Mehnaz Fatima

Roll no: CE605197

Course: Higher Education
Course Code: 8625
Level: B.Ed
Semester: Autumn 2021
Assignment no: 1
Q.1 Evaluate the nature, need and scope of higher education. Give references from your
own context to support your views.
Ans:
Nature of Higher Education
Higher Education is defined any of the various types of Education given in post secondary
institutions of learning, and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a Degree, diploma
or certificate of Higher Studies. Higher Educational Institutions include not only Universities and
Colleges, but also various Professional Schools that provide preparation in such fields as law,
medicine, business, art, music, and engineering.
The World Bank Study on Higher Education defines, "all formal post-secondary institutions that
train middle and high level professional personnel in degree, diploma and certificate granting
programs"(The World Bank, 2000).
The terms higher education, tertiary education and post-secondary education are used
interchangeably (The World Bank, 2000).
In Higher Education means excellence in different subjects, i.e., both Science and Social
Sciences. Advancement in science subjects is necessary for material progress whereas Higher
Education in the subjects of human and social sciences, humanities and arts, language and
literature is essential for cultural growth and the development of interpersonal relations among
people. Higher Education is considered as indispensable for nation building. There is a
worldwide recognition that centers of higher leaming such as universities, professional colleges,
institutes, etc. are powerful institutions for raising the cultural plane of a society. In advanced
countries, universities constitute the mainspring of knowledge, ideas, and innovations. Without
achieving excellence in Higher Education, it would not be possible for any society to produce
leaders of thought and action. Higher Education is considered and recognized as a capital
investment, all over the world. Higher Education is usually provided by universities and colleges.
In 1974, Government of Pakistan established the University Grants Commission(UGC) which
come into its modern form in 2002 as The Higher Education Commission(HEC) under the
chairmanship of Atta-ur-Rahman.. Its main function are funding, overseeing, regulating and
accrediting in the high education institutions in the country.

Need and Scope of Higher Education

“Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire.” (William Butler Yeats)
Education is not only a tool for making money – it can be good for our hearts and souls as well,
and help us figure out how we want to live. On top of the well-being that comes with pursuing a
passion through higher education, one gets the additional benefits mentioned above, making it
not only fulfilling, but very practical as well.
Higher education, theoretically, will also enable individuals to expand their knowledge and
skills, express their thoughts clearly in speech and in writing, grasp abstract concepts and
theories, and increase their understanding of the world and their community.
The Purpose of Higher Education is manifold: a) Supporting and enhancing the process of
economic and social development b) To enable individuals to achieve excellence; c) To
strengthen the micro-management infra-structure of society, and to train national 5 'Managers" of
"Collective Leadership"; d) To create specialized expertise like in agriculture, medicine, nuclear,
space, chemical, and energy fields; e) To inspire education at different levels; f) To coordinate at
the national level; g) Human resource development.
Higher education serves many purposes, only some of which are emphasized in our culture.
Because we as a society don’t acknowledge the full span of reasons for pursuing education after
high school, some young people may think it’s not for them and, therefore, miss out on many of
the potential benefits that such an educational experience provides. Following are some well-
known and not-so-well-known purposes the various forms of higher education may serve – from
vocational schools and certificate programs to Associate’s and Bachelor’s degree programs. It’s
not just about learning; it’s about the opportunity for further personal development as well.
i. Career Preparation
Some young people have a pretty solid idea of what type of career they would like to have as an
adult. For such people, post-secondary education will primarily serve as a means for gaining the
skills, training and knowledge necessary to enter their desired profession. This is one of the most
acknowledged reasons for people to seek higher education. However, many young people aren’t
sure what they want to do – and that’s okay. Having goals is great, but nothing says that we need
to have our lives totally planned out by the age of 17.
ii. Broader Practical Benefits
Preparing oneself for a career isn’t the only practical benefit of a college education. People who
seek education beyond high school are likely to be better off in terms of economic well-being,
physical health and participation in political and community affairs. Regardless of what you
study, devoting time to educating yourself and training your brain beyond high school comes
with many potential benefits.
iii. Personal Development
Not all skills are clearly connected to a career or statistics, but they can be equally as important
to a well-rounded, fulfilling life. The following benefits, typically derived from a successful
higher education experience, can prove to be major enhancements to your life:
 Better communication (written and verbal): Many higher education programs feature
advanced writing and speaking assignments; this trains individuals to express themselves
clearly and communicate more effectively with others.
 Critical thinking skills: The ability to think and to think well – to ask questions, to analyze
and to reflect, for example – is crucial to all areas of life. The ability to identify and solve
problems comes in handy in one’s personal and social life as well as on the job. Critical
thinking skills can be cultivated in any number of higher education programs.
 Identification of skills: Young people may find that they have skills they didn’t know they
had as they are exposed to new things and new ideas in a higher education environment.
 Realization of passions: Young people may be shocked to learn that they love physics in
college, or that they really want to pursue art. Putting yourself in an educational setting
where you can dabble with different disciplines can wake you up to passions you never
knew or realized were there.
 Greater sense of discipline: While programs vary, in many higher education settings,
students are given more responsibility than ever before. They must take initiative, manage
their time well and remain organized. These skills can transfer to all other areas of life, from
keeping one’s living space liveable to being a reliable person to excelling at one’s job.
 Sense of accomplishment: The choice to enter and complete a higher education program is
based purely on a person’s initiative, and the sense of accomplishment that comes from
going “above and beyond” is something that can instill you with the confidence to pursue
whatever you desire in life. Not all benefits of education are career-oriented, although the
above benefits do have practical applications in that area as well. Developing oneself in the
above ways is extremely valuable, and higher education can help you do so.
iv. Pursuing a Passion
This is perhaps the least-accepted reason, culturally, to pursue higher education. Some hold that
the time and financial investment of post-secondary school should only be pursued with
practical, concrete career goals in mind. However, pursuing our passions is an extremely
important component of a healthy, well-lived life. We can figure out ways to apply our passions
as we pursue them.
Pursing a higher education, starting with an associate’s degree or a bachelor's degree, perhaps
working up to master's or doctorate-level studies, leads to better job prospects and higher paying
positions. Higher education can also lead to a healthier and more balanced life, according to
some research, all of which may factor into a decision to study at this level.
i. Career Benefits
 With a college education, you will probably make more money. Unemployment rates are
also affected by higher education. Along with these benefits, you're likely to have more career
choices and will probably be able to change careers more easily than those who have not
completed some form of higher education. Even if you already hold a bachelor's degree, there are
economic benefits to completing additional, graduate-level studies.
ii. Social Benefits
One is less likely to live in poverty if you have earned a college degree. Higher education
has other societal benefits, too. If you earn a college degree, you'll probably be better able to
spend money to stimulate the economy. You'll also be more likely to volunteer and help the
community you in which you live.
iii. Personal Benefits
Pursuing higher education may help you to become more sensitive to cultural differences
and be able to respect the beliefs of all types of people. After completing a college degree, you'll
have a broader set of career options, which often leads to increased personal choice and freedom.
You could even be healthier as a college graduate, as well.

Q.2 Explain different modes applicable to the universities? Which mode do you think is the
most appropriate in Pakistani Context and why?
Ans:
University
A university is defined as educational institution designed for instruction, examination, or both,
of students in many branches of advanced learning, conferring Degrees in various faculties, and
often embodying colleges and similar institutions.
According to the modern concept of education, a University is a city of the universe. This
meaning essentially includes knowledge and information of all disciplines. In this sense, the
University is primarily chartered for research and information which each of its faculty unearths
and passes on to the younger generations for the benefit of the community and the society at
large. In this context, it remains a repository of knowledge. In the modern age, the main function
of a University includes the development of human resources and the quality of human
development which must reflect the cultivation of skilled knowledge and human spiritual values.
A University which involves heavy investment of society has an obligation to serve it; and it
must be committed to its people and should also concentrate on issues of national concern. Its
Higher Educational System should incorporate the inseparability of research and teaching, on
both intellectual and practical grounds, and development of some essential virtues — free
inquiry, scholarly honesty, civility and discourse, toleration of diverse beliefs, views and values,
and trust in rationality and verifiability — all of these must be taught and practised by higher
educational institutions, as the Standard Scientific Method, as coupled with the latest Holistic
Approach, combining creativity, analysis and synthesis, rationality and intuition. The stress is on
creativity.

Modes of University
The modes of university education are as listed below:
1. Face-to face
2. Distance
3. Online
1. Face-to-face
Face-to-face learning is an instructional method where course content and learning material are
taught in person to a group of students. This allows for a live interaction between a learner and
an instructor. It is the most traditional type of learning instruction. Learners benefit from a
greater level of interaction with their fellow students as well. In face-to-face learning, students
are held accountable for their progress at the class’s specific meeting date and time. Face-to-face
learning ensures a better understanding and recollection of lesson content and gives class
members a chance to bond with one another.

2. Distance Learning

Distance learning is for students who prefer to study on their own at home.  At the beginning of
the course, you receive self-paced, self-instructional learning materials, either hard copies or via
the internet. You meet their tutor and other students occasionally for workshops and
tutorials.Distance learning courses increasingly allow learners to participate at a time that is most
suitable for their schedule. It is‘Traditional' self-study course, ‘Correspondence course‘. Specific
materials and learning resources are available like post or email learning resources. Time bound
assignments and Specific course schedule are part of distance learning.

3. Online

Education that takes place over the internet ; “E- learning”. Online learning is a type of “distance
learning”. The umbrella term for any learning that takes place across distance and not in a
traditional classroom. .Online learning also increases the accessibility of education due to its
capacity to overcome the spatial and temporal limitations of traditional teaching settings. Online
courses are more suitable for more experienced students with a strong motivation to take such
courses because of the impact they have on their quality of life. In general, online students need
more self-discipline in studying and a greater motivation to study to succeed. This does not mean
that other kinds of students cannot benefit from online learning, but extra effort needs to go into
the design and support of such students online.

Open access and distance learning have become a critical long term strategy of many universities
to encourage higher education participation. Online learning also increases the accessibility of
education due to its capacity to overcome the spatial and temporal limitations of traditional
teaching settings. Pedagogically, blended models of learning combining face-to face and online
experiences (e.g., lectures and tutorials supported by podcasts, online discussion, materials, and
activities) can lead to teaching methods and resources that support both on campus and distance
delivery. Managing the integration of online and face-to-face delivery and understanding
student’s motivations and experiences of learning online will be increasingly important as online
delivery continues to evolve and expand into open access, on-campus and distance modes of
study. It is in the interests of institutions offering different educational pathways through two or
more modes of study to understand the reasons why students choose particular study modes at
the outset and at different points throughout their degree.

At the time of its independence in 1947, the nascent nation of Pakistan had only one university,
the University of Punjab. By 1997, the number of universities had risen to 35, of which 3 were
federally administered and 22 were under the provincial governments, with a combined
enrollment of 71,819 students. There were also 10 private universities. The universities are
responsible for graduate (postgraduate) education leading to master's and doctoral degrees in a
variety of fields. Most universities have their own faculty in the various departments but many
use senior faculty from the colleges to participate in the teaching program at the master's level as
well as for supervising students at the doctoral level. The trend is, however, to concentrate all
postgraduate work in the university departments in order to maximize the benefits of teacher-
student interaction on a daily basis. This has tended to limit the college faculty exclusively to
undergraduate education, which serves as a disincentive for them to conduct higher-level
research or writing.
The education in the professional colleges is decidedly superior. Only the very best students,
often scoring more than 80 or 85 percent at the Higher Secondary Examination (twelfth grade or
HSCE), are able to gain admission. It is these institutions that produce the doctors and engineers
who migrate in droves to the Western world and perform so remarkably well in a competitive
environment. Sometimes the percentage of professional graduates successfully moving to better
pastures overseas, causing the so-called brain drain, is as high as 80 or 90, which accounts for the
charge that countries like Pakistan basically end up training professionals for Western countries
for a fraction of the cost and, therefore, deserve to be compensated or reimbursed for their
expenses on professional education.

In the fields of engineering and technology, Pakistan has 7 universities/colleges of engineering.

There are 9 colleges of technology and 26 polytechnics (of which 19 are for males and 7 for
females). Their curriculum, faculty, and physical facilities do not compare favorably with those
in engineering colleges/universities. Most of them give short-term courses leading to diplomas
instead of degrees.

As for the universities, critics allege that they are not able to attract the best minds to join their
faculty. The lure of high-level government service, lucrative employment in multinational
corporations in Pakistan, or jobs overseas leaves a much smaller pool of genuine talent for the
universities, which, moreover, lack the facilities and ambience for quality research. Due to such a
multiplicity of adverse factors, the universities are often unable to fill all their faculty positions.
As Tariq Rahman of the National Institute of Pakistan Studies, lamented in 1998:

The Quaid-I-Azam University of Islamabad, meant to be a premier institution

when established in 1967, does not have many subjects thought essential to a
university—linguistics, sociology, philosophy, political science, astronomy,
cognitive sciences, archaeology, literature, and so on. The libraries are
substandard, with very few journals—even such basic facilities as fax, e-mail,
photocopying machines, computers, and microfiche readers are either missing or
are in short supply. Thus, to begin with, universities do not get the best human
material. In addition, no incentives are offered for improvement. For all practical
purposes, once one is hired one is not removed—at least for academic
incompetence.

In 1979, following the publication of the National Education Policy in Pakistan, universities
followed the U.S. example and adopted the semester system. The semester system continues in
the Quaid-I-Azam University and a few departments of some other universities, but by and large
it has been abandoned. Students tended to take what are termed in the U.S. as "mickey mouse"
courses in order to obtain better grades with very little effort. The semester system involved
frequent tests and hard work, and one's grade depended very much on the instructor, who gave a
certain percentage of marks for classroom participation and performance on the periodic tests.
Faced with growing social and political pressure to give better grades, the system collapse.
Q.3 Critically examine the role of Higher Education Commission in the development and
growth of higher education in Pakistan.

Ans:

Higher Education Commission

In 1974 the University Grant Commission (UGC) was established to improve the quality of
higher education and develop a central policy for all higher education institutes. Moreover, the
commission was also responsible for assessing the financial requirements of the universities and
providing them funds for development. However, the commission could only relay funds from
the Government. In most cases the funds provided to universities were less than their
demands/needs (Jahangir, 2008:41-42). In the year 2000 The Task Force on Higher Education
and Society, funded by the World Bank and UNESCO reported on the issues, problems and
opportunities for improving Higher Education in the developing countries of the world. The
report was based on research conducted by experts from thirteen countries with the aim to study
the 52 possibilities of developing Higher Education in the developing countries. Based on the
findings of this report a task force was formed in Pakistan to focus on issues related to Higher
Education in Pakistan. The task force recommended that a central Higher Education body should
also be responsible for ensuring the quality of the education and education institutes, not only in
public sector institutes but also in the private sector. They recommended that funding be
provided to the universities in accordance with their performance as is done in the U.K. by the
Higher Education Funding Councils (Pakistan Task Force Report, 2002). The name of the
Higher Education Commission was suggested for this central body. Conceptually, HEC works
differently than its predecessor (University Grants Commission). Although HEC’s main areas of
concern were similar to the ones looked after by UGC, it functions differently in its operations
(Higher Education Commission, 2008:23)
Role of Higher Education System
The Universities in Pakistan are the major sources of higher education and its growth showed
remarkable expansion in the recent past. Realizing the crucial role of higher education in quality
research for sustained education and economic development, the government of Pakistan
dissolved the University Grants Commission (UGC) and established Higher Education
Commission (HEC) in 2002 with the aim to strengthen higher education with special focus on
research in applied fields of science and technology within the country.
According to the Pakistan Task Force Report (2002) the main purposes and functions of HEC are
to:
a. Provide support for enhancement of the quality of higher education and research.
b. Facilitate funding for higher education based on the quality of performance and needs.
c. Serve as a national resource for higher education, based on its comprehensive nation-wide
information, and data on experience in other countries.
d. Participate in the formulation of Federal Government policy on matters of higher education.
e. Advise institutions, the Provincial Governments and the Federal Government on planning and
development of higher education.
f. Advise the Federal and Provincial Governments on all proposals for granting a charter to
award degrees, in both public and private sectors.
g. Co-ordinate the initial and subsequent periodic assessment of the quality of academic
programs in established and new institutions of higher education, in order to support
accreditation and maintenance of academic standards.
h. Guide the public, the Provincial Governments and the Federal Government, on the legal status
and functional value of degrees and other certification of academic achievement given by public
and private institutions of higher education, and recommend appropriate action.
i. Support the cause of national integration and cohesion through co-curricular activities.
j. Perform such other functions incidental or consequential to the discharge of the aforesaid
functions.
Higher Education plays a key role in a developing country’s journey of development by
producing skilled human resources. Due to this importance, the Higher Education Commission
53 (HEC) of Pakistan was established in 2002 because it was felt that the University Grants
Commission (UGC) was not able to transform Higher Education to meet the challenges of the
21st century. The main role of HEC was to reform the Higher Education of Pakistan so that it
can meet the economic demands of the country. Since then many reforms have been introduced
by the HEC. For a deeper understanding about the types of reforms that are being implemented
at the higher education level in Pakistan some examples of such reforms are discussed below:
1. Introduction of the Semester System
One of the changes in Pakistan’s higher education after the inception of HEC was the
introduction of a semester system instead of an annual system (Khattak et al., 2011:1639). The
semester system is mainly different from the annual system in the assessment processes of the
students. In the annual system the courses taught for a whole year were included in the
assessment that was conducted at the end of the year. In a semester system, the academic year is
divided into 2 or in some cases 3 semesters. Moreover, in a semester, the assessment is done
through different techniques including presentations and assignments, while the annual system
was mainly focused on written examination at the end of the year. This shift in the assessment
 techniques and introduction of assessment through written assignments increased the risk of
plagiarism. Actions taken to address this issue are discussed in the next section.
2. Anti-plagiarism policy
One other change that was introduced after the semester system was suggested by HEC was the
introduction of an anti-plagiarism policy. The computer software Turnitin was made available to
the University Teachers for checking the written work for plagiarism. Turnitin is used for
detecting plagiarism in students’ texts by providing access to billions of documents and by
comparing the documents submitted into it with other documents to check for similarities in text
(Trinidad and Fox, 2007:386). This allows the user to reduce the risk of plagiarism. HEC has
based their guidelines for plagiarism on “The little book of Plagiarism” by Leeds Metropolitan
University UK (Higher Education Commission, 54 n.d.-d). This document is designed to help the
students understand why and how to avoid plagiarism. The plagiarism policy is also devised to
help the practitioners keep a check on the work submitted by the students (Higher Education
Commission, n.d.-b). According to the policy document teachers would have access to the
software and they would be responsible to make sure that students are aware of the plagiarism
policies and avoid it while submitting the ir written work for evaluation.
3. Quality Enhancement Cells (QEC)
In 2005, HEC established an agency by the name of the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) to
monitor the performance of universities in Pakistan. With time and in response to the feedback
received from universities and educationalists, the scope and function of the QAA has been
changing to meet international standards. The Quality Assurance Agency facilitated universities
in establishing their own Quality Enhancement Cells (QEC). Academic Quality Assurance is
done internally in an institution as well as externally. External quality assurance in a university is
done by authorities and/or agencies outside the university while internal quality assurance is
done from within the University. Quality Enhancement Cells are internal quality assurance
bodies within the universities. However, they are working with the external quality assurance
policy makers. Due to the reform agendas of many countries the teachers, being at the center of
the reform process, are considered to be accountable for maintaining quality. “This trend is a by-
product of decentralization: As central governments delegate responsibilities to local
jurisdictions, they require these jurisdictions to demonstrate that they are using their new
independence effectively” (Rotberg, 2010:389). In Pakistani universities QEC is responsible for
this accountability which is done through teacher ranking and teacher evaluation by students.
Findings of these activities are reported to the University management as well as the QAA at the
HEC. 55 Another step taken for improving the quality of graduation programs in the Pakistani
Higher Education was the introduction of the four years Bachelors degree
4. Extending the time duration of the Bachelor degrees
The importance of increasing the duration of the course of Bachelor degree from 2 years to four
years was recognized as early as 1959. It was recommended in a report by the education
department, Government of Pakistan (Khan, 2010:41). Since then this issue kept appearing in
almost all the policy documents of the country. It was after the inception of HEC in 2002,
however, that this innovation was implemented. One of the reasons for feeling the need for this
change was to meet the international standards of 16 years education at the Bachelor level. In
Pakistan Masters degree used to be awarded after 16 years of education (Isani, 2001:352).
5. Grading System
The new guidelines provided by HEC for the universities have flexibility in some areas and the
universities can choose different options provided by HEC. For instance, two main grading
systems for student evaluation as suggested by HEC are relative grading (Norm-Referenced)
system and absolute grading (Criterion-Referenced) system (Higher Education Commission,
n.d.-c:07). In the former system students’ performances are evaluated in relation to other
students, while in the latter a set criterion is used to evaluate student performances.
6. Information Technology Reforms
The following reforms have been brought into the system - also known as e-reforms.
Development of country wide educational research network
Bringing in the reach of the scholars the use of digital sources.
Developing a research repository for the potential researchers
Making learning possible through e-resources.
Making available the opportunity of video conferencing
7. Achievements of Higher Education System
The establishment of HEC yielded a substantial affect on the higher education in Pakistan. For
instance:
a. Each and every student of the public sector universities has been given access to textbooks and
research articles from international research journals.
b. Enrolment to the universities has been quadrupled over a span of five.
c. Promotion of research culture has resulted into the enhanced number of research publication
giving birth to new knowledge and courage to others to write and contribute to the world of
knowledge.
d. Even a long span could not get any Pakistani university some place among the high ranked
universities of the world. Five Pakistani universities including National University of Science
and Technology could get a standing position among the top 300 universities of the world.
e. To bring in quality into teacher education programs, UNESCO has supported a project in the
pre-step for the initiation of B.Ed. elementary honors which would 56 have international
recognition. As an innovative step, HEC has financed around 5000 PhD scholars for their study
in advanced countries. In this context, it is noteworthy that the Fulbright Scholarship, a
prestigious scholarship of the world, is being exploited for the Pakistani scholars through the
joint funding of HEC/USAID.
f. HEC has given affiliation to around fifty universities for offering new novel market oriented
programs.

8. HEC Programs and Projects

The running of following programs may be credited to HEC:
1. Capacity building of the faculty
2. Under taking of revision of curriculum.
3. Development of infrastructure of higher education
4. Award of indigenous scholarships
5. Grant of foreign scholarships
6. Patent filing support
7. Travel grant for participation in the conferences
8. Increasing collaboration between industry and university research
9. Bringing in technology reforms

Q.4 Critically discuss different function of universities. Elaborate the nature and need of
every function with the help of examples from Pakistan context.
Ans:
University
A university is defined as educational institution designed for instruction, examination, or both,
of students in many branches of advanced learning, conferring Degrees in various faculties, and
often embodying colleges and similar institutions.
According to the modern concept of education, a University is a city of the universe. This
meaning essentially includes knowledge and information of all disciplines. In this sense, the
University is primarily chartered for research and information which each of its faculty unearths
and passes on to the younger generations for the benefit of the community and the society at
large. In this context, it remains a repository of knowledge. In the modern age, the main function
of a University includes the development of human resources and the quality of human
development which must reflect the cultivation of skilled knowledge and human spiritual values.
A University which involves heavy investment of society has an obligation to serve it; and it
must be committed to its people and should also concentrate on issues of national concern. Its
Higher Educational System should incorporate the inseparability of research and teaching, on
both intellectual and practical grounds, and development of some essential virtues — free
inquiry, scholarly honesty, civility and discourse, toleration of diverse beliefs, views and values,
and trust in rationality and verifiability — all of these must be taught and practised by higher
educational institutions, as the Standard Scientific Method, as coupled with the latest Holistic
Approach, combining creativity, analysis and synthesis, rationality and intuition. The stress is on
creativity.
Function of Universities
The role of university education can be assessed through the functions the system performs.
If possible, this tentative typology would support you to set the phase as it is also helpful for
researchers and policymakers to reflect the usefulness of the functions for the university
education in several parts of the world.
1. Academic Leadership
Academic leadership is usually the most significant function within university. But it also occurs
quite seldom, even in the developed countries, if the situation is defined by what is completed
rather than what is demanded. The function involves what scholars usually identify with quality,
highly prepared faculty; sophisticated original research published in severely reviewed,
internationally recognized outlets; graduate education; and selective undergraduate education.
Fulfillment of this function requires plenty of resources. Research, graduate education, and
overall academic quality are costly in both human and physical resources. Academic leadership
also usually requires considerable autonomy. In an age in which demands for accountability run
rampant, it may seem old-fashioned to defend the idea that some university education needs to be
loaded with resources and left free from most forms of responsiveness to government or the
marketplace. Intellectual activity requires protection. This is not to argue against all controls. It is
to emphasize that most appropriate controls are either internal, based on dynamic peer review, or
operate in a broad international sphere. But the need is to identify true academic leadership from
among the many claimants. Otherwise, precious resources are degenerated, and autonomy
becomes an unjustified defence against needed accountability. Too many international higher
education policy papers for the developing world offer general system instructions that commit a
matching error: true academic leadership is deprived of the chance to survive and grow because
its needs are not met, while the great bulk of university education is treated incorrectly as if it
followed, or should follow, to the academic leadership function.
2. Professional Development
This function refers mostly to the preparation of students for particular job markets requiring
advanced formal education. The classic professions like law are joined today by fields like
computer science. In many fields, relevant research, often applied, exists alongside training. Like
the academic leadership function, the professional development function is less common than
claimed, and it is too often the proclaimed model for parts of university education that are not
well suited to it. In many countries, students enter professional faculties with specific curricula.
However, many graduates do not wind up finding jobs that match directly to their studies. This
often leads to charges of underemployment and of failure. Professional university education
should not greatly copy the standards and policies devised with academic leadership in mind. For
example, rather than assuming that full-time professors are better, consideration must be given to
blending full-timers with competent professionals who teach individual courses. Similarly, the
marketplace is often a better guide to policy and judge of performance than are academically
idealized peer review or accreditation systems.
3. Technological Training and Development
The technological function is newer, either previously missing or found more commonly at a
lower educational level or in on-the-job training. In addition to some applied research, this
function is mostly about training, often short term, for direct addition into the job market. Here
the utmost need is for strong ties to the job market in matters like curriculum development,
choice of professors, and evaluation of outcomes. Rapid responsiveness is important and should
not be hindered by authority. It is also important that technical education not be simply of poor-
quality professional education. In general, this form of university education needs to be rendered
greater respect and serve as one of the main types of growing form of university education.
4. General Higher Education
The other major function of university education is general higher education. This is often the
least recognized function. It is usually set up as professional education, but students wind up
working in jobs other than those directly in the studied subject matter. Thus, the education is
“quasi-professional” and appears to be a failure. It also looks like failure where it lays claim to
academic leadership. Yet general higher education by design instead of by default needs to be
followed and appreciated. It is probably the form through which most students in large higher
education systems can develop analytical skills in reading, writing, and thinking that will be
useful in a variety of possible jobs and in broader roles for citizens. Where employment does not
correspond to rigid plans of study, curriculum and pedagogy should be redesigned. It is for
general higher education that accreditation systems may be most suitable. General higher
education offers possibilities for distance education and other alternatives to traditional higher
education.
In a socially, economically, religiously and culturally diverse state like Pakistan, higher
education institutions and universities, imparting education and conducting cutting edge
research, are the central mechanisms that can raise the declining social and economic
infrastructure of the country. Since the 2000s, there has been rapid growth in these institutions
and universities across Pakistan as is evident from the sharp rise in their numbers from just 32 in
2001 to 160 at present.
Pakistan, despite rapid growth in the education sector during the past decade, suffers from severe
challenges in its educational development. These challenges include lack of access to higher
education for the majority of its youth, results oriented standards of pedagogical techniques,
brain drain of qualified human resource and lack of adaptability to changing paradigms of
academic research. Out of a population of 190 million, only five percent of them have access to
university level education. It is worth mentioning that, by the end of 2022, Pakistan needs 36
million new jobs if the economy grows up to six percent annually. Therefore, it is the premier
duty of all national universities to produce graduates who fulfill the criteria of the national, social
and economic needs of the country. In this regard, the role of career counseling and placement
offices at the university level becomes very important.

In the 21st century, the paradigm of universities has shifted from traditional aspects of teaching
and learning towards building communities, economies and patterns of leadership. Education,
either basic or higher, plays a key role in the development of human capital that subsequently
brings about the establishment of sound economies and harmonious communities. There is an
immediate need to initiate radical educational reforms so that these challenges can be addressed
proactively. The following is an exercise in this regard.

To begin with, the ministry of education, ministry of finance, planning commission, standing
committees on basic and technical education and the higher education commission of Pakistan
should assist these universities, both public and private, in establishing on-campus university-
community partnership centers. These centers should work on the pattern of think tanks and
should devise mechanisms to address dominant social problems, prepare modules and schemes
for the outreach of educational facilities and bridging linkages with communities for sharing of
knowledge. Secondly, since Pakistan is a traditional society with different demo-graphical
characteristics, whereby more than 30 percent of the population lives below the poverty line, and
more than 600,000 young graduates are adding to unemployment every year, these higher
learning institutions and universities should develop terms of reference (ToRs) to provide
financial assistance to talented individuals who otherwise cannot afford university education.

Thirdly, to streamline and ensure effective utilization of public funds allocated for development
of higher education in Pakistan by the concerned commissions and universities, the concerned
ministries and planning commissions should primarily focus on building grass-root level
education in primary schools, especially in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Fourth,
universities should focus on creating an entrepreneurial culture among their graduates. They
should produce job creators rather than producing job seekers. This can be attained through the
establishment of effective business incubation centers, encouraging partnerships between
industry and academia and placing career counselling offices that should work on intellectual
and professional development of the graduates during the course of their studies in order to
prepare them today for the challenges of tomorrow.

Fifth, education never means to earn; it means to spend. The best way to spend is spending on
education and research that later on addresses the social, political, environmental and economic
problems of Pakistan. Universities can play a vital role in this regard through fostering reciprocal
partnerships with other educational organizations and community development centers to
identify real life problems. Community development participation should be made mandatory for
teachers and students at the university level. If the prestigious Australian Endeavour Award can
assign 35 percent of its total evaluation marks towards the contribution of individual applicants
towards community services than why can students at our universities in Pakistan not be
prepared on similar lines? Moreover, since Pakistan has always been a victim of natural
calamities such as floods and earthquakes, it will be beneficial if various emergency training
programs and courses related to disaster management are incorporated in the curriculum.

Last but not least, the role of university managers and leaders is very crucial in steering our
universities in the right direction. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HECP) can,
for example, initiate university leadership and administration programmes for capacity building
of university administrators in collaboration with top ranking educational schools around the
world. Popenici rightly said that “an institution is not a sum of disciplined ‘soldiers’ working on
the assembly line designed to deliver skills for a set of jobs (that may be gone when students
graduate). A university is responsible to develop the whole thinking person, to expand horizons
and instill the love for learning in individuals and build democratic citizenship with engaged and
informed citizens who have the power to make democracy work. A university is also asked to
cultivate imagination and creativity, defend civilization and create new knowledge, act as a
forum where free and responsible minds can ‘question the unquestionable’ for the benefit of our
societies. Universities have the power to provide innovative solutions, but when tools of a
successful army are used in this institution, results are equal to those imagined if we promote
debate groups for soldiers when they are in the line of fire.”
Q.5 Explain the higher education system in Japan. What are the major implications of this
system for higher education system of Pakistan.?
Ans:
The Japanese higher education system is a very powerful tool for their national politics and
culture. The Academic accomplishments of the students studying in Japan are higher and befitted
the international criteria and standards. The general policy, management and administration are
under the authority of the Ministry of Education.

The higher education in Japan begins after the completion of 12 years of education comprising, 6
years of elementary education and 6 years of secondary education (lower and upper secondary
schooling). The students graduating from High school are eligible to go for higher education in
Japan.  Around 45% students from high school opt for higher education.
The Japanese transformed their higher education system by adapting and acquiring useful and
valuable information and technology from different education systems. The educational culture
of Japan is established on the Shinto, Buddhism and Confucianism philosophy.  During the 19th-
20th century, three major reforms were introduced in the field of education in Japan, which
contributed to individual work of students, as well as originality, individuality and
internationalization of education. Equality in education is one of the modern educational norms
of Japan
Japan’s educational system is in a top position in terms of quality and performance. The average
student scored 540 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD’s Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), which is higher than the OECD average of 497,
making Japan one of the top OECD country in students’ ability and skills.
Approximately 70% of students who graduate from high school go for higher education studies,
thereby making Japan one of the most educated nation in the globe.

Total Number of Higher Education Institutions:

 Universities-783 (Out of which 86 are National, 92 are Local, and 605 are Private
Universities)
 Junior Colleges-372 (Out of which 22- are Local and 350 are Private Junior Colleges)
 Colleges of Technology- 57 (Out of which 51- are National, 3 are Local, and 3 are Private
Colleges of Technology)

Source: MEXT, School Basic Survey (2012)

Percentage Distribution of Students in Institutions of Higher Education by Major Fields of
Study:

In Universities, social sciences such as economics or politics happen to be the foremost choices
of students, followed by engineering and humanities fields of study.
In Japan, there are five types of higher education institutions. These higher educational
institutions are classified as- national, local, public and private. 

 Universities (Undergraduate): There are national, public and private universities in Japan.

The duration of studies in an undergraduate university is 4 years with the exception of
medical specialty, dental medicine, pharmacy, and veterinary science department, which
needs six years of study.
 Junior Colleges: The duration of studies at a Junior College is two years or three years
depending on the department. The Junior Colleges mainly focus on the following
departments- home economics, education, nursing, humanities and sociology. 
 Specialized/Professional Training Colleges: Specialized training colleges provide
vocational and technology-related education as well as education in the enhancement of
skills and knowledge required in life. These colleges mainly provide specialized training in a
particular industry or career. The duration of studies is 1 year or more, but most courses lasts
for two years.
 Colleges of Technology: Colleges of technology provide courses in engineering field,
merchant shipping and other related areas of study, which lasts for 5 years (five and half for
 the mercantile marine course). Students who have passed junior high school are eligible for
courses/programs offered by Colleges of Technology.
 Graduate Schools: The duration of studies in graduate schools in Japan depends on whether
you are enrolled in a master's or a doctoral course of study. A Master's program lasts for two
years and the doctoral course of study lasts for five years. 

Following are the higher education qualifications awarded by Japan Higher Education
Institutions-

Associate Degree: The Associate degree is awarded upon successful completion of junior

college and colleges of technology. 

 Junior colleges: To get an associate degree, students must complete at least two years of
study in Junior College and obtain 62 credits (for 3 years, acquire 93 credits) 
 Colleges of technology: A Student must complete at least 5 years of study and receive at
least 167 credits.

Technical Associate Degree: Students who have completed the post secondary courses of
special training colleges, accredited by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology are awarded ‘Technical Associate Degree’.

Bachelor Degree: A bachelor's degree is awarded to pupils who have finished their
undergraduate studies. A student must complete 4 years of study at a University (and 6 years in
the cases of medicine, dental medicine and veterinary science) and obtain at least 124 credits.

Master Degree: Students who have finished their postgraduate studies in a master’s

programme/course are awarded a ‘Master's degree’. A student must complete at least two years
with a Graduate School and obtain 30 credits in their specialty area of study. 

Doctorate Degree: Students who have finished their postgraduate studies in a doctor’s
programme/course are awarded a ‘Doctorate degree’. A student must complete at least five years
with a Graduate School and obtain 30 credits in their field of study. 

In Japan, most of the higher education institutions use the 4- scale grading system, i.e. A, B, C
and F-
Grade 4-Scale Grade Grade
Description (In Description (In
Japanese) English)

A 80.00-100.00 yū (優) Very Good

B 70.00-79.99 ryō (良) Good

C 60.00-69.99 ka (可) Average,Pass

F 0.00-59.99 fuka (不可) Unacceptable,Fail

Japan is among the world top pacesetters for the advancement and application of the most
innovative technological systems and this trendsetting locus is attributed merely to a very
coherent and superlative, highly comprehensive, and a sustained meritocratic quality higher
education system (HES). The success of Japanese HES can very clearly be verified in the current
QS ranking (2018), the universal ranking on education surveys, where fifteen
Japanese universities enjoy their status among the top 500 world universities. Instead, there is
only one university from Pakistan that falls within top 500 universities of the world. Curriculum
also promotes the students ability/quality to find a subject to visualize, judge and find a solution
on their own to enhance a problem solving learning through observation, experimentation and
project studies. Also, teacher quality is another key element that attributes to generate the
world’s best educated and most dedicated, creative and productive workforce.

The success of Japanese HES is indeed an outcome of the significant reforms implemented
during the last two centuries (19th-20th) by adapting, accommodating and attaining the
beneficial and advantageous knowledge, information and technology from a diverse education
systems. These reforms have contributed to develop novelty, uniqueness and globalization of
education, and to generate a workforce with hands-on experience/vision of innovative solutions
to emerging challenges. Besides, equality in education is an additional norm of the modern
educational system in Japan. Also, another secret of the success of Japanese education is their
emphasis on the student’s character building. The Japanese HES believes in producing of quality
students, not in number of students, and this can very easily be envisaged that Japan holds 597
universities (by the year 2010) to support a population of 127 million while there exist only 156
universities in Pakistan for a population of over 207 million people. This picture very evidently
signifies the standpoint of Pakistan where it stands in the modern global era.