Introduction to Psychology

Topic 1

What is psychology?

• It’s is a scientific study of behavior and mental

process.

*scientific: The methods to observe the human behavior, and to

draw conclusions.

*behavior: Everything we do that can be directly observe.

*mental process: The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of

us experiences and that cannot be observed directly.

Contemporary Approach

1. Biological
- Neuroscience
2. Behavioral
- Emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral
responses & their environmental determinants.
 - Contrasts with cognitive approach
3. Psychodynamic
- Sigmund Freud (Father of psychodynamic)
- Psychoanalysis
a. Unconscious thought
b. Early childhood experiences
c. Conflict between biological drives and demands of
society (id, ego and superego)
4. Humanistic
- Free will (people have ability to control their lives rather
than controlled by environment.)
- A person’s positive qualities / growth
5. Cognitive
- How we direct our attention, perceive, think, and solve
problems.
- Contrasts with the behavioral approach.
- Information processing
a. Interpret incoming info
b. Weight it
c. Store it
d. Apply it to make decision
6. Evolutionary
 - Explanations of human behavior
a. Natural Selection
b. Reproduction
c. Adaptation
7. Sociocultural
- Culture can affect our behavior
- Differences between
a. Ethnic and cultural groups
b. Within and across countries

Topic 2: Research Methods

1) Descriptive Research
- Describing a phenomenon
- E.g.
i. Observation
ii. Surveys and interviews
iii. Case studies

2) Correlational Research
- Identify relationships
- r = 0, no relationship/ correlation
- direction of relationship (+ / -)
 - strength of relationship: magnitude
- Correlation coefficient: r
-1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00

3) Experimental research
- Determine Causation
- E.g.
i. Experimental Group
ii. Control Group

Bias and Expectations:

1. Experimenter Bias
2. Demand Characteristics
- Communicate to participants how the experimenter
wants them to behave.
3. Placebo Effect
e.g. A pill that will increase memory
Give two group of people eat something but give one group
eat the real pill; another group eat the candy which
appearance same as the pill and they will consider they also
eat the real pill. After that, they will consider their memory
also increase.
 4. Double-blind Experiment
e.g. Mix two types of pill and give two group of people to eat

Topic 3: Biological Bases of Behaviors

Characteristics of Nervous System

a. Complex
b. Integrated
- The neuron tells us how we need to act through the
sensation.
- Combine of the neuron: It pulls information together
across the neuron.
c. Adaptable(plasticity)
- The brain and nervous system help us to adapt the new
environment.
- The brain can be changed by experience because it has
plasticity.
d. Electrochemical transmission
- As an information-processing system, carry information
across the synaptic gap to the next neuron by using
chemicals.
- Drugs can interfere with neurotransmitters.

Neuros System: Divisions

 1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Somatic nervous system
a. Sensory nerves
❖ Carry information from the skin and muscles to
the CNS.
❖ Nerves that carry information to the brain and
spinal cord.
b. Motor nerves
❖ Take messages to and from the body’s internal
organs.
❖ Nerves that carry information out of the brain
and spinal cord.
- Autonomic Nervous system
a. Sympathetic NS
b. Parasympathetic NS

The human brain

o Cerebral Cortex
a. Neocortex: Outermost Layer
b. Four Lobes:
 i. Occipital(vision)
ii. Temporal (hearing, language, language processing,
memory)
iii. Frontal (intelligence, personality, voluntary muscles)
iv. Parietal (spatial location, attention, motor control)

Split-Brain Research

o Corpus Callosum: Large bundle of axons that connects the

two hemispheres of the brain.

Hemispheres of the cortex

Hemispheric Specialization of Function

o Left hemisphere
- Verbal processing, speech, grammar
i. Broca’s Area
ii. Wernicke’s Area
o Right hemisphere
- Spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion

Brain Damage and Plasticity

▪ Recovery from brain damage depends on

- Age of individual
- Extent of the damage
 ▪ Repairing the damaged brain
- Brain tissue grafts
- Substitution of function

Topic 4: States of Consciousness

Levels of Awareness (1 of 4)

Higher-Level Consciousness
- Controlled processing
- Requires attention
e.g. need to pay fully attention while driving

Levels of Awareness (2 of 4)

Lower-Level Consciousness
- Automatic processes
a. Requires little attention
b. Do not interfere with other ongoing activities
e.g. driving can eat or talk with others
- Daydreaming

Levels of Awareness (3 of 4)

Altered States of Consciousness

- Drug states
- Mental disorders
 - Fatigue

Levels of Awareness (4 of 4)

Subconscious Awareness
- Incubation
Sleep and dreams
- Low levels of consciousness of outside world
No awareness
- Unconscious thoughts

Critical Controversy: Conscious Human Kindness

➢ Prosocial behavior: Improve well-being of others rather than

oneself
- People who engage in prosocial activities happier because
prosocial behavior linked to reward centers of brain.
- Tired people are more selfish.

Why do we need sleep?

 Adaptive Evolutionary Function

- Safety
 Brain Plasticity
- Memory consolidation
- Enhances synaptic connections
Psychoactive Drugs:

1. Act on nervous system to

a. Alter consciousness
b. Modify perceptions
c. Change moods
2. Continued use can lead to
a. Tolerance
b. Addiction
i. Physical dependence and unpleasant withdrawal

Topic 5: Learning

1. Behaviorism: A theory of learning that focuses on

observable behaviors rather than mental process such as
thinking.
2. Associative Learning/ Conditioning:
i. Classical Conditioning: explain involuntary behavior
 Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus (NS)> Unconditional response (UR):
bell > no respond/salivation
Unconditional stimulus (US) > Unconditional response (UR):
food > dog salivates
During conditioning:
Neutral stimulus (NS) + Unconditional stimulus (US) >
Unconditional response (UR)
Bell + food > dog salivates
After conditioning:
Conditional stimulus (CS) > Conditional response (CR)
Bell > dog salivates

Extinction: CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS.

- The dog stopped salivating when rang the bell but did not
present food.

Spontaneous Recovery: CR recurs after a time delay

- When rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated.

ii. Operant Conditioning: explain voluntary behavior

 - The Law of effect: the behaviors which cause positive
outcomes are strengthened to repeat and the behavior
which cause negative outcomes are weakened to repeat.
- Reinforcement and punishment

* Reinforcement: increase behavior

* Punishment: decrease behavior

* positive: add something

* negative: remove something

Schedules of Reinforcement:

i. Fixed Ratio (FR)

ii. Variable Ratio (VR)
iii. Fixed Interval (FI)
iv. Variable Interval (VI)

*Fixed: unchanged * Ratio: Quality of behavior *Variable:

Changed/Vary *Interval: period(time)
 e.g. works in a factory
FR- how many packets of candy you pack, how many moneys you
get.
VR- you pack the candy with unserious attitude because you do
not know how many numbers of behavior you need to pack to get
money.
FI- you pack the candy whatever in the certain time. Although it is
packing less but the money can not be changed because the
money already fixed.
VI- you pack a lot of pack of candy because you do not know when
the money will be paid.
# These are 4 methods may applies depend on what behavior that
need to reinforce.

3. Observational learning: When an individual observes and

imitates behavior, learning exists.
- Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
- Four processes of Observational Learning
i. Attention
ii. Retention
iii. Motor reproduction
iv. Reinforcement
Topic 6: Memory

Three Phases of Memory

i. Encoding (encode sounds or words)

a. Automatic Encoding
b. Effortful Encoding
ii. Storage (storage info in mental storehouse)

Short term memory

How can we improve short-term memory (STM)?

a. Chunking: grouping items into a unit

e.g. 012-432 0791 / 012-4320 791
b. Rehearsal: repeat the information consciously
Long-term memory

Explicit long-term memory (Declarative): Recollection of specific

facts and events that can be verbally communicated.

• Episodic memory: autobiographical memories

• Semantic memory: knowledge about the world

Implicit long-term memory (Nondeclarative): affected by an

experience without consciously recalling it.

• Procedural memory: memory for skills

e.g. you know how to tie a shoe.
• Classical Conditioning
e.g. no need to recall the memory that you scare cockroach
• Priming
e.g. FATH_ _R, automatically you know
iii. Retrieval (recall when someone ask)
a. Recall: is a memory task which the individual
retrieve previously learned information.
b. Recognition: is a memory task which the individual
has to identify learned items.

Serial Position Effect: is the tendency to recall items at beginning

and end of a list more readily than those in middle.
# This is due to primary effect and recency effect.

 Primary effect: refers to better recall the items at the

beginning of the list.
 Recency effect: refers to better recall the items at the end of
the list.

False memories: failure to distinguish real memories (external

source) from self-generated thoughts (internal source)

Forgetting: memory failure

- Encoding failure
- Retrieval failure/ interference theory
a. Proactive interference: the old information interferes
with retrieval of new information
e.g. you have a friend call An Shu, your new friend call
Shu An, you can not remember the name of the new
friend because you only remember the old
information.
b. Retroactive interference: the new information
interferes with retrieval of old information
e.g. you have a friend call An Shu, your new friend call
Shu An, you cannot remember the name of the old
 friend because you only remember the new
information.

Topic 7: Human Development

Nature: biological inheritance

Nurture: the environmental experiences of individual

i. Physical Development
- Infant reflexes are genetically wired behaviors, and some
are for survival.
a. Persistent throughout life
e.g. blinking and yawning
b. Disappear with neurological development
e.g. grasping
ii. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
 Schemas: concepts that organize information
 Assimilation: combine new info into existing
schemas
 Accommodation: adjust schemas to new
information

Piaget’s Theory

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth- 2 years)

 - Object permanence
e.g. once the infant sees an object, but it suddenly
disappears, the infant will think where the object at.
- Reflexive action
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
- Intuitive reasoning
- Egocentrism
e.g. the children stand in front of the TV and it might
block the parents from seeing the TV show, but they
might think the parents can see.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7- 11 years)
- Operational thinking
- Classification skills
e.g. differentiate animal and object
4. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)
- Abstract and idealistic thought
iii. Socio-emotional Development (Erik Erikson)
- Emphasizes lifelong development
- Eight psychosocial stages
- Each stage represents a developmental task
a. Crisis that must be resolved
b. Personal competence or weakness
Erikson’s Theory

1. Trust versus Mistrust (0-11⁄2)

 Crisis: the basic needs met by sensitive and responsible

caregivers.
 When a crisis is resolved, the individual achieves trust,
which causes them to trust others. On the other hand,
the crisis has not been resolved, implying that mistrust
has achieved.
 Even though the crisis has not been resolved, the
individual may go on to the next stage, but he or she
will not be able to grow.

2. Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt (11⁄2- 3)

 Crisis: develop sense of independent

 When a crisis is resolved, the individual achieves
autonomy, which causes them develop sense of
independent. On the other hand, the crisis has not
been resolved, implying that shame/doubt has
achieved.
 Even though the crisis has not been resolved, the
individual may go on to the next stage, but he or she
will not be able to grow.
3. Initiative versus Guilt (3-5)
 Crisis: experience sense of talking on responsibility
 When a crisis is resolved, the individual achieves
initiative, which causes them develop sense of talking
on responsibility. On the other hand, the crisis has not
been resolved, implying that guilt has achieved.
 Even though the crisis has not been resolved, the
individual may go on to the next stage, but he or she
will not be able to grow.
4. Industry versus Inferiority (5-12)
 Crisis: develop the confident
5. Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-18)
 Crisis: search for a sense of self and personal identity
 Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses
i. Identity Diffusion: no exploration or commitment
ii. Identity Foreclosure: commitment without
exploration
e.g. your mother told you to study Accounting
then you study (exploration)and you can score
well (commitment)
iii. Identity Moratorium: exploration without
commitment
 e.g. you know you want to study Psychology
(exploration) but you don’t score well
(commitment)
iv. Identity Achievement: commitment after
exploration

*Exploration: search for his/her career & personal values.

*Commitment: do decision to make personal investment.

6. Intimacy versus Isolation (18-40)

 Crisis: Individuals form intimate relationships with
others.
7. Generativity versus Stagnation (40-65)
 Crisis: assist younger generation
8. Integrity versus Despair (> 65)
 Individuals look back and evaluate what they had done
with their lives.

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

1) Authoritarian Parenting Styles

o Parents are controlling and punitive
e.g. arrange things for their children and most Asian parents
apply this type of parenting styles to their children.
o This parenting style lead to the child’s lack of initiative, poor
communication skills, and social incompetence
2) Authoritative Parenting Styles
o Parents encourage their children independence
e.g. allow them to make decisions independently and most
Western parents apply this type of parenting styles to their
children
o This parenting style lead to the child’s social responsibility
and social competence
3) Neglectful Parenting Styles
o Parents did not involve in the child development
o This parenting style lead to less social competence and poor
self-control in child
4) Permissive Parenting Styles
o Parents are involved in the child development but place few
limits
o This parenting style lead to the child’s poor social
competence, lack of respect for others and poor self-control.
Topic 8: Personality

- The series of persistent, distinct thoughts, emotions, and

behaviors that determine how an individual interacts with
the environment is referred to as personality.
1. Psychodynamic Perspectives
➢ The unconscious mind and early childhood experiences both
contribute to the development of one's personality.

Personality structure

Id

Emphasizes on pleasure principle

Ego

Emphasizes on reality principle

Deals with the demands of reality

Superego

Moral branch of personality

# examples: babies will peer immediately to fulfill their pleasure

(id) but adults will not do that (ego), the male adults can choose
to go to the female or male washroom but he decide to go male
washroom (superego).
Defense Mechanisms

- Conflict between id, ego, and superego contribute to

anxiety so defense mechanisms occur.
- Defense Mechanisms reduce the anxiety by unconsciously
distorting reality

For example,

❖ Repression
- Push unacceptable impulses out of conscious
- Foundation for all defense mechanisms

Evaluating psychodynamic theory

Advantages:

- Importance of childhood experiences

- Role of unconscious processes

Disadvantages:

- Too much emphasis on early experiences

- Theory cannot be tested
- Too much faith in unconscious mind’s control
 2. Trait Perspectives
- A trait is a long-term disposition that contributes to
predictable reactions.
- Traits are the building blocks of personality

Five Factor model of personality (W.T. Norman)

❖ Openness
❖ Conscientiousness
❖ Extraversion
❖ Agreeableness
❖ Neuroticism/Stability

Evaluating Trait Perspectives

Advantages:

- Traits influence health, cognitions, career success and

interpersonal relations

Disadvantages:

- Ignores the role of the situation in behavior

- Ignores nuances of an individual’s personality