Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

ISSN: 1750-1229 (Print) 1750-1237 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rill20

Exploiting adventure video games for second

language vocabulary recall: a mixed-methods
study

Mostafa Janebi Enayat & Mohsen Haghighatpasand

To cite this article: Mostafa Janebi Enayat & Mohsen Haghighatpasand (2017): Exploiting
adventure video games for second language vocabulary recall: a mixed-methods study, Innovation
in Language Learning and Teaching, DOI: 10.1080/17501229.2017.1359276

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2017.1359276

Published online: 31 Jul 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rill20

Download by: [Pepperdine University] Date: 07 August 2017, At: 10:23

 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2017.1359276

Exploiting adventure video games for second language

vocabulary recall: a mixed-methods study
a
Mostafa Janebi Enayat and Mohsen Haghighatpasandb
a
Department of English Language and Literature, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran; bDepartment of
Pedagogy, Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Although adventure video games have been identified as effective tools Received 25 March 2017
for education, few studies have examined the usefulness of such games Accepted 18 July 2017
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

for language learning. The present classroom-based investigation,

KEYWORDS
therefore, examined the possibility of exploiting commercial adventure Adventure video games;
video games for improving vocabulary recall of second language language learning; receptive
learners by designing pedagogical supplementary materials. In so doing, vocabulary recall; productive
30 lower-intermediate English as a Foreign Language students were vocabulary recall; learners’
randomly assigned into two control and experimental groups. Both perceptions
groups took a pre-test consisting of a list of words from an English
adventure game The Secret of Monkey Island – Special Edition™ to
determine the words they did not know. All the students took two
post-tests containing the extracted unknown words: one examining their
immediate receptive and one testing their delayed productive
vocabulary recall. The results indicated that the students who played the
game significantly outperformed the learners in the control group on
both post-tests. The players expressed positive perceptions toward the
game and reported it as helpful for language learning in general, and
vocabulary learning in particular. The findings suggest implications for
language teachers, learners, materials writers, and syllabus designers to
employ these games as interactive multimodal supplementary tools for
language education.

Introduction
Employing computers for educational purposes has been a long-standing focus of interest for many
researchers (Peterson 2010a). Digital video games, in particular, have remarkably attracted research-
ers to investigate their potential as educational tools (e.g. Enriquez 2010; Gee 2007; Hung, Sun, and Yu
2015; Prensky 2001, 2006). Game-based learning, as defined by Connolly, Stansfield, and Hainey
(2007), refers to the application of computer game-based technology to provide, maintain,
support, and improve the teaching, learning, and assessment processes. Computer games have
advantages for education in general, and language learning in particular. They bring, for instance,
dynamic features such as curiosity, fantasy, and challenge to the learning context, which could
increase learners’ motivation (Cheon et al. 2015; Foster 2008). The literature on the use of digital
video games for education and foreign/second language learning has proved that they could
provide communicative virtual environments which are meaningful, purposeful, and cognitively
engaging (Chen and Yang 2013; Thorne, Black, and Sykes 2009). Moreover, computer-based
video games are highly motivating for language learners (Connolly, Stansfield, and Hainey 2011;

CONTACT Mostafa Janebi Enayat [email protected]

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

Liu and Chu 2010) and can reduce the affective barriers normally existing in face-to-face interactions
(Freiermuth 2002). They thus provide the opportunity of a learner-centered context where the
teacher does not play an authoritative role in the learning process. Furthermore, computer-based
simulations serve the L2 learners with a cohesive, meaningful (Purushotma 2005) and authentic
(Schwienhorst 2002) learning context. Peterson (2010b, 72) reviewed the literature on the use of
simulations and computer games for language education and concluded that such tools could
‘present valuable opportunities for effective language learning’.
The present study follows deHaan’s (2011) argument that very few studies have addressed the
impact of digital games on second language development. The effect of computer-based video
games on L2 learning is still an under-researched issue in the field of computer-assisted language
learning and the related previous studies have had their own limitations. As deHaan, Reed, and
Kuwada (2010, 87) believe, ‘conducting mixed methods research with a variety of game genres
seems to be a logical next step for digital game-based language research due to the early nature
of the field’. In other words, future studies need to employ both quantitative and qualitative
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

methods to investigate the educational benefits of computer games for L2 learning. Ranalli (2008)
also suggested that further exploration would be needed to find the potential of video games in
developing English vocabulary knowledge of L2 learners.
In the following section, we review the literature on the use of digital video games in the context
of second language learning and, in particular, discuss the genre and advantages of adventure video
games, which this study tried to investigate, for second language acquisition in general, and L2 voca-
bulary learning in particular. We then justify the rationale for the current study with reference to the
limitations of the previous studies on the effect of employing adventure videos games for foreign
language learning.

Literature review
Digital game-based learning
A game is defined as ‘a voluntary and enjoyable activity in which a player pursues a challenging goal
based on the game rules’ (Kinzie and Joseph 2008, 644). It is a rule-bound system which may include
creative and imaginative experiences for the players to do some kind of problem-solving activity
(Sykes and Reinhardt 2013). Digital games are a kind of simulation which provide interactive learning
environments in which the participants have functional roles to carry out some tasks using sufficient
given information. The term ‘Digital Game-Based Learning’ was proposed by Prensky (2001) to
denote the use of computer games for educational purposes. The reasons for this use lie in the advan-
tages of digital games for the learning process. Gee (2003) identified a number of features for digital
games which are beneficial for learning such as being engaging, interactive, productive, and having
minimal negative consequences for the learners. O’Neil, Wainess, and Baker (2005) also pointed out
that computer games can provide a range of approaches to learning processes, address cognitive
and affective issues of learning, and motivate the students. In addition to the aforementioned fea-
tures, computer games have some other characteristics which make them suitable materials for
language learning such as ‘comprehensible input, self-study opportunities, subtitles, repetition,
and authentic language’ (deHaan, Reed, and Kuwada 2010, 75). Furthermore, digital games make
the learning experience fun and relaxing for the students (Sandberg, Maris, and de Geus 2011)
and increase their interest and attention (Liu and Chu 2010).
Due to the above-mentioned advantages of digital games for education in general, and language
learning in particular, a number of studies have been conducted to probe their effect (e.g. Chen and
Yang 2013; deHaan 2005, 2011; deHaan, Reed, and Kuwada 2010; Hwang et al. 2016; Neville, Shelton,
and McInnis 2009; Ranalli 2008; Yip and Kwan 2006). Yip and Kwan (2006), for instance, investigated
the usefulness of online vocabulary games in enhancing the English vocabulary knowledge of ESP
learners. The results of their investigation indicated that the learners who were taught using the
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 3

online games outperformed the control group on the post-test, which examined the students’ reten-
tion of words. Surface, Dierdorff, and Watson (2007) investigated the impact of TACTICAL IRAQI, which
is a digital video game designed to train American military personnel in Iraqi Arabic, and found that
the game helped the participants improve their speaking and listening skills. Thorne (2008) also
investigated the potential of WORLD OF WARCRAFT, a multiplayer online role-playing game, for inter-
action in target language. Thorne observed that the subjects engaged in an informal goal-directed
interaction which improved their communicative competence and their use of communication strat-
egies. Liu and Chu (2010) examined how ubiquitous digital games influence high school students’
English learning achievement and motivation. The results of their study demonstrated that incorpor-
ating digital games into the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning process could lead to better
learning outcomes and motivation.
The impact of video games on learning English vocabulary was also examined by deHaan, Reed, and
Kuwada (2010). The researchers investigated to what degree video games could affect the noticing and
recall of L2 vocabulary. The experimental group consisted of EFL students who were paired based on
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

language and game proficiency. In each pair, one subject played the music video game while the other
paired participant simply watched the game on another monitor. The results of the vocabulary recall
test indicated that while the game significantly affected both players and watchers, the recall was
more remarkable for the game watchers. The effect of playing an educational adventure video
game, Trace Effects, was examined by Bado and Franklin (2014). This adventure video game has
been designed by a team of EFL professionals and aims at teaching American English. The results of
quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that playing the game contributed to improving the
vocabulary knowledge, comprehension, and motivation of the EFL students. In a more recent study,
Hwang et al. (2016) examined the effect of educational digital game-based learning activities on EFL
speaking and listening skills. Results of their analyses revealed that while such games could not
significantly affect the listening skill of the students, they could enhance their speaking ability. More
specifically, the results showed that the students who used digital games could speak more frequently,
accurately, and confidently.

Commercial adventure video games

An adventure video game is a type of computer game in which the player has an interactive role in a
story which is driven by puzzle-solving and exploration (Rollings and Adams 2003). Adventure video
games are stand-alone simulation games in which the player is interacting with a computer (Ranalli
2008) and the emphasis is on story, characters, and the adventure. The essential elements of this
genre of gameplay include puzzle-solving, exploration, and storytelling. Adventure video games
contain a range of puzzles, exploring new places, opening locked doors, finding and using items,
and decoding messages (Rollings and Adams 2003; Chandler and Chandler 2011). When the
players solve a puzzle, they can gain access to new areas in the game environment, and find more
of the game story. One of the key features of adventure video games is having strong storylines
which develop through dialogues that are sometimes recorded by voice actors. Players can
engage a non-player character by selecting a line of pre-written conversation from a menu, which
prompts a response from one of the game characters and, by communicating with the characters,
the player can obtain some clues to solve the puzzles. These features of commercial adventure
video games can make them valuable materials for language learning. Sykes and Reinhardt
(2013, 49) argue that ‘not all games possess high-quality narratives, but those that do can form pro-
ductive language learning environments, especially when learning the L2 is understood as necessary
for playing a desirable game’. Chen and Yang (2013, 130) further believe that interactive adventure
video games can provide sufficient language input for learners and ‘the dialogues performed by
game characters in the target language can create an authentic learning environment for second
language learners’.
 4 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

The benefits of commercial adventure video games for second language learning encouraged
a few researchers to investigate their potential influence. An early study by Miller and Hegelhei-
mer (2006) examined the effect of playing The Sims, which is a computer adventure video game
allowing the players to experience the challenges of everyday life through the characters of a
family called Sims, on the grammar and vocabulary knowledge of L2 learners. The researchers
found significant gains of vocabulary knowledge by language learners who also perceived the
game as helpful in learning the new words they were exposed to in the study. In a later research,
Ranalli (2008) replicated Miller and Hegelheimer’s study using a mixed-methods investigation
and a longer survey instrument to examine the effect of playing The Sims on developing the
vocabulary knowledge of L2 learners. He found that the video game significantly improved
the vocabulary knowledge of the students. This study, as argued by Peterson (2010b), had a
number of limitations including a limited number of gaming sessions and small number of
subjects.
In a more recent study, Chen and Yang (2013) examined the impact of adventure video game Bone
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

on foreign language vocabulary learning and the EFL learners’ perceptions toward the game by con-
ducting two separate studies. In the first one, one group of participants were permitted to take notes
while playing, whereas the other group was not. The results showed that both groups learned some
new words used in the game and note taking did not make a significant difference. In the second
study, another group of participants played the game extensively during six weeks and the findings
revealed that the students perceived the game as helpful in improving their reading, listening, and
vocabulary size. The students also reported that playing the game enhanced their motivation by
giving them a sense of learning achievement.
The most recent study by Chen and Yang (2013), as the researchers themselves acknowledged,
had some limitations which this study tried to address. First, the researchers did not investigate
the perceptions of the students who played the game under pressure and control in the experimental
group. Instead, they probed the perceptions of another group who were encouraged to play the
game during 16 weeks out of class without any strict control. This could have affected the reliability
of their findings since the students had access to other learning sources as well, so their perceptions
would not exactly reflect the effect of playing video games. Second, their study did not employ a
control group to compare the performance of the players with the learners instructed through the
traditional method. Not having a reliable baseline to compare the results of the experimental
group with may reduce the reliability of the findings. Finally, ‘the duration of the gaming session
might be too short’ (it was only two hours) and ‘if the subjects were allotted with more time, they
would have had more encounters with the target words and thus have had a better post-gaming per-
formance’ (Chen and Yang 2013, 137).
Taking into account the significance of computer-based video games in language education and
the limitations and suggestions of previous research, this study aimed at investigating the impact of a
modern commercial adventure video game on vocabulary recall of EFL students. More specifically,
the present study examined how exploiting an adventure video game supported by other sup-
plementary exercises could influence the receptive and productive vocabulary recall of EFL students.
The perceptions of the students toward the use of such games for vocabulary instruction were also
probed. The following research questions were, therefore, formulated:

1. Does playing adventure video games facilitated by pedagogical supplementary materials contrib-
ute to EFL students’ immediate receptive vocabulary recall?
2. Does playing adventure video games facilitated by pedagogical supplementary materials contrib-
ute to EFL students’ delayed productive vocabulary recall?
3. What are the EFL students’ perceptions toward the use of adventure video games as supplemen-
tary tools for vocabulary learning?
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 5

Methodology
Participants
The participants were 30 freshman undergraduates majoring in English Literature at a state university
in Iran who were selected based on a convenience sampling method. They were all native speakers of
Persian and their average age was 20. Sixty percent of the subjects were females and 40% were
males. The language proficiency of the students, as measured through the Oxford Placement Test
(2004), was at the lower-intermediate level. All the participants were randomly divided into two
equal groups of experimental and control each consisting of 15 participants.

Materials
Oxford Placement Test (2004)
This test was administered to find the language proficiency level of the participants and homogenize
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

them into one group. The test includes cloze test and multiple-choice items measuring grammar,
vocabulary, and reading comprehension. It has 60 items and was developed by Oxford University
Press and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. This version of the test has been
reported to have high validity and its reliability, as reported by Geranpayeh (2003), has reached 0.90.

The Secret of Monkey Island – Special Edition

This commercial adventure video game was designed in 2009 by LucasArts Entertainment Company
(http://www.lucasfilm.com/games) which is an American video game publisher. The game (Figure 1)
is a remake of The Secret of Monkey Island which takes place in the Caribbean Sea and its islands
during the age of piracy. The game is about a young man called Guybrush Threepwood who
dreams of becoming a pirate and to achieve his goal, seek out the pirate leaders of one of the fictional
islands. The pirate leaders set him some trials and puzzles to complete in order to become a pirate.
Guybrush explores the island to complete the tasks and during doing so, he encounters challenges
and meets several other characters.
For the main character, who is actually the player, to become a pirate there are some procedures
that should be passed. The player needs to talk to other characters to get information on how to pass
the levels and as the conversations are in English, the player needs to comprehend the dialogues. An
advantage of this game is the availability of subtitles; the players listen to the dialogues and read

Figure 1. A screenshot of The Secret of Monkey Island – Special Edition.

 6 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

along the subtitles simultaneously, and this helps their comprehension and better following the
game. Like other adventure games, the player is the one who decides what to ask, what to do,
and what to listen and in order to be able to do those tasks, the player needs to understand the dia-
logues. The player faces different situations and in each one, there are different options to choose.
The options are texted and the player should choose one of them. In order to choose the best
one, the player again has to understand the sentences, so it can ensure that if a player or a participant
has finished the game, s/he has absolutely read all the sentences because without doing it, finishing
the game would be impossible.

Pre-test
In order to have a reliable test and to well evaluate the effect of the video game on the students’
vocabulary recall, all the words that the participants were supposed to pick up after playing 50%
of the game were extracted and written on a list which consisted of nearly 2000 words occurring
within The Secret of Monkey Island. For the purpose of this study, the frequency of the words was
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

examined using an online lexical profiler (www.lextutor.ca/vp/eng) which sorts the words with refer-
ence to frequency lists (Ranalli 2008). Accordingly, 84 low frequency content words (see Appendix),
which were likely to be unfamiliar to the participants, were extracted and used for the pre-test. The
students in both control and experimental groups took the pre-test consisting of those 84 words.
They were asked to write anything they knew about each word on the list. They were allowed to
write a Persian equivalent, Persian definition, English synonym, English antonym, English definition,
and/or an English example sentence for the target words. This was done to make sure that the sub-
jects did not have any knowledge of the meaning of those words which were to be used for the
purpose of the study. The words in the pre-test that were known to even one single student were
eliminated and the final group of 35 words unknown to all the students were selected for the
post-tests of the study.

Vocabulary list
A list containing the 84 extracted words, which were assumed to be more difficult as identified by the
word frequency lists, was made and handed out to the students of both control and experimental
groups. Each word was provided with a definition, synonym, and an example sentence, and both
groups had to study the list alongside doing other vocabulary exercises as part of their vocabulary
learning plan and get prepared for the upcoming post-tests.

Vocabulary exercises
A range of activities including sentence completion, matching, and sentence making were designed
using the 84 low frequency words from the game and incorporated into the treatment phase of both
groups. The participants were, therefore, given controlled/free and receptive/productive activities to
learn the meaning of the 84 low-frequent words extracted from the computer game.

Online dictionary
The participants in the experimental group had access to the online Oxford Learner’s Dictionary
(http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com).

The first post-test measuring receptive recall

The first post-test was developed to measure the immediate receptive vocabulary recall of the par-
ticipants. The test had 35 multiple-choice items which examined the students’ knowledge of the 35
unknown target words from the video game. Each item required the subjects to recognize the correct
use of the target words among contextualized sentences. To compensate for the guessing effect,
which is a threat to the reliability of multiple-choice tests (Chiu and Camilli 2013), an ‘I don’t know’
option, which has been found to diminish the guesswork (Zhang 2013), was added to the items of
the pre-test. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the test for the 30 participants of the study was
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 7

found to be 0.86. The concurrent validity of the first post-test was examined by comparing the scores
of the students in the two groups with their scores on the Oxford Placement test, as a measure of
language proficiency. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient yielded appropriate val-
idity for the first pre-test (r = 0.81).

The second post-test measuring productive recall

The second post-test examined the delayed productive vocabulary recall of the students. The test con-
sisted of different contextualized sentences which had 15 mutilated words to be restored by the test
takers. The 15 target words were selected from among the 35 words of the first post-test which were
receptively known to all the participants. The rationale behind testing only these 15 words was that the
words which were receptively unknown to the students would not be productively recalled after a time
interval since the productive vocabulary recall demands a higher level of mastery of the lexical item
than the receptive recall. It was assumed, therefore, that the target words which were not known in
the receptive test would not be answered in the productive test either and including all the 35
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

words in the productive post-test would be pointless. The format of this test followed the productive
vocabulary size test developed by Laufer and Nation (1999). The purpose of using mutilated words was
to prevent the test takers from filling in the sentence with a word, which would be both grammatically
and semantically correct, but different from the 35 target words of the study.

Questionnaire
A 14-item questionnaire was developed to find the perceptions of the participants in the experimen-
tal group toward playing the game and its use as a tool for learning new words. The statements were
based on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). The items of
the questionnaire investigated different aspects such as the difficulty level of the game, students’
interest, the game’s usefulness for learning and recalling vocabulary, and the suitability of the
video game for the participants.

Interview
To triangulate the data needed for probing the perceptions of the students, an interview was also
conducted. When the gaming sessions were finished for the participants in the experimental
group and immediately after taking the first post-test and completing the questionnaire, the students
took part in a 20-minute interview to answer a few questions regarding their perceptions toward the
game. The interviewer asked the following questions:

1. How did you find the experience of playing an adventure video game? Why?
2. What were the features you liked most in the game?
3. Did playing the video game help you recalling the target words of the test? How?
4. Do you think playing an adventure video game is a good tool for language learning? How?
5. Do you think adventure video games could be used as part of the syllabus for language learning?

Procedures
The language proficiency level of the students was first determined by administering the Oxford Pla-
cement Test (2004) during a 40-minute session. Second, they were randomly assigned into two
control and experimental groups. Next, they took a pre-test which examined their knowledge of
84 low frequency words used in the first half of the adventure video game. The 35 words which
were unknown for all the 30 participants were selected to be used in the two post-tests of the
study. After that, the participants in both groups were given the vocabulary list containing the
new 84 low frequency words with other vocabulary exercises to get ready for the post-tests, while
the experimental group was also asked to play the first half of the game.
 8 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

The participants in the control group learned the 84 target words during four sessions each lasting
for nearly 90 minutes. In each session, the teacher used the vocabulary list to introduce some of the
new words and present a quick overview of them. After that, he gave the students some synonyms
and/or antonyms for the target words and then had the students brainstorm some other words
associated with them. When the students were sufficiently familiarized with the words, the teacher
gave them the vocabulary exercises which the students had to work on for about 45 minutes.
The experimental group played the game in the computer laboratory of the university for five suc-
cessive days with each session lasting for about two hours. To facilitate the gaming process, the stu-
dents were first trained individually and introduced to the game content and plot before the gaming
sessions start. The students could use the vocabulary list and the online dictionary to check the
meaning of the words they encountered in the game. The vocabulary list provided them with the
meaning of some of the low-frequent words used in the video game and was available for them
during the whole experiment. In addition, the students had to complete a couple of vocabulary exer-
cises at the end of each gaming session. The students spent approximately 80 minutes for playing the
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

game and 40 minutes for the vocabulary exercises in each session. One of the researchers, who was
familiar with all the stages of the game, was present throughout the treatment to assist the players
when necessary.
The first post-test was administered to both groups immediately after the five-day intensive treat-
ment to decrease the probability that the participants learn meaning of the new words from other
sources (following Chen and Yang 2013). The students had 30 minutes to complete this test. After-
wards, to probe the perceptions of the learners toward the experience of playing the adventure
video game as a tool for vocabulary learning, the questionnaire was administered and then the stu-
dents were interviewed individually. The interviews were conducted in Persian and were audio-
recorded. The native language of the participants was used so that they could express their opinions
easily and comfortably. Finally, the second post-test was taken after a 10-day time interval to inves-
tigate the effect of gaming on the delayed productive vocabulary recall of the participants. The time
allotted for the second post-test was 20 minutes. Acceptable scoring method was used to score the
students’ responses on this test.

Design and data analysis

The mixed-methods design of this study included gaming as the independent variable and stu-
dents’ receptive and productive vocabulary recall as the dependent variables. The study used
both quantitative and qualitative analyses to find the effect of playing adventure video games
on vocabulary learning of EFL students as well as probing their perceptions toward such games,
as learning tools. The quantitative data were entered into SPSS version 20 to check the normality,
calculate descriptive statistics, and run independent samples t-tests for the post-tests data. In
addition, one sample t-tests were run to test the students’ responses on the 14-item questionnaire.
The data obtained from the interviews were recorded, transcribed, and translated from Persian into
English. Content analysis was then applied to code and analyze the data thematically in order to
identify the utterances expressing students’ perceptions toward the game, as a learning tool.

Results
To check the normality of the data obtained from the post-tests scores of both groups, a Shapiro–Wilk
test was run. The results (Table 1) indicated that the first post-test scores, W(30) = 0 .94, p > .05, and
the second post-test scores, W(30) =0 .94, p > .05, were normally distributed. An independent samples
t-test was also run to ensure the homogeneity of the two groups’ proficiency level. Levene’s test
confirmed the equality of variances of both groups’ scores on the Oxford Placement Test (F = 2.25,
p > .05). The results (Table 2) show that there were not any significant differences between the
two groups scores on the proficiency test (t(28) = 1.62, p > .05).
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 9

Table 1. Results of the Shapiro–Wilk test of normality.

Shapiro–Wilk
Statistic df Sig.
Post-test 1 0.945 30 0.124
Post-test 2 0.946 30 0.136

Table 2. Independent samples t-test results for the homogeneity of proficiency level.
Experimental
Control (n = 15) (n = 15)
M SD M SD F p t-value df p
Proficiency 29.20 2.00 30.60 2.66 2.251 .145 1.62 28 .116

Contribution of video games to L2 receptive vocabulary recall

Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

The first research question of this study was concerned with the contribution of playing adventure
video games to the immediate receptive vocabulary recall of EFL students. An independent
samples t-test was run to compare the scores of the control and experimental groups on the first
post-test which had been designed for this purpose.
The results (Table 3) indicated that the equality of variances of both groups’ scores was confirmed
by the Levene’s test (F = 1.48, p > .05). The difference between the performance of the students in the
control (M = 19.13, SD = 2.80) and experimental (M = 27.33, SD = 2.05) groups was statistically signifi-
cant; t(28) = 9.13, p < .001. The overall results for the first research question provided clear evidence
for the highly significant contribution of playing adventure video games to the receptive recall of
English vocabulary by EFL students.

Contribution of video games to l2 productive vocabulary recall

The second research question of this study investigated the contribution of playing computer video
games to the delayed productive vocabulary recall of EFL learners. For this purpose, another indepen-
dent samples t-test was run to find if there were any statistically significant difference between the
scores of the students in the two control and experimental groups.
The results of the Levene’s test for the equality of variances (Table 4) show that the assumption of
equal variances between the scores of the students in the control and experimental groups has been
met (F = 1.32, p > .05). The descriptive statistics indicated that there were noticeable differences
between the mean scores of the control and experimental groups (M = 4.66, SD = 1.58; M = 8.26, SD =
1.83, respectively). This mean difference, as tested through independent samples t-test, was found to
be statistically significant with t(28) = 5.75, p < .001. The findings, therefore, demonstrated that playing
adventure video games could contribute to the delayed productive vocabulary recall of EFL learners.

Learners’ perceptions
Quantitative analysis
The third research question addressed the perceptions of L2 learners toward playing the adventure
video games as supplementary tools for language learning in general, and vocabulary learning in

Table 3. Independent samples t-test results for the first post-test.

Experimental
Control (n = 15) (n = 15)
M SD M SD F p t-value df p
Post-test 1 19.13 2.80 27.33 2.05 1.487 .233 9.139 28 .000*
Note: *p < .001.
 10 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

Table 4. Independent samples t-test results for the second post-test.

Experimental
Control (n = 15) (n = 15)
M SD M SD F p t-value df p
Post-test 2 4.66 1.58 8.26 1.83 1.327 .259 5.752 28 .000*
*p < .001.

particular. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected for this purpose. The quantitative
data were obtained from a 14-item questionnaire which examined the students’ perceptions using
a set of statements about the gaming experience and its usefulness for vocabulary learning. To
test the students’ responses on the five-point Likert scale questionnaire, the items were first
divided into the ones expressing positive and the ones expressing negative perceptions. Then, the
overall responses to each group of items were analyzed through one sample t-tests. Out of the 14
items, 6 statements expressed negative and 8 statements expressed positive perceptions. Recall
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

that that items were based on a five-point Likert scale with 1 (strongly agree); 2 (agree); 3 (no
idea); 4 (disagree); and 5 (strongly disagree). The test value was thus decided to be 3 for each one
sample t-test.
The results of the analysis for the negative statements as examined through one sample t-test
(Table 5) indicated that the mean of the students’ responses was higher than the test value (M =
3.78, SD = 0.31) and this mean difference was statistically significant (t(14) = 9.61, p < .001). Conse-
quently, the results showed that the students in the experimental group disagreed with the negative
ideas about the video games.
Another one sample t-test was run for the positive statements of the questionnaire. The results
(Table 6) show that the mean of the students’ responses was lower than the test value (M = 1.61,
SD = 0.39). The difference between the mean of the sample and the test value was found to be stat-
istically significant (t(14) = −13.60, p < .001). The results, therefore, proved that the participants in the
experimental group agreed with the positive statements about gaming and its use for language and
vocabulary learning.
Both negative and positive statements appear in Table 7 with the mean and standard deviation of
each item. The responses of the students who played the video game show that most of the students
found the game interesting, motivating, and helpful in recalling the meaning of new words. They did
not have any difficulty playing the game and reported it as suitable for their age. The students per-
ceived the game as a useful tool for learning new words and their pronunciation in context. More-
over, they believed the game could contribute to their performance on the first post-test and
preferred playing the video game to memorizing the new words.

Qualitative analysis
In order to triangulate the data needed to answer the third research question, an interview was also
conducted to find the perceptions of the students toward the application of adventure video games
for language learning. The responses of the participants to the five questions indicated that they
mostly found the gaming experience to be motivating and interesting since it was their first time
to play a video game for learning purposes (see S3 below, as an example statement from the stu-
dents’ responses). They stated the problem-solving feature, meaningful, and purposeful storyline,
and creative design of the game as reasons for finding it a new and useful supplementary learning

Table 5. One sample t-test results for the negative statements.

N M SD t df p
Negative 15 3.788 0.317 9.611 14 .000*
Note: Test value = 3.
*p < .001.
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 11

Table 6. One sample t-test results for the positive statements.

N M SD t df p
Positive 15 1.616 0.393 −13.606 14 .000*
Note: test value = 3.
*p < .001.

Table 7. Students’ perceptions of the game.

Statements Type M SD
1. I found the game really interesting + 1.40 0.50
2. I think the game could help me remember the words better + 1.67 0.72
3. I really liked to continue playing the game + 1.53 0.74
4. I think the game had no effect on my better remembering of the words − 4.20 1.08
5. I could easily play the game + 1.60 0.73
6. I think the game was not my age − 3.93 0.79
7. I was not motivated to play the game at all − 3.93 0.88
8. I liked to play the game more than once + 1.60 0.82
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

9. I think the game was not my type. (I didn’t like the genre of the game) − 3.27 1.33
10. I think finding and reading the words in the context of the game was so helpful in better understanding + 1.47 0.51
of the usages of the words
11. I think the game didn’t help me in finding the correct choice in the final tests − 3.80 1.01
12. I think the game was helpful in better learning of the pronunciation of the words + 1.60 0.73
13. I think playing the game is much better than memorizing the words + 2.07 0.70
14. I liked the strategy but I didn’t like the game − 3.60 1.24

tool (S8). Most of the players mentioned that the music, pictures, and the availability of subtitles could
help them better understand the conversations and new words used by the characters (S1). Some of
the students, however, stated that the graphic quality of the game was not satisfactory and the plot
was, to some extent, difficult (S10).

S3: Well, it was really amazing! It was quite different from the regular English language teaching [ELT] classes
that we have had so far. I enjoyed the whole experience. It’s fun to play a video game to learn some new
words. I like trying new ways to improve my vocabulary knowledge, and this technique is also interesting.
S8: I had to solve many puzzles to lead Guybrush [the main character in the game] throughout the game and
to do so, it was important to understand the dialogues from other characters. If you can’t find out the
mysteries or give the other pirates what they want, you won’t be able to move to other levels of the
game. I really liked the jokes of the game … the clothes of the people [the characters] … and the locations
which Guybrush had to explore.
S1: What I liked most about the game was that it showed us the dialogues on the screen, so we could see the
spelling of the words … this helped us comprehend the responses [from other characters] and look out
the meaning of new words when needed.
S10: There were too many puzzles in the game that I couldn’t understand! I really can’t get into such kinds of
video games which have many characters and even worse than that is the game lags behind many other
well-known video games out there in the market which have a much better graphic.

Almost all of the students indicated that playing the video game could help them recall the meaning of
the new words. They mentioned the use of subtitles, contextualized use of the words, dialogues, photos,
and music as key reasons for their ideas (S12). At least 90% of the players believed that the adventure
video games could be used as supplementary tools for language learning in general, and vocabulary
learning in particular. They explained that the presentation of language in the form of an interactive
tool, which is contextualized and multimodal, can be a suitable alternative for textbooks and homework
which are not as enjoyable and engaging as video games (S15). All the students, therefore, concluded
that adventure video games could be and should be used as part of the syllabus for language learning.

S12: Yes, I think playing the game was very effective in learning the meaning of words and recalling and using
them for the tests that we took. Personally, I don’t like the idea of memorizing a list of words to get ready
for a test … you know it’s sort of boring and useless, but this video game shows the words in meaningful
dialogues which you need to understand to finish each level of the game.
 12 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

S15: Sure! I believe such games could be employed by our teachers to enhance our language proficiency
because they are so attractive and engaging; they have a catchy music, funny dialogues, and fascinating
stories. It’s like communicating with some people to learn a language, and this is wonderful!

Overall, the findings of the qualitative data obtained from the interview sessions confirmed the quan-
titative results of the questionnaire. The findings thus showed that the students in the experimental
group perceived gaming as a beneficial and helpful method for language learning. They pointed to
the special features of the game which are appropriate for vocabulary recall. Notwithstanding, a
couple of the participants assigned some disadvantages to the video game including low graphic
quality and tedious plot. They thus suggested applying the game for language education after
some technical modifications.

Discussion
The current study investigated the contribution of adventure video game The Secret of Monkey
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

Island – Special Edition on receptive and productive vocabulary recall of EFL students. Moreover,
the perceptions of the learners toward the game as a supplementary learning tool was examined
both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results showed that playing adventure video games con-
tributed to not only the immediate receptive, but also the delayed productive vocabulary recall of
the players. The EFL learners also expressed positive perceptions toward the game and identified
gaming as a helpful tool for language education in general, and vocabulary learning in particular.
The results support previous studies which found similar effect for playing adventure video games on
language learning; deHaan 2005). In particular, the findings are in line with Yip and Kwan (2006), Ranalli
(2008), deHaan, Reed, and Kuwada (2010), and Chen and Yang (2013) claiming that video games are
helpful sources and tools for second language vocabulary learning. The positive and significant effect
of gaming on learning new words, as expressed by the learners themselves, could be justified by the
special features of adventure games which contribute to the learning process. Contextualized encoun-
tering of new words, for instance, could be mentioned as one reason for the positive impact of
gaming on vocabulary recall. The students are required to interact in a virtual environment with some
other characters to accomplish a set of tasks or puzzles which are challenging and engaging. The
player thus gets involved in a meaningful task where s/he needs to pass a few stages to complete the
game and in so doing, the main character, who is actually the player, should comprehend a series of con-
versations held in native English. Such purposeful virtual interaction resembles the real-life use of
language where speakers comprehend and use the language for communicative purposes.
The adventure video game used for the purpose of this study has a number of other features
which might have contributed to the receptive and productive vocabulary recall by EFL students.
The availability of subtitles is a key feature of The Secret of Monkey Island – Special Edition, which
helps the learners to visualize what they hear (Danan 2004). It has been found that the presence
of subtitles or captions can enhance the listening and reading comprehension of L2 learners
(Markham, Peter, and McCarthy 2001). Since the subtitles facilitate the cognitive processing by
helping the students confirm the information they hear and providing them with a multimodal
input, they promote language comprehension (Bird and Williams 2002).
Another feature of gaming is the frequency of occurrence of the new words, which help the lear-
ners to encounter the use of a word in different contexts and meaningful sentences. This multiple
exposure may guarantee the vocabulary learning and increase the possibility that the meaning of
a word moves from the short-term memory to the long-term memory. Nation and Wang (1999)
and Hulstijn (2001) also found that multiple exposures and further reinforcement lead to a deep
imprint of new words in memory. The different modes of presentation such as motion pictures,
music, meaningful dialogues, and native pronunciation of the words, which are frequently used in
different situations, could highly contribute to the vocabulary learning process. The presence of
these modes and features can foster learner autonomy (Freiermuth 2002) since the students are
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 13

engaged in a virtual environment where they have to find solutions to achieve the goals on their own,
and the teacher does not play an authoritative role.
The overall findings showed that using adventure video games supported by pedagogical sup-
plementary materials could improve the receptive and productive vocabulary recall of EFL students.
This is consistent with Hung, Sun, and Yu (2015, 173) that ‘it is critical to provide learning support
when implementing game-based problem-solving learning activities’. The results further support
Ranalli (2008) and Peterson’s (2010b, 87) conclusion that ‘the use of stand-alone games combined
with carefully designed support materials may be an effective means to develop vocabulary as a sup-
plement to regular coursework’.
The EFL students found the adventure video game to be motivating and helpful for language and
vocabulary learning. Their positive perceptions toward the video game are in line with previous
research (e.g. Chen and Yang 2013; Connolly, Stansfield, and Hainey 2011; Hung, Sun, and Yu
2015; Liu and Chu 2010; Ranalli 2008; Yip and Kwan 2006). An engaging storyline could be inferred
as one of the reasons that make the players of adventure video games motivated (Chen and Yang
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

2013). When such creative video games are applied for language learning, they increase the incli-
nation of the students to learn. The gaming experience gives the players a sense of achievement
upon completing the missions and puzzles. This feeling could also enhance the students’ motivation
and lead to gains in incidental language learning (Liu and Chu 2010). When students’ motivation is
reinforced, the learning process is also accelerated and improved (Hwang et al. 2016).

Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest implications for language teachers, learners, materials writers, and
syllabus designers. Teachers can use adventure video games as supplementary tools for vocabulary
instruction as well as other skills and sub-skills like listening, reading, and grammar. In so doing,
however, they need to take into account the proficiency level of the students, the difficulty level of
the game, and whether the video game provides the players with subtitles, music, pronunciation,
and other relevant features. In introducing digital games into the learning environments, issues of
student motivation, game genre, topic, and audience-appropriate material should not be overlooked
(Neville, Shelton, and McInnis 2009). The teacher is also recommended to ask the students to do some
brainstorming for the new words used in the game before the gaming session starts in order to lower
the cognitive load (deHaan, Reed, and Kuwada 2010). In other words, the gaming can be considered as
a task and appropriate pre- and post-task stages can be planned. The games could also be employed by
teachers to engage the students, especially when faced with a demotivated group of learners, in the
learning process. The students could also select suitable video games to play outside classroom in
order to develop their vocabulary knowledge. During the gaming process, they can use dictionaries
for the more difficult words. Materials writers may adapt the adventure video games for language
learning purposes. Syllabus designers are also suggested to include video games as part of the plan
for vocabulary instruction since they are highly effective and engaging for L2 learners.
Although adventure video games have potential to be used as learning tools, they have some
limitations as well. Finding appropriate games that align with the objectives of the curriculum is
not an easy task (Cheon et al. 2015). Next, most games require a considerable amount of time to
play, which may be beyond the time constraints of an ELT course. Furthermore, computer video
games are costly and require ample equipment to be implemented, so integrating such games
into the ELT curriculum could be difficult.
Notwithstanding the above-mentioned implications, some limitations should be noted for further
research. First, the data were obtained from a relatively small sample selected through convenience
random sampling. Future studies should, therefore, use larger and more representative groups of stu-
dents. Second, this research focused on the effect of adventure video games on vocabulary recall of
lower-intermediate EFL students. Further studies can investigate the use of these games for other
skills and sub-skills as well as other proficiency levels to still obtain more generalizable findings.
 14 M. JANEBI ENAYAT AND M. HAGHIGHATPASAND

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Mostafa Janebi Enayat is a PhD candidate of applied linguistics at Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran. Currently,
he is a university lecturer at Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran. He has published in national and inter-
national journals and serves as the reviewer of a few journals as well. His main research interests include vocabulary
assessment, discourse analysis, and critical approaches to materials evaluation.
Mohsen Haghighatpasand is an MA graduate in teaching English as a foreign language. He has taught English for about
nine years and is now a lecturer at the University of International Relations and World Languages, Almaty, Kazakhstan. He
is interested in CALL, vocabulary instruction, and educational technology.

ORCID
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

Mostafa Janebi Enayat http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8724-9121

References
Bado, N., and T. Franklin. 2014. “Cooperative Game-based Learning in the English as a Foreign Language Classroom.”
Issues and Trends in Educational Technology 2 (2): 1–17.
Bird, S. A., and J. N. Williams. 2002. “The Effect of Bimodal Input on Implicit and Explicit Memory: An Investigation into the
Benefits of Within-language Subtitling.” Applied Psycholinguistics 23 (4): 509–533.
Chandler, H. M., and R. Chandler. 2011. Fundamentals of Game Development. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Chen, H. J. H., and T. U. C. Yang. 2013. “The Impact of Adventure Video Games on Foreign Language Learning and the
Perceptions of Learners.” Interactive Learning Environments 21 (2): 129–141.
Cheon, J., S. Chung, J. Song, and Y. Kim. 2015. “An Investigation of the Effects of a Graphic Organizer in an Online Serious
Game on Learning Outcomes and Attitudinal Perceptions.” Interactive Learning Environments 23 (4): 437–452.
Chiu, T. W., and G. Camilli. 2013. “Comment on 3PL IRT Adjustment for Guessing.” Applied Psychological Measurement 37
(1): 76–86.
Connolly, Thomas M., Mark Stansfield, and Thomas Hainey. 2007. “An Application of Games-based Learning within
Software Engineering.” British Journal of Educational Technology 38 (3): 416–428.
Connolly, T. M., M. Stansfield, and T. Hainey. 2011. “An Alternate Reality Game for Language Learning: ARGuing for
Multilingual Motivation.” Computers & Education 57: 1389–1415.
Danan, M. 2004. “Captioning and Subtitling: Undervalued Language Learning Strategies.” Translators’ Journal 49 (1): 67–77.
deHaan, J. W. 2005. “Acquisition of Japanese as a Foreign Language Through a Baseball Video Game.” Foreign Language
Annals 38: 278–282.
deHaan, J. 2011. “Teaching and Learning English Through Digital Game Projects.” Digital Culture & Education 3 (1): 46–55.
deHaan, J. W., W. M. Reed, and K. Kuwada. 2010. “The Effect of Interactivity with a Music Video Game on Second Language
Vocabulary Recall.” Language Learning & Technology 14: 74–94.
Enriquez, A. G. 2010. “Enhancing Student Performance Using Tablet Computers.” College Teaching 58 (3): 77–84.
Foster, A. 2008. “Games and Motivation to Learning Science: Personal Identity, Applicability, Relevance and
Meaningfulness.” Journal of Interactive Learning Research 19 (4): 597–614.
Freiermuth, M. 2002. “Connecting with Computer Science Students by Building Bridges.” Simulation & Gaming 33 (3):
299–315.
Gee, J. P. 2003. What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gee, J. P. 2007. Good Video Games and Good Learning: Collected Essays on Video Games, Learning and Literacy (New
Literacies and Digital Epistemologies). New York: Peter Lang.
Geranpayeh, A. 2003. “A Quick Review of the English Quick Placement Test.” Research Notes 12: 8–10.
Hulstijn, J. H. 2001. “Intentional and Incidental Second-language Vocabulary Learning: A Reappraisal of Elaboration,
Rehearsal and Automaticity.” In Cognition and Second Language Instruction, edited by P. Robinson, 258–286.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hung, C. U., J. C. Y. Sun, and P. T. Yu. 2015. “The Benefits of a Challenge: Student Motivation and Flow Experience in Tablet-
PC-game-based Learning.” Interactive Learning Environments 23 (2): 172–190.
Hwang, W. U., T. K. Shih, Z. H. Ma, R. Shadiev, and S. Y. Chen. 2016. “Evaluating Listening and Speaking Skills in a Mobile
Game-based Learning Environment with Situational Contexts.” Computer Assisted Language Learning 29 (4): 639–657.
Kinzie, M. B., and D. R. D. Joseph. 2008. “Gender Differences in Game Activity Preferences of Middle School Children:
Implications for Educational Game Design.” Educational Technology Research and Development 56 (5–6): 643–663.
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 15

Laufer, B., and P. Nation. 1999. “A Vocabulary-size Test of Controlled Productive Ability.” Language Testing 16 (1): 33–51.
Liu, T. Y., and Y. L. Chu. 2010. “Using Ubiquitous Games in an English Listening and Speaking Course: Impact on Learning
Outcomes and Motivation.” Computers & Education 55 (2): 630–643.
Markham, P., L. Peter, and T. McCarthy. 2001. “The Effects of Native Language vs. Target Language Captions on Foreign
Language Students’ DVD Video Comprehension.” Foreign Language Annals 34 (5): 439–445.
Miller, M., and V. Hegelheimer. 2006. “The SIMs Meet ESL Incorporating Authentic Computer Simulation Games into the
Language Classroom.” Interactive Technology and Smart Education 3 (4): 311–328.
Nation, P., and M. K. Wang. 1999. “Graded Readers and Vocabulary.” Reading in a Foreign Language 12 (2): 355–379.
Neville, D. O., B. E. Shelton, and B. McInnis. 2009. “Cybertext Redux: Using Digital Game-based Learning to Teach L2
Vocabulary, Reading, and Culture.” Computer Assisted Language Learning 22 (5): 409–424.
O’Neil, H. F., R. Wainess, and E. L. Baker. 2005. “Classification of Learning Outcomes: Evidence from the Computer Games
Literature.” Curriculum Journal 16 (4): 455–474.
Peterson, M. 2010a. “Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Games as Arenas for Second Language Learning.”
Computer Assisted Language Learning 23 (5): 429–439.
Peterson, M. 2010b. “Computerized Games and Simulations in Computer-assisted Language Learning: A Meta-analysis of
Research.” Simulation & Gaming 41 (1): 72–93.
Prensky, M. 2001. Digital Game-based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Downloaded by [Pepperdine University] at 10:23 07 August 2017

Prensky, M. 2006. Don’t Bother Me Mom, I’m Learning. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Purushotma, R. 2005. “Commentary: You’re Not Studying, You’re Just … ” Language Learning & Technology 9 (1): 80–96.
Ranalli, J. 2008. “Learning English with The Sims: Exploiting Authentic Computer Simulation Games for L2 Learning.”
Computer Assisted Language Learning 21 (5): 441–455.
Rollings, A., and E. Adams. 2003. Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on Game Design. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders.
Sandberg, J., M. Maris, and K. de Geus. 2011. “Mobile English Learning: An Evidence-based Study with Fifth Graders.”
Computers & Education 57 (1): 1334–1347.
Schwienhorst, K. 2002. “Why Virtual, Why Environments? Implementing Virtual Reality Concepts in Computer-assisted
Language Learning.” Simulation & Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal 33: 196–209.
Surface, E. A., E. C. Dierdorff, and A. Watson. 2007. Special Operations Language Training Software Measurement of
Effectiveness Study: Tactical Iraqi Study Final Report. Tampa, FL: Special Operations Forces Language Office.
Sykes, J., and J. Reinhardt. 2013. “Review of Language at Play: Digital Games in Second and Foreign Language Teaching
and Learning.” Language Learning & Technology 17 (3): 47–51.
Thorne, S. L. 2008. “Transcultural Communication in Open Internet Environments and Massively Multiplayer Online
Games.” In Mediating Discourse Online, edited by S. Magnan, 305–327. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Thorne, S. L., R. W. Black, and J. Sykes. 2009. “Second Language Use, Socialization, and Learning in Internet Interest
Communities and Online Gaming.” Modern Language Journal 93: 802–821.
Yip, F. W. M., and A. C. M. Kwan. 2006. “Online Vocabulary Games as a Tool for Teaching and Learning English Vocabulary.”
Educational Media International 43 (3): 233–249.
Zhang, X. 2013. “The I Don’t Know Option in the Vocabulary Size Test.” TESOL Quarterly 47 (4): 790–811.

Appendix. Words selected for the study.

Pirate Unholy Poison Run along

Sneak up on sb Sneak into Feed Seek out
Inspector Mug Condiment Defeat
Curious about Pilfer Poodle Train
Go off to Idol Nut Procure
Trial Legendary Goffer Tricky
Cliff side Spot Shake up Vicious
Candidate Swill Stunning Breed
Re-elect Hunk Sophisticated Drug
Wise Barrel Elegant Fabulous
Stranger Pot Beat Repellent
Crew Substance Stand sb Sheriff
In charge Boiling Short on sth Prisoner
Seek Hot Low on sth Victim
Mansion Peck off Go through Tent
Governor Lava Sword Cannon
Grog Murder Thievery Helmet
Bother Disturb Quest Take sb for
Bug Sissy Treasure Relieved
Fearsome Handle Hunter Debilitating
Survivor Mess up Proof Lawsuit