Personality Factor – J, Leisure time activities,
Locality, Personality Factor – B, Beliefs and convictions, Self
confidence, Father occupation, Father education, Abilities,
Study hours at home, Personality Factor – I, Home
environment and Economic position of the family among the
fifty three (1 – 53) independent variables.
CONCLUSION
In the light of the findings presented in preceding pages,
the following conclusions are drawn.
1. The frequency distribution of achievement in English of VIII
class students is very nearer to normal distribution.
271
2. All the VIII class students do not have same achievement in
English.
3. Locality has significant main effect on the achievement in
English of VIII class students.
4. Management has significant main effect on the achievement
in English of VIII class students.
5. Locality Vs management has significant two factor
interaction effects on the achievement in English of VIII
class students.
6. Locality Vs gender has significant two factor interaction
effects on the achievement in English of VIII class students.
7. Age has significant influence on the achievement in English
of VIII class students.
8. Annual income of the family has significant influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
9. Father occupation has significant influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
10. Economic position of the family has significant influence on
the achievement in English of VIII class students.
11. Study hours at home have significant influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
12. Leisure time activities has significant influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students.
13. Anxiety has significant influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students.

272
14. General habits and attitudes, School environment and Study
habits total have significant influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students.
15. Health and Sex appropriateness, Abilities, Self-confidence,
Self-acceptance, Worthiness, Present, Past and Future,
Emotional Maturity and Self concept total have significant
influence on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
16. Personality factor – A, Personality Factor B, Personality
Factor C, Personality Factor D, Personality factor – F,
Personality Factor J, Personality factor – Q2, Personality
factor – Q3 and Personality factor – Q4 have significant
influence on the achievement in English of VIII class
students.
17. It is possible to predict the achievement in English of VIII
class students with help of different sets of independent
variables.
18. It is possible to develop, the regression equations for
predicting the achievement in English of VIII class students
with the help of different sets of independent variables.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
Attention may be given to the provision of resources and
the internal organization of schools on the development of
English language and the teaching of reading the principle that
reading, writing and listening should be treated as unity and that
there should be unbroken continuity across the years.
273
 Language is made up of certain elements. Language is a
system comprising of the elements like sound system-phonology
and the structural or the grammatical elements, and lexical
elements or vocabulary. Vocabulary development must be seen
as organic part of a language system involving listening,
speaking, reading, writing, visualizing and observing.
Inadequate vocabulary skills result in inadequate
conceptualization, and this ultimately leads to confused
comprehension and low achievement in English. In India,
English has been playing the role of link language. It is the
language of the source of knowledge.
Children come to school with many different thoughts,
beliefs, attitudes, self-concepts, levels of confidence, skills,
strengths, habits and many more personal characteristics. All of
these affect their educational experiences and learning outcomes,
importantly, through reading. As children move through various
stages of reading, they learn many new skills and strategies that
enable them to become skilled readers. Throughout the process
students form many reading experiences having the help of an
acquaintance with parents and other family members in the
home, teachers in the school and other persons in the society.
They utilize the printed material around them to enhance their
reading abilities. Early home and school experiences affect
future outcomes and success for reading. Troubled readers
almost always see themselves as poor readers. This may lead to
fear, anxiety or total rejection of reading. For skilled readers
reading is a pleasure and joy.
274
 Phonological awareness, decoding and spelling are the
important components of word recognition skills.
Comprehension is a generic term used to refer to both listening
and comprehension. A fluent reader must possess good decoding
skills, adequate comprehension skills, and the ability to process
information at an optimal rate.
The three components of reading - decoding,
comprehension and fluency can be assessed by educational
diagnostician, reading specialist, or the classroom teacher. Once
the weak component is identified, remedial techniques to
improve the weak component can be used.
The combination of social interaction among students, an
abundance of reading materials, good study habits with proper
self-concepts and help and encouragement by parents and
teachers’ emphasis on free reading increases the time that the
students devote to reading.
On the basis of the results of the present investigation the
following recommendations are suggested:
1. Locality has influence on the achievement in English of VIII
class students. It is observed that urban students have better
performance than rural students. It is advised to provide
necessary steps may be taken to improve their performance
through extra coaching for rural students.
2. Management has influence on the achievement in English of
VIII class students. It is observed that Government school
students have better performance than Private school
students. More number of schools of this type may be
275
 established and similar atmosphere may be promoted in
Government schools.
3. Age has influence on the achievement in English of VIII
class students. It is observed that performance of low age
group students is better than high age group students. It is
advised to provide relevant programmes for higher age VIII
class students for better performance of achievement in
English.
4. Annual income of the family has influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students. It is observed
that performance of low annual income of the family group
students is better than high annual income of the family
group students. Government has to take necessary steps for
scholarships and hostel facilities to the poor students on the
basis of annual income of the family of the students.
5. Father occupation has influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students. It is observed that
performance of non employed father group students is better
than employed father group students. Government has to
take necessary steps for better amenities for the fathers.
6. Economic position of the family has influence on the
achievement in English of VIII class students. It is observed
that performance of high economic position of the family
group students is better than low economic position of the
family group students. Government has to take necessary
steps for scholarships and hostel facilities to the poor

276
 students on the basis of economic position of the family of
the students.
7. Study hours at home have influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students. It is observed that
performance of low study hours at home group students is
better than high study hours at home group students. Parents
have to take necessary steps for better atmosphere in the
home.
8. Leisure time activities have influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students. It is observed that
performance of help to others group students is better than
reading group students. Parents have to take necessary steps
for better atmosphere in the home.
9. Anxiety has significant influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students. It is observed that
performance of Low anxiety group students have better than
the high anxiety group students. To reduce the anxiety of
VIII class students through guidance and counseling for
better performance of achievement in English.
10. Study habits have influence on the achievement in English
of VIII class students. At present the system of education
forgot its main task in fostering the development of whole
sum study habits among students. Hence in every school and
home to mould the student’s good study habits within the
current techniques to show that they can have a stable mind.
The following study habits must be developed in VIII class
students through guidance and counseling for better
277
 performance of achievement in English: General habits and
attitudes, School environment and study habits total.
11. Self – concepts has influence on the achievement in English
of VIII class students. At present the system of education
forgot its main task in fostering the development of whole
sum self concept among students because of a sense of
insecurity among the students. Hence in every school the
guidance and counseling centers are opened to mould the
student’s self – concept within the current techniques to
show that they can have a stable mind. The following self –
concepts characteristics may be developed in VIII class
students through guidance and counseling for better
performance of achievement in English: Health and Sex
appropriateness, Abilities, Self-confidence, Self-acceptance,
Worthiness, Present, Past and Future, Emotional Maturity
and Self concept total.
12. Personality Factors have influence on the achievement in
English of VIII class students. At present the system of
education forgot its main task in fostering the development
of whole sum personality among students because of a sense
of insecurity among the students. Hence in every school the
guidance and counseling centers are opened to mould the
student’s personality within the current techniques to show
that they can have a stable mind. The following personality
characteristic may be developed in VIII class students
through guidance and counseling for better performance of
achievement in English: (1) Affectothymia; Warm-hearted,
278
 Outgoing, Easygoing, Participating, (2) High Intelligence;
Crystallized, Power Measure, (3) Higher Ego Strength;
Emotionally Stable, Mature, Faces Reality, Calm (4)
Excitability; Excitable, Impatient, Demanding, Overactive,
Unrestrained (5) Surgency; Enthusiastic, Headless, Happy-
go-lucky (6) Coasthenia; Circumspect Individualism,
Reflective, Internally Restrained (7) Self-Sufficiency; Self-
sufficient, Resourceful, Prefers Own Decisions (8) High
Strength Of Self-Sentiment; Controlled, Exacting Will
Power, Socially Precise, Compulsive, Following Self-image
and (9) High Ergic Tension; Tense, Frustrated, Driven,
Overwrought, Fretful..
13. A substantial course on reading instruction should be part of
every primary and secondary teacher’s training, in all
subjects for teacher trainees.
14. Better qualified and specially trained (in reading instruction)
teachers may be recruited in all the secondary schools.
15. Creating good reading atmosphere in the classroom and
providing adequate time for reading instruction in the class
time-table will go a long way in improving the reading skills
of the secondary school students.
16. English language in the secondary schools should have
improved resources in terms of staffing, accommodation and
ancillary help and also community library facilities may also
be increased for improving reading skills of the pupils.
17. Entire school staff should involve in bringing children’s
attainment of high levels of achievement through
279
 instructional programmes and by involving the parents in
their children’s reading and homework.
18. Every school should have systematic policy for the
development of reading competence in pupils of all ages and
ability levels.
19. Full care and attention should be taken during their exposure
to different training programmes at college level.
20. Inter – school achievement in English tests may be
conducted frequently.
21. Latest innovations like Programmed Reading Instruction
Material, Teaching Machines and Computer Assisted
Instructions may be utilized for improving the achievement
in English of the students.
22. Parent teacher association may be regularly arranged in the
high schools and the difficulties of achievement in English
of the pupils may be brought to the notice of the parents.
Necessary instructions may be provided for the parents for
the improvement in achievement in English among the
pupils.
23. Parental help in the form of modeling good reading habits
and monitoring homework are associated with gains in
achievement in English. Programmes that assist families on
initiating and sustaining these sorts of activities should be
planned by the administrators.
24. Professional opportunities should be provided to teachers to
learn about effective practices to use knowledge to develop

280
 the word decoding skills, comprehension skills and strategies
among all the students.
25. Proper interests may be developed among pupils to utilize
the mass – media in better way.
26. Reading dailies/magazines and listening to English are better
associated with the scores on achievement in English. Hence,
it is recommended to provide the students with good number
of magazines of their interest and dailies in the home and in
the school.
27. Special care / attention should be given to the educationally
challenged personnel.
28. Students will be better able to comprehend texts when they
are taught to make connections between what they know and
what they are reading. Good comprehension helps them to
make these connections more effective. Vocabulary
knowledge is an important part of comprehension and good
vocabulary instruction involves students actively in learning
word meanings, as well as relating words to contexts and
other known words. Teaching about words improves
students’ comprehension and achievement in English.
29. Teachers are suggested to analyze each text to determine its
potential challenges and match it with their goals. They
should consider conceptual and decoding demands and apply
strategies to meet those challenges.
30. Teachers should be trained on strategies to promote reading
activities among the students with the information of latest
techniques.
281
31. The cultural and co-curricular activities have their own
influence on the achievement in English / development
among the students. Hence, the authorities should provide /
encourage such type of programmes and encourage the
students to participate in such programmes.
32. The deficiencies in the physical and infrastructural facilities
should be improved.
33. The government should take suitable steps in creating
campus more attractive for both the student and teacher.
34. The students should be taken to the language laboratories for
their participation and the language laboratory facilities
should be made available to all the students to stimulate them
towards reading.
35. There should be a reading clinic or remedial centre in every
secondary school or giving assess to a comprehensive
diagnostic service and expert medical, psychological and
teaching help.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The following suggestion are considered for the research.
1. A cross cultural study may be conducted for the tribal and
non - tribal groups; Indians and abroad like America, Tibet
etc., for comparing their moral behavior and achievement in
English.
2. Experimental designs may be developed in order to test
different methods of teaching morality and their effect on
achievement in English.

282
3. Experimental designs may be planned to examine the
influence of effective methods of developing programmes
and techniques of giving moral instructions on achievement
in English.
4. Many psychological factors like intelligence, emotional
intelligence, emotional maturity and creativity and so on may
be examined for their effect on achievement in English.
5. Only very few socio - demographic variables and psycho -
sociological variables are studied in the present study. Some
other variables like merits, attendance, regularity of students
etc. may help to know their impact on the achievement in
English.
6. Other significant factors like parental commitment, parental
behavior and child rearing practice may be studied for their
effect on achievement in English.
7. Similar study can be carried out on other sample subjects of
other states.
8. Some projects related to achievement in English for
enhancing competency among the teachers in the educational
system may be taken up.
9. The present study is confined to 1200 VIII class students. It
is suggested that future researchers may under take studies
with larger sample.
10. The study is confined only to VIII class students. A similar
investigation may be conducted by taking students from
different classes also, namely VII, IX and X classes,
Intermediate, Under -Graduate, Post - Graduate courses.
283
11. The study may be undertaken to cover the other age groups.
12. This is a presage – product study in the area of achievement
in English presage – process, process – product and presage
– process – product studies may be undertaken in the area of
achievement in English.
Let there be an optimistic view on educational issues like
these in the years to come
“NO MAN NEEDS SYMPATHY BECAUSE HE HAS
TO WORK, BECAUSE HE HAS A BURDEN TO CARRY.
FAR AND AWAY THE BEST PRIZE THAT LIFE OFFERS
IS THE CHANCE TO WORK HARD AT WORK WORTH
DOING” - THEODORE ROOSEVELT

284
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