Features of academic writing

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every
part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective
is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the
language. There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic
writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses
language precisely and accurately. It is also well organized and planned.

Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).
Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately
more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more
complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalisations, and
more lexical variation.
Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more
subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional
phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.
The following features are common in academic written texts:
Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of
prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical
complexity, Nominalisation, Attributive adjectives, Adjectival groups as complements
Examples
Halliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spoken text:
You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be able
to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the
weather gets.
with a typical written variant:
The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the
most adverse weather conditions
The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.
Other equivalents are given below (p.81):

Spoken Written

Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up Every previous visit had left me with a
feeling that it would be futile if I tried to do sense of the futility of further action on my
anything more. part.

The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful, Violence changed the face of once
but they changed when people became violent. peaceful Swiss cities.

Because the technology has improved its less risky Improvements in technology have reduced
than it used to be when you install them at the the risks and high costs associated with
same time, and it doesn't cost so much either. simultaneous installation.

The people in the colony rejoiced when it was Opinion in the colony greeted the
promised that things would change in this way. promised change with enthusiasm.

formality
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:
a. colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",
b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.
e. asking questions.
Julie, I'm your practice teacher, you're my student. And I have to tell you to refrain from using
terms such as "loony", "fruitcake" "nutcase" and "one sandwich short of a picnic" to describe
people with mental illness.

Precision
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not
use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".
For example:
Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they had
achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.
The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in 1854, and
in 1887 it was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas and
was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many thousands of casualties.
It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the
prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, passing through the corpus spongiosum, it
ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatus .

Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the
arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic
study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or
"believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to
your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading,
discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.
1. Compare these two paragraphs:
The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual
dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education
and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making
second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980;
Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of
language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.
We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a
long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more
communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use
for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and
test it.
Which is the most objective?
2. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".
A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore
unnecessary to make this explicit.
Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."
Write: "This is a very interesting study."
Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.
Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."
3. Examples
Clearly this was far less true of France than ...
This is where the disagreements and controversies begin ...
This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that ...

Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.
1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson,
Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your
responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These
connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.
For example; if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make
it clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed
Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It
was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the
design had run into serious difficulties.
If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it
explicit.
While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the
recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this
was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it
was thought to be by contemporaries.
If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.
Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those
which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as
feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the
feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of
the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social
systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.
If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.
He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his
own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what
to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.
This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and
bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor,
refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his
diocese.
2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.
If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.
Do THIS in academic writing
McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable
than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-
Ireland state.
NOT :Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners
still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT : Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the
Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

Accuracy
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for
example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly" , "gathering" or "conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".
You also need to be accurate in your use of grammar.

Responsibility
In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text.
You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any
claims you make.
This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of
this information or ideas by a system of citation.X

PlanningX
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation, according
to a specific purpose and plan.
The following procedure is typical when writing an extended essay or assignment.

 
Task

1.
Read the question or brief and understand what you are required to do.
Think about the subject, the purpose and the audience.
2.
Think about what you know about the subject.
Write it down in some way.
3.
Go to the library or initernet and find relevant books, articles or websites.
4.
Find the books on your reading list - if you have one - and study them.
5.
Make notes on these books and articles.
Record full details of the materials you use.
6.
Organise your piece of work.
7.
Type or write your first draft.
8.
Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your class
and your lecturer if possible.
9.
Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in your
discussions.
Go back to 2. if necessary
Produce your second draft.
10.
Proofread your draft.
11.
Produce a final typed version.
12.
Check everything.