Tutorial: 1 of 7

Introduction to Waveforms
In the Oscillators   tutorials we saw that an oscillator is an electronic circuit used to generate a
continuous output signal usually in the form of a sinusoid at some predetermined frequency or
wavelength set by the resonant components of the circuit. We also saw that there are many
different types of oscillator circuits available but generally they all consist of an amplifier and
either an Inductor-Capacitor, ( LC ) or Resistor-Capacitor, ( RC ) tank circuit used to produce a
sine wave type output signal.

Typical Electrical Waveform

But sometimes in electronic circuits we need to produce many different types, frequencies and
shapes of Signal Waveform such as Square, Rectangular Triangular or Sawtoothed waveforms.

These types of signal waveform can then be used for either timing signals, clock signals or as
trigger pulses. However, before we can begin to look at how the different types of waveforms are
produced, we firstly need to understand the basic characteristics that make up an electrical
Waveform.

Technically speaking, an Electrical Waveform is basically a visual representation of the

variation of a voltage or current over time. In plain English this means that if we plotted these
voltage or current variations on a piece of graph paper against a base (x-axis) of time, ( t ) the
resulting plot or drawing would represent the shape of a Waveform as shown. There are many
different types of waveforms available but they can all be broken down into two distinctive
groups.

 1. Uni-directional Waveforms   -  these waveforms are always positive or negative in

nature flowing in one forward direction only as they do not cross the zero axis point.
Common uni-directional waveforms include Square-wave timing signals, Clock pulses
and Trigger pulses.
  
 2. Bi-directional Waveforms   -  these waveforms are also called alternating waveforms
as they alternate from a positive direction to a negative direction constantly crossing the
 zero axis point. Bi-directional waveforms go through periodic changes in amplitude, with
the most common by far being the Sine-wave.

Whether the waveform is uni-directional, bi-directional, periodic, non-periodic, symmetrical,

non-symmetrical, simple or complex, all electrical waveforms include the following three
common characteristics:

 1). Period: – This is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself
from start to finish. This value can also be called the Periodic Time, ( T ) of the
waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
  
 2). Frequency: – This is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one
second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the
standard unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
  
 3). Amplitude: – This is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in
volts or amps.

Periodic Waveforms
Periodic waveforms are the most common of all the waveform types as it includes Sine Waves.
The AC (Alternating Current) mains waveform in your home is a sine wave and one which
constantly alternates between a maximum value and a minimum value over time. The amount of
time it takes between each individual repetition or cycle of a sinusoidal waveform is known as its
"periodic time" or simply the Period of the waveform. In other words, the time it takes for the
waveform to repeat itself.

Then this period can vary with each waveform from fractions of a second to thousands of
seconds as it depends upon the frequency of the waveform. For example, a sinusoidal waveform
which takes one second to complete its cycle will have a periodic time of one second. Likewise a
sine wave which takes five seconds to complete will have a periodic time of five seconds and so
on.

So, if the length of time it takes for the waveform to complete one full pattern or cycle before it
repeats itself is known as the "period of the wave" and is measured in seconds, we can then
express the waveform as a period number per second denoted by the letter T as shown below.

A Sine Wave Waveform

Units of periodic time, ( T ) include: Seconds ( s ), milliseconds ( ms ) and microseconds ( μs ).

For sine wave waveforms only, we can also express the periodic time of the waveform in either
degrees or radians, as one full cycle is equal to 360o ( T = 360o ) or in radians as 2pi, 2π ( T =
2π ), then we can say that   2π radians = 360o - ( Remember this! ).

We now know that the time it takes for a waveform to repeat itself is known as the periodic time
or period which represents a fixed amount of time. If we take the reciprocal of the period, ( 1/T )
we end up with a value that denotes the number of times a period or cycle repeats itself in one
second or cycles per second, and this is commonly known as Frequency with units of Hertz,
(Hz). Then Hertz can also be defined as "cycles per second" (cps) and 1Hz is exactly equal to 1
cycle per second.

Both period and frequency are mathematical reciprocals of each other and as the periodic time of
the waveform decreases, its frequency increases and vice versa with the relationship between
Periodic time and Frequency given as.

Relationship between Frequency and Periodic Time

Where:  ƒ is in Hertz and T is in Seconds.

One Hertz is exactly equal to one cycle per second, but one hertz is a very small unit so prefixes
are used that denote the order of magnitude of the waveform such as kHz, MHz and even GHz.

Prefix Definition Written as Time Period

Kilo Thousand kHz 1ms
Mega Million MHz 1us
Giga Billion GHz 1ns
Tera Trillion THz 1ps

Square Wave Waveforms

Square-wave Waveforms are used extensively in electronic and micro electronic circuits for
clock and timing control signals as they are symmetrical waveforms of equal and square duration
representing each half of a cycle and nearly all digital logic circuits use square wave waveforms
on their input and output gates. Unlike sine waves which have a smooth rise and fall waveform
with rounded corners at their positive and negative peaks, square waves on the other hand have
very steep almost vertical up and down sides with a flat top and bottom producing a waveform
which matches its description, - "Square" as shown below.

A Square Wave Waveform

We know that square wave waveforms are symmetrical in shape as each half of the cycle is
identical, so the time that the pulse width is positive must be equal to the time that the pulse
width is negative or zero. When square wave waveforms are used as "clock" signals in digital
circuits the time of the positive pulse width is known as the "Duty Cycle" of the period.

Then we can say that for a square wave waveform the positive or "ON" time is equal to the
negative or "OFF" time so the duty cycle must be 50%, (half of its period). As frequency is equal
to the reciprocal of the period, ( 1/T ) we can define the frequency of a square wave waveform
as:
Example No1

A Square Wave waveform has a pulse width of 10ms, calculate its frequency, ( ƒ ).

For a square wave shaped waveform, the duty cycle is given as 50%, therefore the period of the
waveform must be equal to: 10ms + 10ms or 20ms

So to summarise, Square wave Waveforms are symmetrical in shape and have a positive pulse
width equal to the negative pulse width resulting in a 50% duty cycle. Square wave waveforms
are used in digital systems to represent a logic level "1", high amplitude and logic level "0", low
amplitude. If the duty cycle of the waveform is any other value than 50% the resulting waveform
would then be called a Rectangular Waveform or a Pulse.

Rectangular Waveforms
Rectangular Waveforms are similar to the square wave waveform above, the difference being
that the two pulse widths of the waveform are of an unequal time period. Rectangular waveforms
are therefore classed as "Non-symmetrical" waveforms as shown below.

A Rectangular Waveform

The example above shows that the positive pulse width is shorter in time than the negative pulse
width. Equally, the negative pulse width could be shorter than the positive pulse width, either
way the resulting waveform shape would still be that of a rectangular waveform.
These positive and negative pulse widths are sometimes called "Mark" and "Space" respectively,
with the ratio of the Mark time to the Space time being known as the "Mark-to-Space" ratio of
the period and for a Square wave waveform this would be equal to one.

Example No2

A Rectangular waveform has a positive pulse width (Mark time) of 10ms and a duty cycle of
25%, calculate its frequency.

The duty cycle is given as 25% or 1/4 and this is equal to the mark time which is 10ms, then the
period of the waveform must be equal to: 10ms (25%) + 30ms (75%) which equals 40ms (100%)
in total.

Rectangular Waveforms can be used to regulate the amount of power being applied to a load
such as a lamp or motor by varying the duty cycle of the waveform. The higher the duty cycle,
the greater the average amount of power being applied to the load and the lower the duty cycle,
the less the average amount of power being applied to the load and an excellent example of this
is in the use of "Pulse Width Modulation" speed controllers.

Triangular Waveforms
Triangular Waveforms are generally bi-directional non-sinusoidal waveforms that oscillate
between a positive and a negative peak value. Although called a triangular waveform, the
triangular wave is actually more of a symmetrical linear ramp waveform because it is simply a
slow rising and falling voltage signal at a constant frequency or rate. The rate at which the
voltage changes between each ramp direction is equal during both halves of the cycle as shown
below.

A Triangular Waveform
Generally, for Triangular Waveforms the positive-going ramp or slope (rise), is of the same
time duration as the negative-going ramp (decay) giving the triangular waveform a 50% duty
cycle and for a given voltage amplitude the frequency of the waveform will determine the
average voltage level of the wave, as a slow rise and slow delay time of the ramp will give a
lower voltage level than a fast rise and decay time. However, we can produce non-symmetrical
triangular waveforms by varying either the rising or decaying ramp values to give us another
type of waveform known commonly as a Sawtooth Waveform.

Sawtooth Waveforms
Sawtooth Waveforms are another type of periodic waveform. As its name suggests, the shape of
the waveform resembles the teeth of a saw blade. Sawtoothed waveforms can have a mirror
image of themselves, by having either a slow-rising but extremely steep decay, or an extremely
steep almost vertical rise and a slow-decay as shown below.

Sawtooth Waveforms
The positive ramp Sawtooth Waveform is the more common of the two waveform types with
the ramp portion of the wave being almost perfectly linear. The Sawtooth waveform is
commonly available from most function generators and consists of a fundamental frequency ( ƒ )
and all its integer ratios of even harmonics only, 1/2, 1/4, 1/6 1/8 ... 1/n etc. What this means in
practical terms is that the Sawtoothed Waveform is rich in harmonics and for music
synthesizers and musicians gives the quality of the sound or tonal colour to their music without
any distortion.

Triggers and Pulses

Although technically Triggers and Pulses are two separate waveforms, we can combine them
together here, as a "Trigger" is basically a very narrow "Pulse". The difference being is that a
trigger can be either positive or negative in direction whereas a pulse is only positive in
direction.

A Pulse Waveform or "Pulse-train" as they are more commonly called, is a type of non-
sinusoidal waveform that is similar to the Rectangular waveform we looked at earlier. The
difference being that the exact shape of the pulse is determined by the "Mark-to-Space" ratio of
the period and for a pulse or trigger waveform the Mark portion of the wave is very short with a
rapid rise and decay shape as shown below.

A Pulse Waveform
A Pulse is a waveform or signal in its own right. It has very different Mark-to-Space ratio
compared to a high frequency square wave clock signal or even a rectangular waveform. The
purpose of a "Pulse" and that of a trigger is to produce a very short signal to control the time at
which something happens for example, to start a Timer, Counter, Monostable or Flip-flop etc, or
as a trigger to switch "ON" Thyristors, Triacs and other power semiconductor devices.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article
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removed. (July 2008)
Conceptual design of a basic traveling-nut linear actuator. Note that in this example the lead
screw (gray) rotates while the lead nut (yellow) and tube (red) do not.

DVD drive with leadscrew and stepper motor.

Floppy disc drive with leadscrew and stepper motor.

A linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, as contrasted with circular
motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and industrial
machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and
in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders
inherently produce linear motion; many other mechanisms are used to provide a linear motion
from a rotating motor.

Contents
 1 Types
o 1.1 Mechanical actuators
o 1.2 Hydraulic actuators
o 1.3 Pneumatic actuators
o 1.4 Piezoelectric actuators
o 1.5 Electro-mechanical actuators
 1.5.1 Simplified design
 1.5.2 Standard vs compact construction
 1.5.3 Principles
 1.5.4 Variations
 1.5.5 Static load capacity
 1.5.6 Dynamic load capacity
 1.5.7 Linear motors
o 1.6 Telescoping linear actuator
 2 Advantages and disadvantages
 3 See also
 4 References
 5 External links

Types
Mechanical actuators

A mechanical linear actuator with digital readout (a type of micrometer).

Roller screw actuation with traveling screw (rotating nut).

Mechanical linear actuators typically operate by conversion of rotary motion into linear motion.
Conversion is commonly made via a few simple types of mechanism:

 Screw: leadscrew, screw jack, ball screw and roller screw actuators all operate on the
principle of the simple machine known as the screw. By rotating the actuator's nut, the
screw shaft moves in a line.
 Wheel and axle: Hoist, winch, rack and pinion, chain drive, belt drive, rigid chain and
rigid belt actuators operate on the principle of the wheel and axle. A rotating wheel
moves a cable, rack, chain or belt to produce linear motion. [1]
 Cam: Cam actuators function on a principle similar to that of the wedge, but provide
relatively limited travel. As a wheel-like cam rotates, its eccentric shape provides thrust
at the base of a shaft.

Some mechanical linear actuators only pull, such as hoists, chain drive and belt drives. Others
only push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, or lead screw can be
designed to provide force in both directions.

Mechanical actuators typically convert rotary motion of a control knob or handle into linear
displacement via screws and/or gears to which the knob or handle is attached. A jackscrew or car
jack is a familiar mechanical actuator. Another family of actuators are based on the segmented
spindle. Rotation of the jack handle is converted mechanically into the linear motion of the jack
head. Mechanical actuators are also frequently used in the field of lasers and optics to manipulate
the position of linear stages, rotary stages, mirror mounts, goniometers and other positioning
instruments. For accurate and repeatable positioning, index marks may be used on control knobs.
Some actuators even include an encoder and digital position readout.[2] These are similar to the
adjustment knobs used on micrometers except that their purpose is position adjustment rather
than position measurement.

Hydraulic actuators

Hydraulic actuators or hydraulic cylinders typically involve a hollow cylinder having a piston
inserted in it. An unbalanced pressure applied to the piston provides force that can move an
external object. Since liquids are nearly incompressible, a hydraulic cylinder can provide
controlled precise linear displacement of the piston. The displacement is only along the axis of
the piston. A familiar example of a manually operated hydraulic actuator is a hydraulic car jack.
Typically though, the term "hydraulic actuator" refers to a device controlled by a hydraulic
pump.

Pneumatic actuators

Pneumatic actuators, or pneumatic cylinders, are similar to hydraulic actuators except they use
compressed gas to provide pressure instead of a liquid. They work similarly to a piston in which
air is input inside of a chamber and pushes air out of the other side of the chamber. Air actuators
are not necessarily used for heavy duty machinery and instances where large amounts of weight
are present. One of the reasons that pneumatic linear actuators are preferred to other types is the
fact that the power source is simply a compressed air machine. Because air is the input source,
pneumatic actuators are able to be used in many places of mechanical activity. The downside is
that most air compressors are large, bulky, and loud. They are hard to transport to other areas
once installed. Also, pneumatic linear actuators are likely to leak and this makes them less
efficient than mechanical linear actuators

Piezoelectric actuators

See also: Ultrasonic motor

The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which application of a voltage to the
material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result,
piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a very
short range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric materials exhibit hysteresis which makes it
difficult to control their expansion in a repeatable manner.

Electro-mechanical actuators
A miniature electro-mechanical linear actuator where the lead nut is part of the motor. The lead
screw does not rotate, so as the lead nut is rotated by the motor, the lead screw is extended or
retracted.

Typical compact cylindrical linear electric actuator

Typical linear or rotary + linear electric actuator

Moving coil linear, rotary and linear + rotary actuators at work in various applications

Electro-mechanical actuators are similar to mechanical actuators except that the control knob or
handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary motion of the motor is converted to linear
displacement of the actuator. There are many designs of modern linear actuators and every
company that manufactures them tends to have their own proprietary method. The following is a
generalized description of a very simple electro-mechanical linear actuator.

Simplified design

Typically, an electric motor is mechanically connected to rotate a lead screw. A lead screw has a
continuous helical thread machined on its circumference running along the length (similar to the
thread on a bolt). Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut or ball nut with corresponding
helical threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the nut
interlocks with a non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore, when the lead screw is
rotated, the nut will be driven along the threads. The direction of motion of the nut will depend
on the direction of rotation of the lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can
be converted to usable linear displacement. Most current actuators are built either for high speed,
high force, or a compromise between the two. When considering an actuator for a particular
application, the most important specifications are typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and
lifetime.

There are many types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system. These include dc
brush, dc brushless, stepper, or in some cases, even induction motors. It all depends on the
application requirements and the loads the actuator is designed to move. For example, a linear
actuator using an integral horsepower AC induction motor driving a lead screw can be used to
actuate a large valve in a refinery. In this case, accuracy and move resolution down to a
thousandth isn't needed, but high force and speed is. For electromechanical linear actuators used
in laboratory instrumentation robotics, optical and laser equipment, or X-Y tables, fine resolution
into the micron region and high accuracy may require the use of a fractional horsepower stepper
motor linear actuator with a fine pitch lead screw. There are many variations in the
electromechanical linear actuator system. It is critical to understand the design requirements and
application constraints to know which one would be best.

Standard vs compact construction

A linear actuator using standard motors will commonly have the motor as a separate cylinder
attached to the side of the actuator, either parallel with the actuator or stick out to the side
perpendicular to the actuator. Or the motor may be attached to the back end of the actuator. The
drive motor is of typical construction with a solid drive shaft that is geared to the drive nut or
drive screw of the actuator.

Compact linear actuators use specially designed motors that try to fit the motor and actuator into
the smallest possible shape.

 The inner diameter of the motor shaft can be enlarged, so that the drive shaft can be
hollow. The drive screw and nut can therefore occupy the center of the motor, with no
need for additional gearing between the motor and the drive screw.
 Similarly the motor can be made to have a very small outer diameter, but instead the pole
faces are stretched out lengthwise so that the motor can still have very high torque while
fitting in a small diameter space.
Principles

In the majority of linear actuator designs, the basic principle of operation is that of an inclined
plane. The threads of a lead screw act as a continuous ramp that allows a small rotational force to
be used over a long distance to accomplish movement of a large load over a short distance.

Variations

Many variations on the basic design have been created. Most focus on providing general
improvements such as a higher mechanical efficiency, speed, or load capacity. There is also a
large engineering movement towards actuator miniaturization.

Most electro-mechanical designs incorporate a lead screw and lead nut. Some use a ball screw
and ball nut. In either case the screw may be connected to a motor or manual control knob either
directly or through a series of gears. Gears are typically used to allow a smaller (and weaker)
motor spinning at a higher rpm to be geared down to provide the torque necessary to spin the
screw under a heavier load than the motor would otherwise be capable of driving directly.
Effectively this sacrifices actuator speed in favor of increased actuator thrust. In some
applications the use of worm gear is common as this allow a smaller built in dimension still
allowing great travel length.

A traveling-nut linear actuator has a motor that stays attached to one end of the lead screw
(perhaps indirectly through a gear box), the motor spins the lead screw, and the lead nut is
restrained from spinning so it travels up and down the lead screw.

A traveling-screw linear actuator has a lead screw that passes entirely through the motor. In a
traveling-screw linear actuator, the motor "crawls" up and down a lead screw that is restrained
from spinning—the only spinning parts are inside the motor, and may not even be visible from
the outside.

Some lead screws have multiple "starts". This means that they have multiple threads alternating
on the same shaft. One way of visualizing this is in comparison to the multiple color stripes on a
candy cane. This allows for more adjustment between thread pitch and nut/screw thread contact
area, which determines the extension speed and load carrying capacity (of the threads),
respectively.

Static load capacity

Linear screw actuators can have a static loading capacity, meaning that when the motor stops the
actuator essentially locks in place and can support a load that is either pulling or pushing on the
actuator. Also this static load capacity increases mobility and speed.

The braking force of the actuator varies with the angular pitch of the screw threads and the
specific design of the threads. Acme threads have a very high static load capacity, while ball
screws have an extremely low load capacity and can be nearly free-floating.
Generally it is not possible to vary the static load capacity of screw actuators without additional
technology. The screw thread pitch and drive nut design defines a specific load capacity that
cannot be dynamically adjusted.

Dynamic load capacity

Dynamic load capacity can be added to a linear screw actuator using an electromagnetic brake
system, which applies friction to the spinning drive nut. For example a spring may be used to
apply brake pads to the drive nut, holding it in position when power is turned off. When the
actuator needs to be moved, an electromagnet counteracts the spring and releases the braking
force on the drive nut.

Similarly an electromagnetic ratchet mechanism can be used with a linear screw actuator so that
the drive system lifting a load will lock in position when power to the actuator is turned off. To
lower the actuator, an electromagnet is used to counteract the spring force and unlock the ratchet.

Linear motors

A linear motor is functionally the same as a rotary electric motor with the rotor and stator
circular magnetic field components peeled off and laid out in a straight line. Where a rotary
motor would spin around and re-use the same magnetic pole faces again, instead the magnetic
field structures of a linear motor are physically repeated across the length of the actuator.

Since the motor moves in a linear fashion to begin with, no lead screw is needed to convert
rotary motion to linear. While high capacity is possible, the material and/or motor limitations on
most designs are surpassed relatively quickly due to a reliance solely on magnetic attraction and
repulsion forces. Most linear motors have a low load capacity compared to other types of linear
actuators.

Linear motors have an advantage in outdoor or dirty environments in that the two halves do not
need to contact each other, and so the electromagnetic drive coils can be waterproofed and sealed
against moisture and corrosion, allowing for a very long servi
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Linear Actuator Guide

LINEAR ACTUATORS

The term “linear actuator” covers a broad range of products. A linear actuator is a mechanical
device that converts energy (power from air, electricity or liquid) to create motion in a straight
line; contrasted with circular motion of a conventional electric motor. It can also be used to apply
a force. Types of motion include: blocking, clamping, ejecting, lifting, descending, pushing or
pulling.

Basic Designs of a Linear Actuator

As mentioned earlier, the term “linear actuator” covers a broad range of products; each sub-
category looks and operates differently. In the majority of linear actuator designs, the basic
principle of operation is that of an inclined plane. Simply stated, the threads of a lead screw act
as a continuous ramp that allows a small rotational force to be used over a long distance to
accomplish movement of a large load over a short distance.

How a Linear Actuator Works

Simply stated, all linear actuators depend on an external, non-linear force to drive some kind of a
piston back and forth, yet, different types of linear actuator work in different ways. A ‘piston” is
defined as sliding piece which is moved by or against fluid, air pressure, or electricity. It usually
consists of a short cylinder fitting within a cylindrical vessel along which it moves back and
forth. For example: in steam engines, motion is created by steam, and pumps transmit motion to
a fluid.

Hydraulic pump actuators for example, depend on a hydraulic pump to compress and
decompress the two sides of a piston in order to push it back and forth. The piston is attached to
an external shaft, so the shaft moves with it. On the other hand, a wax motor linear actuator uses
an electric current to melt a block of wax, causing it to expand. As the wax expands and
contracts with varying electrical currents, a plunger that is pressed against it moves back and
forth in a linear motion.

Linear Actuator Power and Operational Options:

There are many options regarding the linear actuator driving force: Manual mechanical methods
include the lead screw systems of vises and clamps, and levers found in manual juicers or can
crushers. Cylinders with pistons powered by compressed air are used to move parts of machines.
Hydraulic cylinders with pistons provide large forces and strokes for construction equipment
such as shovels, lifts and jacks, and short throw cylinders for braking systems. Solenoid coils,
which are short throw electromagnetic linear actuators, turn switches and valves on and off in
addition to locking and unlocking doors. Linear progressions of electromagnetic motor poles are
used for trams, people movers, and material conveyors. Self-contained linear actuator motors are
also available.

Linear Actuator Applications Are Endless!

Linear actuators are used in industrial automation and machinery, machine tools, computer
peripherals such as disk drives and printers, home automation, packaging, assembly, electronic
manufacturing, data storage, laser processing, and test and inspection. Linear actuators are
typically used in applications along with motors, valves, pumps, switches, dampers, and in many
other places where linear motion is required. Linear actuators are also used for medical imaging
and diagnostics, solar, farming, construction, automotive, and robotics applications.

Linear actuators are used in nearly every type of electrical device that requires linear motion.
Power drills, pumps, and other industrial appliances often rely on linear actuators to move other
objects. Linear actuators are also used in some types of motors, and are often used in the robotics
industry to provide robots with motor skills. In fact, a simple piston inside of an electric motor or
fuel-injection engine uses linear motion, and therefore acts as a linear actuator.

Basic Variations of Linear Actuators

Many variations on the basic linear actuator design have been created throughout time. Most
focus on providing general improvements such as a higher mechanical efficiency, speed, or load
capacity. There is also a large engineering movement towards linear actuator miniaturization. It
is seen by some manufacturers that the smaller the linear actuator, the better. This does not
necessary equate to a cost-savings, rather, it is desirable for reducing the overall size and weight
of a linear actuator motion control system.

 Rotary to Linear Motion - Some linear actuators use straight sections of a cogged belt
or roller drive chain in a lengthwise circuit between two pulleys or sprockets. This type of
linear actuator system is widely used in garage door openers. Other linear actuators also
use standard rotational electric motors (such as Stepper, DC Brush, DC Brushless and AC
motors) with mechanical conversion for steering systems, or crankshafts in sewing
machines, and many other uses.

 Specialized Linear Actuators - Highly specialized linear actuators are used in critical
applications, such as hydraulically actuated flight control surfaces on large aircraft, in
ultra-fine machining equipment requiring precise positioning to tenths of thousandths, as
well as tiny servo motors and cog belts, and for minute movements in medical procedures
such as eye surgery. Even inexpensive stepper motor-driven linear actuator used in home
computer printers have resolution down to single pixel size.

 Motion, Position, Velocity, and Force Combinations - Designers integrating linear

actuators into equipment must examine their application carefully to determine whether
motion, force, position, or velocity is the primary operational requirement, or whether the
application requires some combination of all of them. For example: printer head skewing
systems must be able to position the heads precisely across a long stroke, while braking
cylinders must provide very large forces through relatively short strokes against the brake
discs that limit their motion. The hydraulic cylinders on large excavators used in
construction must be able to provide tens of thousands of pounds of force over many feet
of stroke, with a degree of precision of an inch or two being considered adequate.
Electronically controlled linear actuators used in circuit board assembly move at blinding
speed as microchips are inserted into precise positions. Therefore, complex linear
actuator applications will often incorporate position, force and velocity feedback sensors
connected into programmable machine control systems to assure that all linear actuator
performance is achieved consistently.

 Electromechanical Linear Actuator Designs: Most electromechanical designs

incorporate a lead screw and lead nut, while some use a ball screw and ball nut. In either
case, the screw may be connected to a motor or manual control knob either directly or
through a series of gears. Gears are typically used to allow a smaller, weaker motor,
rotating at a higher RPM to be geared down to provide the torque necessary to rotate the
screw under a heavier load than the motor would otherwise be capable of driving directly.
Generally speaking, this approach effectively sacrifices linear actuator speed in favor of
 increased actuator thrust. In some applications the use of a worm gear is common, as this
approach allows a smaller built-in dimension, while allowing for greater travel length.

A traveling-nut linear actuator has a motor that stays attached to one end of the lead
screw (perhaps indirectly through a gearbox). The motor rotates the lead screw, and the
lead nut is restrained from rotating, therefore the nut “travels” up and down the lead
screw.

A traveling-screw linear actuator has a lead screw that passes entirely through the motor.
In a traveling-screw linear actuator, the motor "crawls" up and down a lead screw that is
restrained from rotating. The only rotating parts are inside the motor. In some designs,
the rotating parts may not even be visible from the outside of the linear actuator.

Some lead screws have multiple "starts". This means that they have multiple threads
alternating on the same shaft. One simple way to visualize the multiple starts lead screw
is the multiple color stripes on a candy cane. Multiple starts lead screws provide for more
adjustment capability between thread pitch and the nut/screw thread contact area, which
will determine the extension speed and load carrying capacity (of the threads),
respectively.

Static Load Capacity of Linear Actuators

Screw-type linear actuators can have a static loading capacity, meaning that when the motor
stops, the actuator is essentially locked in place and can support the load that is either pulling or
pushing on the actuator. The braking force of the linear actuator varies with the angular pitch of
the screw threads and the specific design of the threads.

Acme screws have a very high static load capacity, while ball screws have an extremely low load
capacity and are nearly free-floating. Generally speaking, it is not possible to vary the static load
capacity of screw-type linear actuators without additional technology. The screw thread pitch
and drive nut design of the screw-type linear actuator defines the specific load capacity that
cannot be dynamically adjusted.

Dynamic Load Capacity of Linear Actuators

A dynamic load capacity is in some designs added to a screw-type linear actuator using an
electromagnetic brake system, which applies friction to the rotating drive nut. For example: A
spring may be used to apply brake pads to the drive nut, holding it in position when power is
turned off. When the actuator needs to be moved, an electromagnet counteracts the spring and
releases the braking force on the drive nut. Similarly, an electromagnetic ratchet mechanism can
be used with a screw-type linear actuator, so that the drive system lifting a load will lock in
position when power to the actuator is turned off. To lower the actuator, an electromagnet is used
to counteract the spring force and unlock the ratchet.
Specific Types of Linear Actuators

Mechanical Linear Actuators

Mechanical linear actuators typically operate by the conversion of rotary motion into linear
motion (motion in a straight line). Mechanical linear actuators convert rotary motion of a control
knob or handle into linear displacement using screws and/or gears to which the knob or handle is
attached. A jackscrew or car jack is a familiar mechanical linear actuator.

Another type of linear actuator is based on the segmented spindle. Rotation of the jack handle is
converted mechanically into the linear motion of the jack head. Mechanical linear actuators are
also frequently used in the field of lasers and optics to manipulate the position of linear stages,
rotary stages, mirror mounts, goniometers and other positioning instruments. For accurate and
repeatable positioning, index marks may be used on control knobs. Some linear actuator designs
include an encoder and digital position readout. These are similar to the adjustment knobs used
on micrometers, except that their purpose is position adjustment rather than position
measurement. Conversion is typically made using a few simple mechanisms:

 Screws: lead screw, screw jack, ball screw and roller screw linear actuators all operate on
the principles and functions of a simple screw. By rotating the actuator's nut, the screw
shaft moves in a straight line.

 Wheel and axle: Hoist, winch, rack and pinion, chain drive, belt drive, rigid chain and
rigid belt linear actuators operate on the principles and functions of the wheel and axle,
wherein a rotating wheel moves a cable, rack, chain or belt to produce linear motion.

 Cam: Cam linear actuators function on a principle similar to that of the wedge, but
provide relatively limited travel. As a wheel-like cam rotates, its eccentric shape provides
thrust at the base of a shaft.

Some mechanical linear actuators only pull (such as hoists, chain drive and belt drives), while
other types only push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, or lead screw
linear actuators can be designed to provide force in both directions. The selection of the linear
actuator is dependent upon the application and budget.

Hydraulic Linear Actuators

Hydraulic linear actuators, sometimes referred to as or hydraulic cylinders, typically involve a
hollow cylinder with a piston inserted into it. An unbalanced pressure applied to the piston
provides the necessary force that moves an external object. Since liquids are nearly
incompressible, a hydraulic cylinder can provide controlled precise linear displacement of the
piston. The displacement is only along the axis of the piston. Although the term "hydraulic
actuator" refers to a device controlled by a hydraulic pump, an example of a manually operated
hydraulic linear actuator is a simple hydraulic car jack.

Pneumatic Linear Actuators

Pneumatic linear actuators, sometimes referred to as pneumatic cylinders, are similar to
hydraulic linear actuators except they use compressed gas to provide pressure, rather than of a
liquid force.

Piezoelectric Linear Actuators

The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which the application of a voltage to
the material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a
result, piezoelectric linear actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution. The
downside to the Piezoelectric linear actuator is that it has a very short range of motion. In
addition, piezoelectric materials exhibit hysteresis, which makes it difficult to control its
expansion in a repeatable manner.

Electromechanical Linear Actuators

A miniature electromechanical linear actuator is a design wherein the lead nut is part of the
motor. The lead screw does not rotate; the lead nut is rotated by the motor and the lead screw is
extended or retracted. Electromechanical linear actuators are similar to mechanical actuators, the
only difference being the control knob or handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary
motion of the motor is converted into linear displacement of the actuator. There are many
designs of modern linear actuators. Every linear actuator manufacturer has their own proprietary
methods and designs, making it difficult to cross parts from one manufacturer to another, for a
given application. The following is a generalized description of a very simple electromechanical
linear actuator.

Typically, an electric motor is mechanically connected to rotate a lead screw. A lead screw has a
continuous helical thread machined on its circumference running along the length (similar to the
thread on a bolt). Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut or ball nut with corresponding
helical threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the nut
interlocks with a non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore, when the lead screw is
rotated, the nut is driven along the threads. The direction of motion of the nut will depend on the
direction of rotation of the lead screw. By connecting to the nut, the motion can be converted to
usable linear displacement.

Standard Construction or Compact Construction?

A linear actuator using standard motors will typically use the motor as a separate cylinder
attached to the side of the actuator, either parallel with the actuator or stuck out to the side,
positioned perpendicular to the actuator. Sometimes the motor is attached to the back end of the
actuator. The drive motor is of typical construction with a solid drive shaft that is geared to the
drive nut or drive screw of the linear actuator.

Compact linear actuators use specially designed motors that fit the motor and actuator
components into the smallest possible footprint. In such cases, the inner diameter of the motor
shaft can be enlarged, so that the drive shaft can be hollow. The drive screw and nut can
therefore occupy the center of the motor, with no need for additional gearing between the motor
and the drive screw. Similarly, the motor can be made to have a small outer diameter, with the
pole faces stretched out lengthwise so that the motor will provide high torque while fitting in a
small diameter design.

Motor-Type Linear Actuators

A motor-type linear actuator basically functions the same as a rotary electric motor with the rotor
and stator circular magnetic field components designed so that they are laid out in a straight line.
Where a rotary motor rotates and re-uses the same magnetic pole faces again and again, instead
the magnetic field structures of a motor-type linear actuator are physically repeated across the
length of the actuator. Since the motor moves in a linear fashion to begin with, no lead screw is
needed to convert rotary motion to linear. While high capacity is possible, the material and/or
motor limitations on most designs are surpassed relatively quickly due to a reliance solely on
magnetic attraction and repulsion forces. Most linear actuator motors have a low load capacity
compared to other types of linear actuators. However, linear actuator motors have an advantage
in outdoor or dirty environments, in that the two halves do not need to contact each other, and so
the electromagnetic drive coils can be waterproofed and sealed against moisture and corrosion.
The linear actuator motor design provides for a very long service life, so it can be an economical
choice for some applications.

Special Design: Telescoping Linear Actuator

Telescoping linear actuators are specialized linear actuators that are typically used where space
restrictions or other requirements dictate the best fit. The telescoping linear actuator’s range of
motion is many times greater than the unextended length of the actuating member. A common
form is made of concentric tubes of approximately equal length that extend and retract like
sleeves, one inside the other, such as the telescopic cylinder. Other more specialized telescoping
linear actuators use actuating members that act as rigid linear shafts when extended, but break
that line by folding, separating into pieces and/or uncoiling when retracted.

Examples of telescoping linear actuators include:

 Helical Band Linear Actuators

 Rigid Belt Linear Actuators
 Rigid Chain Linear Actuators
 Segmented Spindle Linear Actuators

Advantages and Disadvantages of Specific Linear Actuator Designs

Advantages of Linear Actuators

Each type of linear actuator is made differently and has its own advantages. Mechanical linear
actuators, for example, are relatively inexpensive, reusable, and self-contained. Piezoelectric
linear actuators can create extremely small linear motions and can consequently be used for
microcomputer and micro-mechanical applications. Hydraulic linear actuators can produce a
large amount of pressure, therefore they can be used for heavy duty applications. Pneumatic
linear actuators are powerful, compact, lightweight, very simply designed, and provide
repeatable motion. See chart for comparisons of linear actuator types.

Disadvantages of Linear Actuators

While each linear actuator has its own advantages, each also has its disadvantages. For example,
mechanical linear actuators are strictly manual and cannot be automated. Piezoelectric linear
actuators are slow, can only move across small areas, are very expensive, require a high voltage
to be effective, and require a secondary force to push the shaft back into its initial position. See
chart for comparisons of linear actuator types.

How to Select a Linear Actuator for a Specific Application:

“Linear actuator” is a broad term covering many different types of devices. The process of
selecting the best device for a specific application is dependent upon the user’s diligent research
and development practices. It is not easy when comparing the specifications between linear
actuator manufacturers, as there is very little standardization within the industry. Each type of
each linear actuator fulfills a different set of design requirements.

There are many different types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system as well.
These include DC Brush, DC Brushless, Servo, Stepper, and in some cases, even AC induction
motors. The application requirements and the loads the actuator is designed to move will dictate
the best motor option. For example, a linear actuator using an integral horsepower AC induction
motor driving a lead screw can be used to actuate a large valve in a refinery. In this case,
accuracy and move resolution down to a thousandth isn't needed, but high force and speed is
critical to the application. For electromechanical linear actuators used in laboratory
instrumentation, robotics, optical and laser equipment, or X-Y tables, fine resolution (measured
in microns) and high accuracy may require the use of a fractional horsepower stepper motor
linear actuator with a fine pitch lead screw. Because there are many variations in the
electromechanical linear actuator system, it is critical to understand all design requirements and
application constraints for the proper selection.

The following is a guideline to the selection of the linear actuator, and will assist you through
the process step by step. Carefully consider each step and you will be able to narrow down your
choice.

BEFORE YOU START

IMPORTANT NOTES: Linear actuators are used in a variety of applications across numerous
industries, including medical equipment, agriculture machinery, high-voltage switch gears, train
and bus doors, and factory processes and assembly machinery. Typical end uses include medical
beds, patient lifters, wheelchairs, adjustable tables and workstations, diagnostics, to name a few.
Each linear actuator application has unique requirements.

Manufacturers throughout the world that offer innumerable models of linear actuators in a wide
variety of stroke sizes, speeds, voltage and types. With the availability of so many
manufacturers, models and options, selecting the right linear actuator for your application can be
a daunting task. When contacting a manufacturer for application assistance for a linear actuator,
please be able to provide as much of the application requirements as possible, including the
environment in which you plan to use the linear actuator. Most linear actuators are built either
for high speed, high force, or a compromise between the two.

Starting the Process

Step One: The Basics

Describe and discuss the application in as much detail as possible with a knowledgeable and
experienced supplier. At this stage, focus on basic specifications for load, actuator, and power
and control) in the selection process. When considering a linear actuator for a specific
application, the most important specifications are: travel distance, speed, force, accuracy and
lifetime requirements. Other aspects of the linear actuator application will help determine which
products to choose. The following questions must be answered before the selection process can
start:

 What type of energy source will you use? Air, fluid, electricity? Answering this
question will eliminate many manufacturers and linear actuator types.

 Determine the amount of force required. This may be the weight of an object you are
lifting or friction that needs to be overcome. How much force (in newtons or pounds-
force) and in what directions (push, pull, vertical, and/or horizontal) will the actuator
need to move? (Force is a function of maximum and average dynamic loads.) Rule out
any linear actuators that are not capable of producing enough force.

 Speed: How fast (millimeters/second or inches/second) will the actuator need to move?
Decide how fast you need to move; you can rule out any linear actuators that are too fast
or too slow. Determining the speed combined with the force from step one will give you
the mechanical power required and how powerful the motor must be.

 Distance: Define how far your actuator needs to travel, also known as the stroke length.
Whenever possible select the standard catalog options. How far will the actuator need to
move? This will factor in both the stroke and retracted lengths and is usually expressed in
millimeters. Special requirements are generally more costly. IMPORTANT: Keep in
mind that the longer the stroke, the longer the linear actuator will be when fully retracted.
This is especially important if you need to fit into an existing space.
  Duty Cycle: How often will the actuator operate, and how much time will elapse
between operations? (This refers to the "duty cycle," which will be based on the number
of expected repetitions per unit of time in hours/day, minutes/hour, and/or
strokes/minute.) Check the duty cycle rating of your remaining choices. Except for high-
end servo units, most linear actuators may not operate continuously without overheating.

 Options to consider: What are the power supply options (motor vs. battery)?
A battery-powered application will probably require a DC motor rated the same as the
battery voltage. However, an AC powered application does not necessarily need an AC
motor because AC is fairly easily converted to any DC voltage. Be flexible when
choosing options such as built-in limit switches and position feedback devices such as
potentiometers and encoders. Consider that limit switches, for example, can often be
incorporated into part of your mechanism rather that being part of the actuator itself.

 Environmental Considerations: Will environmental factors (temperature variations,

moisture, vibration, or end-product shock) pose a challenge to operation? Most linear
actuators can operate well in an indoor environment, but harsh outdoor conditions,
extreme temperatures or submersion will drastically limit your product choices.
Sometimes it is easier to provide some external protection to the unit rather than find one
with the proper ingress protection rating that meets all your other requirements.

Narrowing Down the Selection of the Linear Actuator

Careful review of your linear actuator application can help to eliminate costly mistakes and
provide for optimal system performance.

Step Two: Beyond the Basics – Options to Consider

When a system is tailored for an application, the specific requirements will influence both the
design and the manufacturing processes. Regardless of end use, an actuation system is designed
by first identifying basic needs, and then evaluating certain key parameters that ultimately affect
the overall system operation.

Electromechanical linear actuators are designed to provide precision, efficiency, accuracy, and
repeatability in effecting and controlling linear movement. These devices serve as practical,
efficient, and relatively maintenance-free alternatives to their hydraulic or pneumatic actuator
counterparts. Depending on type and manufacturer, today's electromechanical linear actuators
can handle loads up to 3,000 pounds (13 kilonewtons) and deliver speeds up to 6 inches/second
(150 millimeters/second), with strokes ranging from 2 inches (50 millimeters) to 60 inches
(1,500 millimeters). Actuators can be self-contained in aluminum, zinc, or polymer housings and
ready to mount for easy plug-in operation (using either AC or DC power supplies).

What's more, actuators featuring both modular design and open architecture enable
interchangeable internal and external components, according to specifications. Please note that
standard components, including the types of drive screws, motors, front and rear attachments,
controls, and limit switches used, will allow for desired customization without the costs typically
associated with special modifications.

Note: The specific parameters that play a crucial role in every electromechanical actuator
application is the: electrical power in, duty cycle, and actuator efficiency. Answering the
following questions will help you to define the linear actuator further:

1. What is the desired lifetime for the end product? (Those answers will impact virtually
every component within a linear actuator system.)
2. How will the actuator be mounted? Will front and/or back mounts require special
configurations?
3. Does the application suggest particular safety mechanisms (e.g., "manual operators" for
use in case of emergency)?
4. Is space limited? (If so, the actuator will have to be designed to fit in a specific footprint.
5. If a motor is utilized, what are its type (AC, DC, or special) and voltage?
6. Is feedback required for speed and/or position? (This will indicate a need for add-on
components, such as encoders.)

Step Three: The Power Factor

A linear actuator is a device that produces linear motion by utilizing some external energy
source. As far as the source of energy used is concerned, it can be piezoelectric, pneumatic,
hydraulic, mechanical, electro-mechanical, etc. A linear actuator system draws principles from
both electrical and mechanical engineering disciplines. Consequently, power (defined in watts) is
usually the first requirement to be calculated. In order to get mechanical power out of an electric
linear actuator, it's necessary to put electrical power into the system. Mechanical power out is
usually the easier of the two to define because all that's needed for its calculation is the force, or
the load that will be moved, and the speed required.

If the parameters are in metric (SI) units, multiply the force (in newtons) by the speed (in
millimeters/second) to obtain watts. (To convert pounds to newtons, multiply by 4.448; to
convert inches to millimeters, multiply by 25.4.)

Mechanical power out (Po):

Po = F x v

F = Force (N)

v = Velocity (meters/sec)

Information regarding electrical power can be ascertained through performance graphs and
charts from suppliers' specification sheets. Suppliers chart this information differently, but more
often than not, there are graphs for force vs. speed and force vs. current draw at a specified
voltage. This data is often presented in two graphs or combined in one. The current draw may
also be presented in tabular form. In addition, factors will be given based on a duty-cycle curve.
The relevant formula is as follows:

Electrical power in (Pi):

Pi = E x I

E = Voltage (V)

I = Current (A)

Step Four: Calculating Duty Cycle

Users will want to establish the duty-cycle factor (sometimes called the "derating factor"). Duty
cycle is important. Sometimes the preliminary actuator selection may not meet all of an
application's operating requirements. The duty cycle indicates both how often an actuator will
operate and how much time there is between operations. Because the power lost to inefficiency
dissipates as heat, the actuator component with the lowest allowable temperature (usually this is
the motor) establishes the duty-cycle limit for the complete linear actuator system. Please note:
There are some heat losses from friction in a gearbox, and via ball-screw and acme-screw drive
systems.

To demonstrate how the duty cycle is calculated, assume an actuator runs for 10 seconds
cumulative, up and down, and then doesn't run for another 40 seconds. The duty cycle is
10/(40+10), or 20%. If duty cycle is increased, either load or speed must be reduced. Conversely,
if either load or speed decreases, duty cycle can increase. The duty cycle is relatively easy to
determine if a linear actuator is used on a machine or production device. In other, less predictable
applications or those where the linear actuator will be used infrequently, it's advisable to estimate
the worst-case scenario in order to assign a meaningful duty-cycle calculation. It is not advisable
to operate on the edge of the manufacturer's power curves because this might cause the linear
actuator and other components to run too hot. However, in some applications where the duty
cycle is 10% or less, the actuator can run to the limit of its power curves.

Step Five: Ascertaining 'Efficiency' and Expected Life

A system's "efficiency" is usually missing from most manufacturers' literature, but it can tell the
user how hot the actuator may get during operation; whether holding brakes should be specified
in the system if the actuator uses a ball screw; and how long batteries may last in battery-
powered systems, among other pertinent data. Calculating efficiency from performance curves is
simple: Divide mechanical power out by electrical power in. This yields the efficiency
percentage.

While these factors are being calculated and decision making is moving toward final selection,
one additional parameter should be addressed:: the application's expected lifetime. Although
linear actuator components (e.g., the motor or screw) can be replaced, most actuators can't be
easily repaired. In addition, it's important to cover application life expectancy because suppliers
will sometimes indicate acme or ball screw life at a certain load, or include mathematical
formulae to calculate life based on application parameters. A good design practice is to strive to
have the screw and motor life expectancies match as closely as possible.

In those cases where an existing linear actuator must be replaced, ensure that the application
engineer has all the necessary information to ensure a good fit. Whenever a linear actuator is
subject to replacement, it is recommended to review the application as if it were new.

Other Selection Considerations: Budget and Experience

Having a clear picture of a linear actuator system budget in your mind will help in selecting the
best product at an affordable price. Advance budget planning can definitely save the user a lot of
time in the selection process by eliminating some types that are too expensive for the application.
As mentioned earlier, there are many companies providing linear actuators to the customers
based on their requirements. It is important to choose a reliable company for the best results in
terms of the actuator features and price.

Common products associated with motion control systems using linear actuators:

AC Motor: An AC Motor is an electric motor that is driven by alternating current. The AC

Motor is used in the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical
energy is made from utilizing the force that is exerted by the rotating magnetic fields produced
by the alternating current that flows through its coils. The AC Motor is made up of two major
components: the stationary stator that is on the outside and has coils supplied with AC current,
and the inside rotor that is attached to the output shaft. Anaheim Automation has a full line of
AC motors, with many options for budget considerations. To select the best fit for your
application, refer to Anaheim Automation’s AC Motors.

Brake: A brake is a device that resists and reduces the motion of a mechanism. When the brake
is engaged, it “slips” until the driving mechanism stops. When the brake is disengaged, the
mechanism can rotate freely. Brakes are similar in principle to clutches. A clutch couples two
mechanisms in order to transmit motion and power, while a brake “couples” a mechanism to a
fixed frame in order to reduce motion and power. Anaheim Automation offers a line of friction
brakes in four series, in NEMA sizes 23, 34 and 42. Perfect for stopping and holding
applications, these compact brakes can handle high torque requirements, from 80 to 1,152 oz-in.
Their low-voltage design provides for applications that are susceptible to weak battery, brown
out, or long wiring runs. To select the best fit for your application, refer to the Anaheim
Automation’s Accessories/Brakes.

Brush DC Motor: A brush DC motor is a direct current (DC) motor that is a relatively simple
design. The brush motor is an electric motor that uses electricity and a magnetic field to produce
torque, which rotates the motor. At its most simple design, a brush motor requires two magnets
of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts as an electromagnet. The repellent and
attractive electromagnetic forces of the magnets provide the torque that causes the brush motor to
rotate. Anaheim Automation has a full line of brush DC motors, with many options for budget
considerations. To select the best fit for your application, refer to Anaheim Automation’s Brush
Motors.

Brushless DC Motor (BLDC): A brushless DC motor is an electric motor powered by direct

current (DC). Though typically more expensive than the standard electric or brushed motor, the
brushless DC has considerable advantages over its predecessor. Most notably, a brushless DC
motor boasts better performance and suffers less wear than brushed motors of similar size.
Anaheim Automation has a full line of brushless DC motors, with many options for budget
considerations. To select the best fit for your application, refer to Anaheim Automation’s
Brushless Motors.

Clutch: A clutch is a device that transmits power between two mechanisms (usually rotating)
selectively. When the clutch is engaged, it “slips” until the two mechanisms rotate at the same
speed and power is transmitted. When the clutch is disengaged, the two mechanisms are de-
coupled and allowed to rotate at different speeds. Power is not transmitted. Clutches are similar
in principle to brakes. In a brake, the driven mechanism would be connected to a fixed frame.

Torque Limiter (Torq/Gard and Centric Clutches) Uses: Centric Overload Clutches and
Torq/Gard Clutches provide machine protection and reduced repair time during jamming load
conditions. Mechanical or Pneumatic torque limiters provide consistent torque levels after many
overloads. Unlike friction style or shear pin-type torque limiters, Centric Overload Clutches and
Torq/Gard can provide an accurate method of resetting the torque with no operator intervention.
A single position clutch will re-engage in the exact rotational position each time. This is often
necessary for a system wherein timing is critical, such as bottling, packaging, and paper
converting type applications.

Coupling: A coupling is a device that connects two generally coaxial (inline) shafts at their ends
in order to transmit power between them. A coupling can be incorporated with a clutch to serve
as a clutch-coupling or a torque limiter. Anaheim Automation offers flexible and jaw couplings
that are designed to handle demanding applications. At high speeds, the couplings are capable of
transmitting high torque at a constant velocity. Anaheim Automation's couplings can compensate
for lateral, axial, and angular misalignments. Flexible couplings are offered in two types,
Bellows or Beam. These couplings have no backlash and require zero maintenance. Anaheim
Automation offers a wide variety of sizes. To select the best fit for your application, refer to their
website under Couplings.

Gearbox: A gearbox is a mechanical device for the purpose of transferring energy from one
device to another. A gearbox is used to increase torque, while reducing speed. Torque is the
power generated through the bending or twisting of a solid material. This term is often used
interchangeably with transmission. Anaheim Automation has a full line of gearboxes, with many
options for budget consideration. To select the best fit for your application, refer to Anaheim
Automation’s Gearboxes.

Linear Actuator Motors: Linear actuator motors are motors that provide push and pull motive
force in a straight line. There are many uses for many different types of linear actuator motors:
some will be used to move work tables on industrial machines, while others are better suited to
modulate control valves, drive material handling equipment, bottling and packaging and robotics,
and move printer and scanner heads back and forth on equipment. Large linear actuator motors
can drive shovels and lifts on construction equipment. They can be used for home automation
projects, such as providing the oscillatory motion of audio loudspeakers, lowering or raising
televisions, and in some solar energy systems.

Linear Guide: A linear guide is a mechanical linear motion bearing system or linear slide that is
designed to provide free motion. Linear guides are sometimes referred to as a linear actuator.
Anaheim Automation has a full line of linear guides that are precision rails and matched bearing
blocks, in many sizes (including miniature) with options for all budgets. To select the best fit for
your application, refer to the Anaheim Automation’s Linear Guides.

Rotary Union: A rotary union, or rotating union, is a device used to conduct fluids and gases
from one point to another, often under high pressure. Additionally, a rotating union is designed
to lock onto an input valve while rotating or swiveling to meet an outlet. Many rotary unions
incorporate multiple ports, some of which are designed to handle different types of material
simultaneously.

Slip Ring: A slip ring (in electrical engineering terms) is a method of making an electrical
connection through a rotating assembly. Slip rings, also called rotary electrical interfaces,
rotating electrical connectors, collectors, swivels, or electrical rotary joints, are commonly found
in electrical generators for AC systems and alternators and in packaging machinery, cable reels,
and wind turbines. One of the two rings is connected to one end of the armature winding and
other one to the other end of the armature winding.

Servo Motor: A servo motor is defined as an automatic device that uses an error-correction
routine to correct its motion. The term servo can be applied to systems other than a servo motor;
systems that use a feedback mechanism such as an encoder or other feedback device to control
the motion parameters. Typically when the term servo is used it applies to a 'servo motor' but is
also used as a general control term, meaning that a feedback loop is used to position an item.
Anaheim Automation has a full line of servo motors, including linear actuator servo motors, with
many options for budget considerations. To select the best fit for your application, refer to
Anaheim Automation’s Linear Servo Actuators sections of its web site.

Stepper Motor: A stepper motor is an electrical device, which divides the full rotation of the
motor into individual parts, called steps. Generally, stepper motors are brushless in order to
facilitate a synchronous rotation and operate without the input of an external source on the gear
itself. Simply stated, stepper motors are designed with electromagnets, which are arranged in
specific locations around the shaft, each engraved with teeth. These teeth match the teeth that are
placed on the gear itself. As the gear rotates, one section matches with the teeth of the first
electromagnet; offsetting the teeth from the other electromagnets, repeating the action as it
rotates. Anaheim Automation has a full line of stepper motors, including linear actuator stepper
motors, with many options for budget considerations. To select the best fit for your application,
refer to the Anaheim Automation’s Stepper Motors or Linear Actuators.
Table/Slide/Stage: The terms table, slide, stage and linear actuator are often used inter-
changeably, even though there are significant differences among them. Anaheim Automation
carries two types of screw-driven tables: standard screw-driven and precision screw-driven
tables. Some tables are designed with unsupported rails and others with supported rails that
utilize the stainless steel 400 series precision rolled lead screw, accurate up to 0.003"ft, with a
burnished finish and a zero backlash nut. These screw-driven tables (acme and ball screw) are
available as open-loop or closed-loop systems (wherein stepper motors are assembled with
encoders). Options available: light or heavy-duty configurations, travel lengths, homing and limit
switches, and lead screw pitch. Ideal for pick-and-place operations, circular and linear
interpolation, point-to-point motion, pin-insertion, inspection and test equipment, engraving, part
positioning and assembly, these tables yield a great cost/performance ratio. To select the best fit
for your application, refer to Anaheim Automation’s Tables.

Glossary of Terms for Linear Actuator Motion Systems

A – Ampere – Amp - The basic unit measure of electric current. Related term: current

(Absolute) Accuracy - Difference between ideal position and real position.

Absolute Positioning – Refers to a motion control system employing position feedback devices
to maintain a given mechanical location.

ACME Screw – The most common type of lead screw found in machine applications. The
ACME thread is a particular type of thread. Compared to a ball screw, ACME lead screws have a
very high friction and backlash, both of which are undesirable for high-performance applications.

AC Motor - A type of electric motor that runs on alternating current. AC motors are more
commonly used in industry than DC motors, but do not operate well at low speeds.

AC Servo Motor - A servomotor based on the design of conventional AC motors, with the
addition of an amplifier and a feedback device.

AC Synchronous Servo Motor - A servomotor based on the design of conventional AC

synchronous motors, with the addition of an amplifier and a feedback device.

Acceleration - The rate at which something increases its velocity. Acceleration is usually
measured in units of velocity change for each unit of time (inches/second
(velocity)/second(time), and in this example would be written as in./sec/sec or in./sec2

Accuracy - The relative status of something compared to its absolute or perfect value. In motion
control this will most often be a position description. A command may be set to 4.0 inches. The
accuracy of the system will be defined on how close to the absolute value of 4.0 inches the
system can affect the move. Accuracy may be defined as a one-time incident or the average over
a number of cycles or motions. Positioning accuracy will normally be defined in terms of
deviation (+/- from the theoretical) or limits (acceptable variation from the theoretical: i.e. 3.8 –
4.3 inches define acceptable limits of variation around a theoretical point.

Active front end – A front end processor which interacts with both upstream and downstream
equipment and makes required changes based on the incoming and outgoing parameters and
data, without external control.

Actual Position – The position of an axis relative to the commanded position. This may be the
position at the end of the command move, or the lag between command position at any point
during the move and the actual position of the axis at that point. The latter is commonly referred
to as following error.

Alarm – An indication that a monitored parameter is not within the prescribed acceptable range.
Usually this is in the form of an output than can be used to initiate an operator warning or
advisory, to generate a corrective action, or to cause a cessation of the operation entirely.

Algorithm - A mathematical process designed to systematically solve a problem. A complex

algorithm is used to control and stabilize the outputs in a closed-loop control system.

Amplifier – In motion control, the amplifier (sometimes referred to as a drive or driver) is the
component that follows the command from a controller and provides power to the motor. A
device that increases the size or strength of a signal. Servomotors use amplifiers as part of the
motor control system.

Analog Servo – A servo system that utilizes analog control and feedback systems, such as
voltage variation, pressure changes, etc.. Analog servos are most commonly found in hydraulic
and similar systems.

Analog Signal – A communication within the system that is accomplished by means of a signal
that varies in direct relation to the intensity or magnitude of the external quality being measured.
Typical examples are a 0 – 10 volt motor control signal, a hydraulic pilot pressure, a pneumatic
control pressure.

ARC Minute – An angular measurement equal to 1/60th of a degree.

Armature – An Armature is one of the components of a brushless DC motor. The armature is

part of the permanent magnet or electromagnet, or the moving iron part of a solenoid or relay.
The other component is the field winding or field magnet. The role of the “field” component is
simply to create a magnetic field (magnetic flux) for the armature to interact with, so this
component can comprise either permanent magnets, or electromagnets formed by a conducting
coil.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) – This code assigns a
number of electrical signals to each number and letter of the alphabet. In this manner,
alphanumeric information can be transmitted between machines in a series of binary numbers.
Automatic Feedback - Feedback that is controlled by an electronic or electromechanical
mechanism rather than a person. Automatic feedback is used in closed-loop control systems.

Axes of Motion: The specific major directions along which controlled movement occurs.
Usually referred to as the number of these major directions employed in a specific machine.
Generally defined as follows:

 X: Linear motion in a positioning direction

 Y: Linear motion perpendicular to the positioning direction
 Z: Vertical linear movement
 A: Angular motion around X (roll)
 B: Angular motion around Y (pitch)
 C: Angular motion around Z (yaw)

Axial Load - The terms 'axial load' and 'radial load' with respect to the bearing: Axial load is any
load that is parallel to the axis of rotation of the bearing. Radial load is any load that is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Axial Play - The axial displacement of the shaft due to a reversal of an axial force.

Axis: A principal direction along which movement of a tool, component, or workpiece occurs.
The components that control each degree of freedom in a machine can be considered an axis. An
X-Y-Z machine is a three axis machine where the X and Y axes control movement in the
horizontal plane and the Z axis controls up and down motion. Each axis can consist of a
controller, drive, motor, and transmission components necessary to couple to the load.

Axes - Plural of axis.

Back Driving - A condition that occurs in stepper motors in which there is an unwanted reversal
of the motor shaft, resulting in step loss.

Back EMF (Back Electromotive Force) - The voltage, or electromotive force, that pushes
against the current which induces it. Back EMF is one of two ways of locating the position of the
rotor in speed control. The type of controller that utilizes this method is known as sensorless
control.

Backlash - The play caused by loose connections between mechanical components. Backlash
becomes a problem when an axis changes direction. When a motor turns, it pushes all the gears
together in one direction. When the motor reverses direction the gear teeth separate from one
side and meet on the other side. The distance between the separation is the backlash.

Ballscrew – Ballscrews are highly efficient low friction and low backlash lead screw devices
that use ball bearings rolling in a channel cut into the screw. The low friction and backlash
attributes are extremely valuable for precision applications where they are used to driver the axes
of the machine.

Base Speed - The highest speed rating of a motor.

Baud Rate - The number of times per second a signal in a communications channel could
changes states.

Bifilar Winding – refers to the winding configuration of a stepper motor where each stator pole
has a pair of windings; the stepper motor will have either 6 or 8 lead wires, depending on
termination. This wiring configuration can be driven from a unipolar or bipolar driver.

Bipolar Motors - These motors are composed of two windings and have four wires with no
center taps. Current flow is bidirectional and runs through an entire winding at a time instead of
just half of the winding. As a result, bipolar motors produce more torque than unipolar motors of
the same size.

Brushless Motors - Brushless Motors are a class of motors that operate using electronic
commutation of phase currents, rather than electromechanical (brush-type) commutation.
Brushless motors typically have a permanent magnet rotor and a wound stator.

Brushless Servo – A servo drive in which commutation of the current is accomplished

electronically, rather than through the use of mechanical brushes and a commutator. In a
brushless motor, the windings are on the stator, and the magnetic field is provided by permanent
magnets in the armature. This results in lower inertial loadings and increased heat dissipation
capability over a standard brush type motor.

Brushless Servo Motor - A servomotor based on the design of a conventional brushless DC

motor, with the addition of an amplifier and a feedback device.

Bus – One or more conductors used as a path over which information is sent from one of many
sources to one of many destinations.

CAN - (CAN) Control Area Network - Is a serial bus system, which was originally developed
for automotive applications in the early 1980's. The CAN protocol was internationally
standardized in 1993 as ISO 11898-1 and comprise the data link layer of the seven layer ISO/OSI
reference model.

CANopen - CANopen is a CAN-based higher layer protocol. It was developed as a standardized

embedded network with highly flexible configuration capabilities. CANopen was designed
motion oriented machine control networks, such as handling systems. It is used in many various
fields, such as medical equipment, off-road vehicles, maritime electronics, public transportation,
building automation, etc.

Centralized Control – A control system in which all of the primary processing is done at a
single location rather than at multiple points throughout the system.
Circular Interpolation - The generation of an apparently circular motion through the
coordinated movements of two axes. The actual path is a series of straight line approximations
generated by software algorithms.

Clock – A pulse generator, which controls the timing of switching circuits that control the speed
of the stepper motor.

Closed-loop – Closed-loop controls use feedback to correct for errors in the system. Central
heating in a building is a common example. The thermostat measures the temperature and turns
the heat on or off as necessary. If the temperature is too low the heat turns on, if the temperature
is too high the heat turns off. The result is the temperature will hover around the set-point
throughout the day regardless external fluctuations like time of day or the weather.
Closed loop control in motion control takes the form of a motor, drive, encoder and controller.
The encoder is the feedback and senses if the motor is out of position. If out of position the
system corrects itself until it is in the correct location.

Cogging - Torque ripple that is centered around specific locations of the motor revolution. When
felt by hand the motor feels like it is easier to turn in some positions and more difficult to turn in
others. A motor with no cogging would feel very smooth as it is spun by hand.

Collision Detection – The use of sensors to detect the imminent impact of two or more parts in a
motion control system. The signals from the detection sensors can be used to stop motion or to
provide a ramped slow down for a “soft” mating of the approaching components.

Commutation – A term which refers to the action of steering currents or voltages to the proper
motor phases so as to produce optimum motor torque. In brush-type motors, commutation is
done electromechanically with brushes and a commutator. In brushless motors, commutation is
done by the switching electronics using rotor position information obtained by Hall sensors, a
tachometer, or resolver.

Commutator - A rotary electrical switch that periodically reverses the current direction between
the rotor and the external circuit.

Constant Current Driver - A control or device for adjusting the voltage to force or maintain
design current in the winding when switching from one winding to another.

Continuous Current - The maximum amount of current that can be applied without overheating
the motor. Continuous current is one of the specifications used for sizing AC servomotors.

Continuous Power Output - The ability of a motor to output its full power for a sustained
period of time. Continuous power output is one of the specifications used for sizing AC
servomotors.

Continuous Torque - The amount of torque that can be provided by the motor under normal
running conditions. Typically, continuous torque is one of the specifications used for sizing AC
servomotors.
Controller (Stepper Motor) is a regulating mechanism; essentially a DC power supply plus
power switching with associated circuits for controlling the switching in the proper sequence.

Controller: (BLDC Speed Controller) takes a signal representing the demanded speed, and
drives a motor at that speed. A controller is sometimes referred to as a driver or electronic speed
controller), which is an electrical circuit or other electronic component used to control another
circuit. A brushless DC motor controller acts to control the direction and speed of the motor, or
perhaps act as a brake. The brushless DC motor controller is crucial to the operation of a
brushless DC motor.

Control System - A manual or automatic mechanism used to manage dynamic processes by

adjusting or maintaining physical variables such as temperature, speed, or flow rate.

Converter – The process of changing AC to DC and back to AC again. This is accomplished

through the use of a diode rectifier or thyristor rectifier circuit. The term “converter” may also
refer to the process in an adjustable frequency drive, consisting of a rectifier, a DC intermediate
circuit, an inverter and a control unit.

Coordination – The integration of the movements of two or more axes of motion, so that the
resultant motion is the path which none of the axes are capable of independently. Coordination
may also involve the use of sensors and other internal or external commands in the integration
effort which assist in effecting the movement or work desired.

Coupling (Couple, Coupler) - The transfer of energy from one circuit to another by means of
the mutual capacitance between them. In feedback and control systems this is considered to be
electrical noise and is a common problem.

Critically damped - A system tuned to achieve the fastest response without

overshoot/oscillation is considered to be critically damped. In control theory this occurs when the
damping ratio ζ = 1.

Current Controller – A system that utilizes an electronic method of limiting the maximum
current available to a motor. This current is adjustable, so that the motor’s maximum current can
be controlled. It normally includes functions that serve as a protective measure to prevent
extended overload conditions from damaging the motor or the controller.

Cut-to-Length – A sub-routine within a motion control processor or standalone processor that is

designed to feed material being processed, at a preset distance. The distance is set prior to the
performance of the task, and/or a secondary task such as a cut-off of the feed material. Feedback
systems are employed to insure repeatability of the preset feed length.

Daisy Chain - This term is used to describe the linking of several devices in sequence, such that
a single signal stream flows through one device and on to another.

Data Communications Equipment (DCE) - A device that establishes, maintains and terminates
a session on a network. It may also convert signals for transmission. It is typically a modem.
Contrast with DTE.

Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) - A communications device that is the source or

destination of signals on a network. It is typically a computer or terminal. Contrast with DCE.

DC Bus – A type of circuit that serves as a common communications pathway shared by several
components and which uses a direct current voltage level as a reference. It may also be used to
describe a power distribution system shared by multiple components within a machine or power
distribution system.

Dead Band - A range of input signals for which there is no system response.

Deceleration – The rate at which something decreases its velocity. Deceleration is usually
measured in units of velocity change for each unit of time (inches/second(velocity)/second
(time), and in this example would be written as in./sec/sec or in./sec2

Decentralized Control – A control system in which all of the primary processing, logic
functioning, are located in individual pieces of equipment or sub-systems, and function
essentially independently throughout the system. Normally these independent systems will have
some form of communication, sharing vital information with each other for the overall desired
result(s).

Delta Configuration (or Pi) - The Delta Configuration gives low torque at low RPM. The
resistance between any two points is a series-parallel combination of all three resistors.
Therefore, the effective resistance of the circuit will be less than the values of the individual
resistors involved. This can be very useful in situations where it is desirable to use larger
resistance values than the circuit would normally require.

Detent Torque – Detent torque is the holding torque when no current is flowing in the motor.
The maximum torque which can be applied to the shaft of an un-energized step motor without
causing continuous rotation. The minimal torque present in an un-energized motor. The detent
torque of a step motor is typically about 1% of its static energized torque.

Digital Servo - A servo that outputs a series of pulses or signals that represent "on" or "off,"
often resulting in binary strings of 0s and 1s.

Driver (Stepper Motor) – often referred to as a translator, it drives a step motor based on pulses
from a clock, pulse generator, or computer. It translates the train of pulses and applies power to
the appropriate step motor windings.
Drive - In motion control this component follows the command from a controller and provides
power to the motor. A drive can operate in current mode, velocity mode, or position mode. It can
be commanded by many means such as analog signals, step and direction, encoder following and
through network commands among others.

Dynamic Torque – the torque developed by a motor while stepping at low rates. Efficiency - In
physics, the efficient energy use, useful work per quantity of energy, mechanical advantage over
ideal mechanical advantage, often denoted by the Greek lowercase letter η (Eta). In
thermodynamics: efficiency is energy conversion efficiency, a measure of second law
thermodynamic loss. Thermal efficiency: useful work per the higher heating value of the fuel. In
computing: Algorithmic efficiency is optimizing the speed and memory requirements of a
computer program, while storage efficiency as the effectiveness of computer data storage.

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) - An electromagnetic disturbance, phenomenon, signal or

emission that causes or can cause undesired response of electrical or electronic equipment.

Electric Motor - An electric motor is a type of engine which uses electrical energy to produce
mechanical energy.

Electronic Clutch – The process of generating a slave profile based on master position or time
periods by enabling and disabling electronic cam or gearing functions.

Electronic Gearing – A method that stimulates mechanical gears by electrically synchronizing

one closed-loop axis to a second axis (open- or closed-loop) through a variable ratio.

Electronic Line Shaft – A virtual axis that is used as the master axis on a machine to which
other axes are synchronized by electronic gearing or camming profiles.

Encoder – An encoder is a feedback device. It consists of a disc, vane, or reflector, typically

attached to a motor shaft to provide digital pulses, which are provided to a translator and /or
counters. This provides positional information if fed into a counter. Speed information may be
derived if the time between successive pulses is measured and decoded.

Encoder Resolution – The number of electrically identified positions occurring in 360 degrees
of input shaft rotation.

Event – A change-of-state of an input parameter, such as the triggering of a limit switch or

proximity sensor.

Fault – The error received when a drive or control has attempted an illegal process and becomes
disabled.

Feedback - Feedback is the measurement of the parameter that is being controlled. For a
positioning system to accurately compensate for an error, the actual position must be known
relative to the commanded position. In this case, position feedback would be used to provide the
actual position.

Feedback Signal - The actual value detected by a sensor as a process is taking place. The
feedback signal is part of a closed-loop control system.

Feedforward – A method that “precompensates” a control loop for known errors due to motor,
drive, or load characteristics to improve response. It depends only on the command, not the
measured error.

FieldBus – A process control local area network used for interconnecting sensors, actuators, and
control devices to one another, as defined by ISA standard S50.02.

Flying Restart - The ability of a drive to restart a spinning motor. This is normally done by
sampling the motor speed, encoder input, or back EMF to restart the motor from the sped at
which it is coasting.

Frequency – Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.

the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal
frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the
reciprocal of the frequency. For example, if a newborn baby's heart beats at a frequency of 120
times a minute, its period (the interval between beats) is half a second. For cyclical processes,
such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a number of cycles per unit time.
In physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually
denoted by a Latin letter f or by a Greek letter ν (nu).

In SI units, the unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz: 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second. A previous name for this unit was
cycles per second.

A traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute,
abbreviated RPM. 60 RPM equals one hertz.[1]
The period, usually denoted by T, is the length of time taken by one cycle, and is the reciprocal
of the frequency f:

T = 1/f

The SI unit for period is the second.

Full Step - This means that the shaft will rotate 1.8 degree mechanically for each digital pulse
received by the driver. In full step mode, the motor requires 200 digital pulses to move one shaft
revolution divide 360 degree by 1.8 degree.

Gantry – An overhead framework that is designed to linearly in the X, Y, and/or Z axes. Tooling
or other devices are generally designed into the framework to perform various functions as it
moves from one location to another.

Gearbox - A system of gears that transmits mechanical power from a prime mover such as an
electric motor to a typically rotary output device at a lower momentum but at a higher torque.

Graphical User Interface (GUI) - A type of user interface that allows people to interact with a
computer and computer-controlled devices which employs graphical icons, visual indicators or
special graphical elements, along with text labels or text navigation to represent the information
available to the user.

Ground Loop - A ground loop is any part of the DC return path (ground) that has more than one
possible path between any two points.

Half Duplex - The transmission of data in just one direction at a time. For example, a walkie-
talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a time.

Half Step - This term means that the motor shaft will move a distance of 0.9 degree (400 steps
per shaft revolution) instead of moving 1.8 degree per digital pulse.

Hall (effect) sensor(s): A Hall-effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in
response to a magnetic field.

Heat Sink: A heat sink is a term for a component used to dissipate heat; keep electronic and
optoelectronic devices cool.

Holding Torque – Holding torque is the maximum torque that can be externally applied to the
motor shaft without causing continuous rotation when one or more phases of the motor are
energized.

Home Position – A reference position for all absolute positioning movements. Usually defined
by a home limit switch and/or encoder marker. Normally set at power-up

Homing – Locating a unique reference position at power-up for axis calibration.

Hybrid Motors - Hybrid stepper motors feature the best characteristics of PM and VR motors.
Hybrid steppers are best suited for industrial applications because of high static and run torque, a
standard low step angle of 1.8°, and the ability to Microstep. Hybrid stepper motors offer the
ability to precisely position a load without using a closed-loop feedback device such as an
encoder.

Human-Machine Interface (HMI) – The console at which an operator or mechanic interacts

with the controller of a packaging machine or line. An HMI, or MMI (man-machine interface) or
OI (operator interface), often is a computer display with a PC or industrial computer built into or
connected to run specialized HMI software.

Indexer - In the context of stepper motor-based systems, the indexer is a device that provides
step and direction control signals to a stepper motor driver. More sophisticated dedicated stepper
motor controllers will also have I/O points and various other higher level functions and
programmability similar to a PLC. In many cases a PLC may be used as an Indexer.

Indexing – An axis or axes in the process of moving to a pre-programmed position, at a defined

velocity and acceleration/deceleration rate.

Inductance – The property that exists between two-current carrying conductors or coils when
magnetic lines of force from one coil or conductor are linked with those of the other.

Induction Motor - A type of AC motor that uses electrical current to induce rotation in the coils.

Inertia - Inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to a change in velocity. A measure of an

object's resistance to a change in velocity. The larger an object's inertia, the greater the torque
required to accelerate or decelerate it. Inertia is a function of an object's mass and shape. For the
most efficient operation, the system-coupling ratio should be selected so that the reflected inertia
of the load is equal to or no greater than 10 times the rotor inertia of the stepper motor.

Inertia (Reflected) - Inertia as seen by the stepper motor when driving through a speed change,
reducer or gear train.

Interpolation – A coordinated move of two or more axes in a linear and/or circular motion.

Jog – An axis running at a fixed velocity and acceleration/deceleration rate, in a selected

direction, with no specific destination.

Lead - The linear distance a nut on a leadscrew travels during one revolution of the lead screw,
e.g. in./rev.

Lead Screw - A device that converts rotary motion into linear motion.

LED - Light Emitting Diode. A semiconductor device that emits a narrow spectrum of light in a
forward direction.

Limits - A stepper motor system with sensors that alert the control electronics that a physical end
of travel has approached and that the motion is not allowed in a specific direction.

Linear Actuator - A linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, as
contrasted with circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in
machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers,
in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinders inherently produce linear motion; many other mechanisms are used to
provide a linear motion from a rotating motor. Linear Servo Motor - A linear servo motor is a
flattened out servo motor where the rotor is on the inside, and the coils are on the outside of a
moveable u-channel. Both servo motor types are becoming more popular as costs continue to
lower.

Linear Slide - Linear slides are precision products designed to turn motion or torque into
straight-line movements. Linear slides are designed to move mounted mechanisms across a given
axis. Complete slides normally consist of at least a base, a saddle, adjusting screw and a straight
gib.

Load - Any external resistance (static or dynamic) to motion that is applied to the motor.
Logic Ground - The reference "zero" voltage that a group of control signals in a particular
system are referenced.

Maximum Running Torque – With respect to stepper motors, maximum running torque is the
maximum torque load that the motor can drive without missing a step. This typically occurs
when the windings are sequentially energized at approximately 5 PPS.

Microprocessor - A tiny central processing unit. Digital servos use a microprocessor to process
input signals.

Microstepping - A control electronic technique that proportions the current in a stepper motor's
windings to provide additional intermediate positions between poles. Produces smooth rotation
over a wide range and high positional resolution. Typically, step resolutions range from 400 to
51,200 steps per shaft revolution.

Minimum Incremental Motion (Sensitivity) - The smallest increment of motion a device is

capable of delivering consistently and reliably

Multidrop - A communications configuration in which several devices share the same

transmission line, although generally only one may transmit at a time. This configuration usually
uses some kind of polling mechanism to address each connected device with a unique address
code.

National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA) - The acronym for the organization
that sets standards for motors and other industrial electrical equipment.

Noise – An unwanted electrical signal. Typically from RFI or EMI induced onto the drive’s
components, speed reference or feedback wiring, and can cause the axis to react unexpectedly.
Sources of noise are AC power lines, motors, generators, transformers, fluorescent lights, CRT
displays, and radio transmitters.

Offset – A preset distance between the actual zero reference point and a programmed zero
reference point.

On-Axis Accuracy - Difference between ideal position and real position after the compensation
of linear errors. Linear errors include: cosine errors, inaccuracy of screw or linear scale pitch,
angular deviation at the measuring point (Abbe error) and thermal expansion effects. The relation
between absolute accuracy and on-axis accuracy is as follows:
Absolute Accuracy = On-Axis Accuracy + Correction Factor x Travel

Open-Loop - A type of control system that uses only an input signal to actuate an output. There
is no automatic feedback to adjust the process, so adjustments must be made manually by the
operator.

Opto-Isolated - A method of sending a signal from one piece of equipment to another without
the usual requirement of common ground potentials. The signal is transmitted optically with a
light source (usually a Light Emitting Diode) and a light sensor (usually a photo-sensitive
transistor). These optical components provide electrical isolation.

Output Shaft - The part of a motor that transmits torque.

Overcurrent - Any current in excess of the rated current of the drive to maintain or move to a
new position at a given velocity and acceleration of deceleration rate.

Override – To force an axis to move during a faulted condition. Often required to get an axis to
move off of an overtravel limit switch.

Overshoot - To exceed a set value.

Over-Temperature – A warning or alarm generated by a motor or drive that indicates the

device is too hot. This is generally caused by the demand for too much current through the
device. There may be binding at the motor, calling for more torque, or the motor or drive may be
undersized.

Permanent Magnet Motors - Permanent Magnet Motors are typically not used in industrial
applications. PM motors generally have a high step angle, are low torque, low cost and used in
high volume consumer applications such as printers, fax machines and toys.

Phasing – Asjusting the position of one axis with respect to others during synchronization or
electronic line shafting. This is usually done while the axes are moving, and done to correct for
small registration problems.

Pick and Place - An application in which objects are transferred from one place to another.

Pitch - The distance from any point on one thread of the screw to a corresponding point on the
next successive thread, e.g. rev/in.

Prime Ratio Stepper - A "Prime Ratio Stepper" is a hybrid stepper motor that has an increased
stator to rotor tooth ratio. Where a standard stepper motor has 40 stator teeth to 50 rotor teeth, a
ratio of 4:5, a prime ratio motor has 48 stator teeth to 50 rotor teeth, a ratio of 4.8:5. This
difference means 16% more area of the face of the stator.

PLC – A Programmable Logic Controller is a type of computer that provides hard, real-time
control of packaging and other equipment thanks to fast, repeatable deterministic scan times.

Position Error – Error caused when the difference between the actual position and the command
position is greater than a set amount.

Positioning – Specifying a move by giving a target position, a velocity and an acceleration. The
target position can be an absolute position, or a relative position from the current position.
Position Control - A type of control system designed for moving objects or machines to a
known position. For example: stepper motors are used for position control.

Position Loop

Program Mode - This mode is used to input user program into the motion controller.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) - A specialized device used to provide high speed,
low-level control of a process.

Pull-In Torque (also called Starting Torque) - This is the maximum torque the stepper motor
can develop when instantaneously started at that speed.

Pull-Out Torque (also called Slewing Torque) - This is the maximum torque that the stepper
can develop once an acceleration profile has been used to "ramp" it to the target speed.

Pulse – A pulse is an electrical signal or voltage of short duration, used in conveying

intelligence.

Pulse-Width Frequency

Pulse-Width Modulation - PWM or PDM (Pulse-Duration Modulation), is a commonly used

technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern
electronic power switches.

Rated Speed

Rated Torque – The rated torque is the torque-producing capacity of a motor at a given speed.
This is the maximum torque the motor can deliver to a load and is usually specified with a
torque/speed curve.

Recommended Standard 232 (RS-232) - The standard for serial transmission between a DTE
(computer) and a DCE (modem, mouse, etc.). This is a single-ended (unbalanced) hardware
configuration that employs a method of communicating digital information in which the data bits
are transmitted sequentially over one line. The typical transmission speed of an RS-232
connection is 9600 bps over a maximum distance of 50ft (15m).

Recommended Standard 422 (RS-422) - The standard for serial data communication protocol
which specifies 4 wire, full duplex, differential line, multi-drop communications. It provides for
balanced data transmission with unidirectional/non-reversible, terminated or non-terminated
transmission lines. With a transmission rate of 9600 bps, RS-422 can be used at distances up to
4,000 feet (1,275 meters).

Recommended Standard 485 (RS-485) - This standard is an enhanced version of RS-422 with
the added capability to allow up to 32 devices (transmitters and receivers) that share the same
serial data communication lines. It uses a 2 wire, half duplex, multipoint serial connection.
Repeatability - Ability of a system to achieve a commanded position over many attempts.

Resolution - The smallest increment that a motion device can be commanded to move and/or
detect. Resolution is the smallest positioning increment that can be achieved. With respect to
stepper motors, it is frequently defined as the number of steps required for a motor’s shaft to
rotate one complete revolution. The reciprocal of the number of steps per revolution of the
motor.

Resolver - A high-resolution feedback device that is an alternative to encoders. Resolvers are

suited to harsh environments such as high temperatures and severe vibration since they do not
rely on optical sensors or glass disks which can fail in these conditions. Resolvers use inductive
couplings to determine rotor position. Since resolver signals are not discrete, resolution is
determined by the amount of interpolation used in the interface circuitry in the drive or
controller. Typical resolutions range from 1000 to 65000 counts / revolution.

Resonance - The frequency that a stepper motor system may begin to oscillate. Primary
resonance frequency occurs at about one revolution per second. This oscillation will cause a loss
of effective torque and may result in loss of synchronism. The designer should consider reducing
or shifting the resonance frequency by utilizing half step or micro-step techniques or work
outside the primary resonance frequency.

Reversal Value (Hysteresis) - Difference between actual position values obtained for a given
target position when approached from opposite directions.

Rotary

Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the motor (the shaft may be included). The moving part
of the motor, consisting of the shaft and the magnets. These magnets are similar to the field
winding of a brush type DC motor.

Rotor Inertia - The rotational inertia of the rotor and shaft.

Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) - Is a synchronous serial data link that operates in full
duplex mode. Devices communicate in master/slave mode where the master device initiates the
data frame. Multiple slave devices are allowed with individual slave select lines.

Servo Drive - A motor control device that outputs electrical signals to a servomotor to induce
motion. The servo drive can be built in as part of the motor or it can be a separate device.

Servo Mechanism - A servomechanism may or may not use a servo motor. For example, a
household furnace is a servomechanism that is controlled by a thermostat. Once a set
temperature is reached, there is feedback signaling it to shut off; making it a “servo” in nature.
The term “servo” describes more of a function or task, than it does a specific product line.

Servo Motor – A servo motor is a motor which is part of a servomechanism. It is typically

paired with some type of encoder to provide positioning and speed feedback. A servo motor is an
an automatic device that uses an error-correction routine to correct its motion. The term servo
can be applied to systems other than a servo motor; systems that use a feedback mechanism such
as an encoder or other feedback device to control the motion parameters. Typically when the
term servo is used it applies to a 'Servo Motor' but is also used as a general control term,
meaning that a feedback loop is used to position an item. A servo motor can be a DC, AC, or
brushless DC motor, combined with a position sensor; in most cases, a digital encoder. A servo
motor is typically the motor selected when it is essential that there is a high degree of confidence
that the servo motor and drive system will closely track what is asked of it. There is typically a
higher cost to a servo motor system than a stepper motor system, due to the servo motor’s
feedback sensor and processing electronics.

Shaft - The portion of the rotor that lies on the spin axis of the rotor and is the rotor interface to
the stator portion of the magnetic bearings and motor generators.

Shaft Speed - The rate at which the motor shaft turns. Shaft speed is measured in feet per minute
(fpm) or in meters per minute (mpm).

Shielded Cable

Sine Wave - The most common type of AC waveform. A sine wave consists of 360 electrical
degrees and is produced by rotating machines.

Single Phase - AC voltage that has only one sine wave.

Sinking Current - Refers to the current flowing into the output of the chip. This means that a
device connected between the positive supply and the chip output will be switched on when the
output is low.

Slew - The position of a move profile where the motor is operating at a constant velocity.

Sourcing Current - Refers to the current flowing out of the output of the chip. This means that a
device connected between the chip output and the negative supply will be switched on when the
output is high.

Start-Stop Test - A troubleshooting method in which the stepper motor is connected to a load
and a fixed frequency is applied to the driver. Stop-start tests are used to diagnose the causes of
step loss.

Stator – The stator is the stationary magnetic parts of the motor including the windings.

Step Loss - A phenomenon in which the stepper motor does not take a step after receiving an
input pulse.

Stepper Motor - A type of motor that rotates in small, precise increments in response to an
electronic pulse. Stepper motors can rotate forward or reverse, but they cannot move large loads.
A stepper motor (also referred to as step or stepping motor) is an electromechanical device
achieving mechanical movements through conversion of electrical pulses. Stepper motors are
driven by digital pulses rather than by a continuous applied voltage. Unlike conventional electric
motors which rotate continuously, stepper motors rotate or step in fixed angular increments. A
stepper motor is most commonly used for position control. With a stepper
motor/driver/controller system design, it is assumed the stepper motor will follow digital
instructions. One important aspect of stepper motors is the lack of feedback to maintain control
of position, which classifies stepper motors as open-loop systems.

Step – A step is the movement of the rotor of a stepper motor from one energized position to the
next.

Step Angle – The step angle is the nominal angle through which the shaft of a stepper motor
turns between adjacent step positions. It depends upon the motor and driving sequence (mode of
drive).

Step Increment – Step increment is an indication of step or motion size. Usually this is specified
in degrees for a rotary motor and inches or millimeters for a linear motor.

Step (Stepping, Stepper) Motor – A Stepper is synonymous with Step and Stepping motor,:a
digital actuator, which operates from discrete pulses (input signals) and produces motion in
discrete increments. May be rotary or linear increment. See stepper motor definition above.

Step Position – the angular position that the shaft of an unloaded step motor assumes when
energized. The step position is not necessarily the same as the detent position.

Synchronous Motor - A constant-speed AC motor that does not use induction to operate. A
synchronous motor needs DC excitation to operate.

Synchronozation

Target Value - A preset value such as a specific temperature, speed, or flow rate that the control
system is supposed to reach. For example: the type of preset value for servomotors is position.

Teeth – The teeth are projections on both the rotor and stator such that when aligned they
produce a low reluctance magnetic path.

Torque - A rotational force. Torque is measured in N*m, lb*in, lb*ft, etc. 1 N*m is the torque
produced by 1N of force applied to a lever arm that is 1m long.

Torque Limitation

Train Pulse – A train pulse is a series of spaced pulses.

Tuning - A system of adjusting the servomotor's outputs by adjusting values in the algorithm
controlling the closed-loop system.
Undershoot - To fall short of or below a set value.

Unifilar Winding – Unifilar winding refers to the winding configuration of the stepper motor
where each stator pole has one set of windings; the stepper motor will have only 4 lead wires.
This winding configuration can only be driven from a bipolar driver.

Unipolar Motors – These motors are composed of two windings, each with a center tap. The
center taps are either brought outside the motor as two separate wires or connected to each other
internally and brought outside the motor as one wire, resulting in 5 or 6 wires.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor - Variable Reluctance Motors have no permanent magnet,
thus the rotor spins freely as there is no detent torque. The step angle of a VR motor is in the
medium range, generally 5 to 15 degrees. This type of motor is also used in non-industrial
applications where a high degree of torque is not required.

Velocity

Windings - The conducting wire connected to the armature that energize the pole pieces of a
motor.

Wye (Y or Star) Configuration - The Wye Configuration provides high torque at low RPM, but
not as high top RPM. The resistance between any two of the three external connections will be
the series combination of two of the three resistors.

Yaw, Pitch: Rotation of carriage around the Z axis (Yaw) or Y axis (Pitch), when it moves. The
testing of on-axis accuracy, repeatability, and reversal error are made systematically with test
equipment in an air-conditioned room (20 °C±1 °C). A linear cycle with 21 data points on the
travel and 4 cycles in each direction gives a total of 164 points.
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