FLUID MECHANICS

DRA 1713
 COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO3: Apply fluid mechanics theories such as
Bernoulli’s Theorem and Continuity Equation

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

 Define volume flow rate, weight flow rate, and
mass flow rate and their units.
 Define steady flow and the Principle of Continuity.
 Write the continuity equation, and use it to relate
the volume flow rate, area, and velocity of flow
between two points in a fluid flow system.
 Define and apply Bernoulli’s Theorem
• Fluid kinematics describes;
- the motion of fluid
- without considering the caused of motion (e.g. forces and
moments)
• Ideal Fluid : A fluid has no viscosity. In a straight conduit, all
particles move in parallel lines with equal velocity (Figure a).
Ideal fluid is;
 Incompressible – the density is constant
 Irrotational – the flow is smooth, no turbulence
 Non viscous – fluid has no internal friction
 Steady flow – the velocity of the fluid at each point is constant in time
Real Fluid : Tangential or shearing forces always develop whenever
there is motion relative to a body, thus creating fluid friction
(because these forces oppose the motion of one past another)
 Laminar : Fluid particles moving in an orderly
manner and retaining the same positions in
successive cross-sections.
 Turbulent : Fluid particle occupied different
relative position in successive cross sections.
 There are small fluctuation in magnitude and
direction of velocity, accompanied by small
fluctuation of pressure.
 The Reynold’s Number
 Criterion determines whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent is the ratio of inertial
force to viscous force acting on the particle,
known as Reynold’s Number, Re
ρvl vl
Re = =
µ υ
Where ρ : density; µ : dynamic viscosity; v : velocity; l : length; v :
kinematic viscosity

 In pipes; l is replaced by diameter of pipe; d.

ρvd
Re =
µ
 The flow is classified based on the calculated
value of Reynolds number as follow:

Re < 4000 < Re >

Turbulent
Laminar

transitional
2000 Re > 4000
2000
 The quantity of fluid flowing in a system per unit
time can be expressed by the following three
different terms:
 Q The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid
flowing past a section per unit time.
 W The weight flow rate is the weight of fluid
flowing past a section per unit time.
 M The mass flow rate is the mass of fluid flowing
past a section per unit time.
 The most fundamental of these three terms is
the volume flow rate Q, which is calculated from

(3-1)

 where A is the area of the section and ν is the

average velocity of flow. The units of Q can be
derived as follows, using SI units for illustration:
 The weight flow rate W is related to Q by

(3-2)

 where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. The

units of W are then

 The mass flow rate M is related to Q by

(3-3)

 The units of M are then

 The method of calculating the velocity of flow of a fluid
in a closed pipe system depends on the Principle of
Continuity.
 Fig 3.1 shows the portion of a fluid distribution system
showing variations in velocity, pressure, and elevation.
 This can be expressed in terms of the mass flow rate as

Figure 3.1
 As M=ρAv, we have
(3-4)

 Equation (3–4) is a mathematical statement of

the principle of continuity and is called the
Continuity Equation.
 It is used to relate the fluid density, flow area,
and velocity of flow at two sections of the
system in which there is steady flow.
 It is valid for all fluids, whether gas or liquid.
 If the fluid in the pipe in Fig. 3.1 is a liquid that
can be considered incompressible, then the
terms ρ1 and ρ2 is the same.

 Since Q = Av,

 This is the continuity equation as applied to

liquids; it states that for steady flow the volume
flow rate is the same at any section.
In Figure 3.1 the inside diameters of the pipe at
sections 1 and 2 are 50 mm and 100 mm,
respectively. Water at 70 °C is flowing with an
average velocity of 8 m/s at section 1. Calculate
the following:

(a) Velocity at section 2

(b) Volume flow rate
(c) Weight flow rate
(d) Mass flow rate
Sea water flows through a pipe reducer as
shown in figure below. The diameter sections
1 and 2 are 50 cm and 25 cm respectively. If
the average velocity of the fluid at section 1 is
0.5 m/s, find its velocity at section 2.
1. At one section in an air distribution system, air
at 101.35 kPa and 40°C has an average velocity
of 6.1 m/s and the duct is 30.5 cm square. At
another section, the duct is round with a
diameter of 457 mm, and the velocity is
measured to be 4.57 m/s. at 101.35 kPa and
40°C, the density of air is 1.134 kg/m3 and the
specific weight is 11.14 N/m3. Calculate:

i. The density of the air in the round section

(Ans:0.859 kg/m3)
ii. The weight flow rate of air in N/s.
(Ans:6.32 N/s)
 In physics you learned that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed
from one form into another.
 This is a statement of the law of Conservation of
Energy.
 Fig 3.2 below shows the element of a fluid in a
pipe.

Figure 3.2
 There are three forms of energy that are always
considered when analyzing a pipe flow
problem.
1. Potential Energy. Due to its elevation, the
potential energy of the element relative to some
reference level is

where w is the weight of the element.

2. Kinetic Energy. Due to its velocity, the kinetic
energy of the element is

3. Flow Energy. Sometimes called pressure energy

or flow work, this represents the amount of
work necessary to move the element of fluid
across a certain section against the pressure p.
Flow energy is abbreviated FE and is calculated
from
 The total amount of energy of these three
forms possessed by the element of fluid is the
sum E,

 Each of these terms is expressed in units of

energy, which are Newton-meters (Nm) in the SI
unit system and foot-pounds (ft-lb) in the U.S.
Customary System.
 Fig 3.3 below shows the fluid elements used in
Bernoulli’s equation.

Figure 3.3
 At section 1 and 2, the total energy is

 If no energy is added to the fluid or lost

between sections 1 and 2, then the principle of
conservation of energy requires that
 The weight of the element w is common to all
terms and can be divided out.
 The equation then becomes

 This is referred to as Bernoulli’s equation.

 Specifically,

 Fig 3.4 shows the pressure head, elevation

head, velocity head, and total head.
Figure 3.4
 In Fig. 3.4 you can see that the velocity head at
section 2 will be less than that at section 1.
This can be shown by the continuity equation,

 In summary,
 Bernoulli’s equation accounts for the changes in
elevation head, pressure head, and velocity
head between two points in a fluid flow system.
It is assumed that there are no energy losses or
additions between the two points, so the total
head remains constant.
1. It is valid only for incompressible fluids because
the specific weight of the fluid is assumed to be
the same at the two sections of interest.
2. There can be no mechanical devices between
the two sections of interest that would add
energy to or remove energy from the system,
because the equation states that the total
energy in the fluid is constant.
3. There can be no heat transferred into or out of
the fluid.
4. There can be no energy lost due to friction.
1. When the fluid at a reference points is exposed to the
atmosphere, the pressure is zero and the pressure
head term can be cancelled from Bernoulli’s equation.

2. The velocity head at the surface of a tank or reservoir

is considered to be zero and it can be cancelled from
Bernoulli’s equation.

3. When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s

equation are both inside a pipe of the same size, the
velocity head terms on both sides of the equation are
equal and can be cancelled.

4. When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s

equation are both at the same elevation, the elevation
head terms z1 and z2 are equal and can be cancelled.
In Figure 3.4, water at 10°C is flowing from
section 1 to section 2. At section 1, which
is 25 mm in diameter, the gage pressure is
345 kPa and the velocity of flow is 3.0
m/s. Section 2, which is 50 mm in
diameter, is 2.0 m above section 1.
Assuming there are no energy losses in the
system, calculate the pressure p2.
Gasoline (sg=0.67) is flowing at 0.11 m3/s
in the pipe shown in figure below. If the
pressure before the reduction is 415 kPa,
calculate the pressure in the 75-mm pipe.
 A variety of instruments have been developed for
measuring the rate of fluid flow.
 Three in particular which are within the scope of this
unit are the:
◦ Nozzle/Siphon
◦ Venturi meter
◦ Orifice
 Known as differential pressure devices : make use of
the pressure difference between two points in the
flow to give an indication of the flow rate.
 Bernoulli’s equation is applied to obtain expressions
for flow rate (Bernoulli principle).
 In a flow metering device based on the Bernoulli
Equation, the downstream pressure after an
obstruction will be lower than the upstream pressure
before.
 When the fluid at a reference point is exposed
to the atmosphere, the pressure is zero and the
pressure head term can be cancelled from
Bernoulli’s equation.
 Figure 3.5 shows the siphon.

Figure 3.5
 The tank from which the fluid is being drawn
can be assumed to be quite large compared to
the size of the flow area inside the pipe.
 The velocity head at the surface of a tank or
reservoir is considered to be zero and it can be
cancelled from Bernoulli’s equation.
 When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s
equation are both inside a pipe of the same
size, the velocity head terms on both sides of
the equation are equal and can be cancelled.
 When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s
equation are both at the same elevation, the
elevation head terms z1 and z2 are equal and
can be cancelled.
Figure below shows a siphon that is used to draw water
from a swimming pool. The pipe that make up the siphon
has an inside diameter of 40 mm and terminates with a 25
mm diameter nozzle. Assuming that there are no energy
losses in the system, calculate
a) the volume flow rate, Q through the siphon, and
b) the pressure at point B to E.

Figure 3.5
 Water at 10°C is flowing from section 1 to
section 2. At section 1, which is 25 mm in
diameter, the gage pressure is 345 kPa and
the velocity of flow is 3.0 m/s. Section 2,
which is 50 mm in diameter, is 2.0 m above
section 1. Assuming there are no energy
losses in the system, calculate the pressure
p2.
Figure 3.6 shows a device called a venturi meter that can
be used to measure the velocity of flow in a fluid flow
system.

Figure 3.6
 The analysis of such a device is based on the
application of Bernoulli’s equation.
 The reduced-diameter section at B causes the
velocity of flow to increase there with a
corresponding decrease in the pressure.
 It will be shown that the velocity of flow is
dependent on the difference in pressure
between points A and B. Therefore, a
differential manometer as shown is convenient
to use.
 The venturi meter shown in Fig.
3.6 carries water at 60°C. The
specific gravity of the gage fluid
in the manometer is 1.25.
Calculate the velocity of flow at
section A and the volume flow
rate of water.

Figure 3.6
 Assuming no energy loss, thus
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2
 As A is open to atmosphere, and water is still, h= z1 – z2, thus: h = v2
2g
 Rearranging gives; v = 2 gh this theory is known as Torricelli’s
theorem. “the velocity of the issuing jet is proportional to vh, where
h is the head producing flow.
 As with the venturi meter, the actual flow rate Q is given by:

2 gh
Q = A1 ×
 d  2  Q = A 2 gH
 1  − 1
 d 2   or

 Again, the actual discharge flowing through the pipe orifice is :

Q act = C d A 2 gH
 For the tank shown in
Figure 3.7, compute the
velocity of flow from the
nozzle for a fluid depth h of
3.00 m.

Figure 3.7