Lecture

“Fabrication Technology of Metals”

Summer term 2018

Institute of Metal Forming

Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. Hirt

Objectives of the metal forming lectures
Fabrication Technology of Metals – Introduction to Metal Forming:
Previous knowledge: basic knowledge mechanics, metallurgy
Goals:
 Overview of the basics and important metal forming technologies
(reasonable introduction also without further specialization)

Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal Forming:

Previous knowledge: basic knowledge mechanics, metallurgy, Fabrication Technology of Metals
(if possible)
Goals:
 Basics of plasto-mechanics
 Sound study of the elementary theory for the calculation of the basic forming processes
 Introduction to other solving methods in metal forming: finite element method, slip line theory, upper
and lower bound theory, similarity theory, visioplasticity

Chap. 1 - 2

1 Introduction
Fabrication Technology of Metals – Introduction to Metal Forming
Goal: Overview of basics and important metal forming technologies

Previous knowledge: Basic knowledge in mechanics, metallurgy

Lecture notes: Slides of the power point presentation

(printed as manuscript only for studying purposes)

Recommended books: R. Kopp, H. Wiegels: Einführung in die Umformtechnik (in GERMAN)

T. Altan, S. Oh, H.L. Gegel: Metal Forming Fundamentals and Applications

(in English)

W.F. Hosford, R.M. Caddell: Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy

(in English)

Chap. 1 - 3

1 Introduction
Literature
Fundamentals / reference books / technology review:
1. R. Kopp, H. Wiegels: Einführung in die Umformtechnik, Verlag Mainz, Aachen 1999 ca. 30 €
(recommended as complementary book; language German; contains also detailed
information for Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal Forming)

2. W.F. Hosford, R.M. Caddell: Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy,

Cambridge University Press 2014 ca. 40 €

3. T. Altan, S. Oh, H.L. Gegel: Metal Forming Fundamentals and Applications,

ASM International 2008 ca. 100 €

4. S. Kobayashi, S. Oh, T. Altan: Metal Forming and the Finite Element Method,
Oxford University Press 1989 ca. 200 €

Comprehensive standard book:

K. Lange: Handbook of Metal Forming: Introduction, practical solutions
Society of Manufacturing Engineers 1994 ca. 70 €

Chap. 1 - 4

1 Introduction
List of the used symbols which are different to German literature I
 The symbols used in this lecture are from the books „Einführung in die Umformtechnik“
by Kopp and Wiegels and „Umformtechnik“ by Lange. To allow for a better
understanding, the following symbols and indices were adapted to the English language:

Name German symbol English symbol

Bite width 𝑠𝐵 𝑏𝑤
Blank holder force 𝐹𝑁 𝐹𝐵
Circumference 𝑈 𝑐
Contact area/ length 𝐴𝑑 , 𝑙𝑑 𝐴𝑐 , 𝑙𝑐
Deformation efficiency 𝜂𝑈 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
Deformation force/ length 𝐹, 𝐹𝑈 , 𝑙𝑈 𝐹, 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 , 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓
Equivalent strain 𝜎𝑣 , 𝜀𝑣 , 𝜑𝑣 𝜎𝑒𝑞 , 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝜑𝑒𝑞
Formability 𝜀𝑣,𝐵 , 𝜑𝑣,𝐵 𝜀𝑒𝑞,𝑓 , 𝜑𝑒𝑞,𝑓
Friction force at container wall 𝐹𝑅𝑊 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤
Friction force at shoulder 𝐹𝑅𝑆 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠
Chap. 1 - 5

1 Introduction
List of the used symbols which are different to German literature II
Name German symbol English symbol
(Mean) strip tension stress 𝜎𝑙0 , 𝜎𝑙1 , 𝜎𝑙𝑎 𝜎𝑠0 , 𝜎𝑠1 , 𝜎𝑠𝑚
Related to friction 𝜏𝑅 , 𝐹𝑅 , 𝑙𝑅 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 , 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 , 𝑙𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
Related to shear 𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑠ℎ
Resistance to forming 𝑘𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠
Roll gap 𝑠0 𝑔0
Strip tension 𝑍0 , 𝑍1 𝑆0 , 𝑆1
Thickness 𝑠 𝑡
Total deformation work/ power 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓 , 𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 , 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
Total forging rate 𝜆𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝜆𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑔
(Total) stretching rate 𝜆𝑅 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 , 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤,𝑡𝑜𝑡
Uniform elongation 𝐴𝑔 , 𝜀𝑔𝑙 𝐴𝑢𝑒 , 𝜀𝑢𝑒
Upsetting factor 𝜆𝑆 𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠
Width 𝑏 𝑤
Chap. 1 - 6

1 Introduction
Outline I
1 Introduction
1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes
1.2 Historical development of metal forming technology
1.3 Classification of forming processes
1.4 Selected areas of application

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation
2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity
2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening
2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

Chap. 1 - 7

1 Introduction
Outline II
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.3.1 Friction
2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

2.4 Global technical target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.6.1 Classification according to process area
2.6.2 Classification according to size scale

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary Chap. 1 - 8

1 Introduction
Outline III
3 Bulk metal forming
3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming Chap. 1 - 9

1 Introduction
Outline IV
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Experimental methods in sheet metal forming

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets
4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns
4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending

4.4 Deep drawing

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals
4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

4.5 Stretch forming

4.6 Stamping

4.7 Tools and machines

4.8 Spinning

Chap. 1 - 10

1 Introduction
Outline
1 Introduction

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

1.2 Historical development of metal forming technology

1.3 Classification of forming processes

1.4 Selected areas of application

Chap. 1 - 11
Classification of manufacturing processes

Manufacturing processes
DIN 8580

Primary Forming Cutting Joining Coating Changing

shaping DIN 8582 DIN 8588 DIN 8593 material
properties

Compressive Tensile-compressive Tensile Bending Shear

forming forming forming forming
DIN 8583 DIN 8584 DIN 8585 DIN 8586 DIN 8587

Chap. 1 - 12

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

Example: Alternative processes to manufacture a bolt
A simple bolt can be manufactured according to the four manufacturing
processes as shown below:
1. by casting (primary shaping) 2. by upsetting or extrusion (metal forming)

cast part small initial large initial

cross section cross section

3. by turning (cutting) 4. by welding (joining)

waste

Chap. 1 - 13

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

Outline
1 Introduction

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

1.2 Historical development of metal forming technology

1.3 Classification of forming processes

1.4 Selected areas of application

Chap. 1 - 14
Historical development of forming technology

Forging technology:
Prehistoric age: bending of gold and silver, coining (stamping of coins)
Medieval times: first forging machines, screw presses and die hammers
18th century: building of forging machines, forging of large work pieces

Production of sheets / rolling:

14th - 15th century: clamps and thimbles
15th - 16th century: rolling of tin and lead sheets
18th century: rolling of iron sheets
1850: first sheet metal forming machine
1870: double acting deep drawing press

Extrusion:
18th century: lead and non-iron metals
App. 1950: steel

Cold extrusion:
19th century: brass, copper
1934: steel
Source: Groche Chap. 1 - 15

1.2 Historical development

The roots of forging are very old
 “Forging” is one of the oldest
metal shaping techniques of
mankind

 Raw metal was processed by

forging since 4000 B.C.

 Since 2500 B.C. copper alloys

are used (the beginning of the
bronze age)

Sketch from the grave of Rechmire from ancient Egypt

Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 16

1.2 Historical development

Manual work until medieval times
 About 700 to 500 B.C. iron
replaced bronze

 The smelting and forging of

iron ore were one combined
process up to the 14th
century

 Manual work limited the

available force

Medieval bloomery furnace and forge

Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 17

1.2 Historical development

Water and steam power replace muscle strength

Water driven hammer around 1780 Steam hammer “Fritz“ around 1800
(localized energy) (energy available almost everywhere and
possibility for additional acceleration of the
hammers)
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 18

1.2 Historical development

Example: Closed die forging at the beginning and today
 Early process existed thousands of
years ago
 At the end of the 19th century,
industrial closed die forging was Upper die
developed Workpiece
 This development was triggered by
the demand for larger batches of
products
Factory of a closed die forging plant Lower die
around 1910

The development of closed die forging was

characterized by:

 Larger batch sizes especially in the automotive

industry
 Continuous development of steel grades
 New techniques in tool making
 Development of new machine types, application of
numerous processes and process combinations
Factory of a modern closed die forging plant
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 19

1.2 Historical development

Example: Development of closed die forged parts

Product range of closed die forged products around

1910

Characteristic features :
 Various design possibilities
 High reliability of the production process
 Superior material properties
 High quality control

Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 20

1.2 Historical development

Closed die forging in competition with other processes

1. Forging roll
2. Wedge press
3. Trimming press
4. Twisting machine
5. Straightening and sizing press

Production steps of a closed die

forged automotive swivel bearing

Automotive swivel bearing with

integrated brake carrier and pipe
clamping
Forged steel Ductile graphite Forged aluminum
iron
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung, Schmiedetechnik Chap. 1 - 21

1.2 Historical development

Outline
1 Introduction

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

1.2 Historical development of metal forming technology

1.3 Classification of forming processes

1.4 Selected areas of application

Chap. 1 - 22
Classification according to processing step

Forming processes are used for:

 Semi-finished products (1st processing step):

All metallic materials, which are not cast or sintered

directly to their final geometry, go through this
processing step with the processes rolling or extrusion.

Source: SMS

 Production of individual components

(2nd processing step): Cross beam
Sheet thickness 2 mm 1.2 mm 2 mm

Parts for the transportation industries and machine and

plant construction industry;
Increase in value compared to the semi-finished
products about 2 to 6 times.

Source: Mubea
Chap. 1 - 23

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Advantages of the forming processes

 Favorable mechanical properties of the materials,

especially for parts under dynamic loading

 High productive capacities with short production times

 High dimensional and geometric accuracy of the parts within certain

tolerances

 High material utilization, e.g.

 hot closed die forged parts 75 to 80 %
 cold formed parts 85 to 90 %
 (for comparison: machining 50 %)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 9 Chap. 1 - 24

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Range of materials used in metal forming

Mainly:
 Steel: carbon steels, steel alloys, stainless steel
high temperature steels

 Non-ferrous metals: aluminum alloys, zinc alloys and copper

alloys

For special applications:

 Titanium, magnesium, high temperature nickel based alloys
 Tungsten, molybdenum and their alloys
 Zirconium and its alloys

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 10 Chap. 1 - 25

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Definition of forming
Metal forming is the purposeful Deformation
change of  non-desired plastic deformation
 shape  uncontrolled geometry change
 surface
 material properties
of a solid body without changing
 weight or
 chemical composition

Source: BMW Group

Chap. 1 - 26

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Example: Change of the shape

Mass Finishing the

Separating Heating Forming
distribution forging

Trimming / Heat Scale

Post forming Finishing
Punching treatment removing
Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 1 - 27

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Example: Change of the surface

Roll surface texturing Transferring the Textured sheet surface

texture by rolling
Electron beam

Roll

Sheet

z
Solidified Melted
melt material
Detail z

weld
puddle
bulge
circular chamber
for lubricant

Chap. 1 - 28

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Example: Change of the material properties

Hardness distribution after thread rolling

Localized plastic deformation in

the surface area

 Hardening in the area of the

thread profile

 Load capacity is about 6 to

12 % increased compared
to threads produced via
machining

Thread: M8; material: chrome-vanadium steel,

tempered, grain hardness 340 HV0.1
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band II, Massivumformung, p. 222 Chap. 1 - 29

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Classification of metal forming processes I

Classification according to:

 the state of stress in the forming zone

 the initial temperature of the workpiece or the preheating:

 = room  cold forming

room <  < recrystallization  warm forming
 > recrystallization  hot forming

 bulk or sheet forming

 stationary or transient forming

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 3 ff. Chap. 1 - 30

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Warm forming vs. hot forming temperatures of important metals

Preheating of the work piece Metals Recrystallization

above recrystallization temperature
temperature C-Steel 550 °C
 Hot forming
Aluminum (Al) 290 to 300 °C
Copper (Cu) 200 °C
Preheating of the work piece Lead (Pb) 0 °C
below recrystallization Tin (Sn) 0 to 40°C
temperature
 Warm forming

Chap. 1 - 31

1.3 Classification of forming processes

 Rolling


Open die forging

Source: DIN 8582

Closed die forging

forming
Indentation

Compressive
Extrusion

Drawing

Deep drawing

Flange forming
Tensile-

forming

Metal spinning
compressive

Bulging via upsetting

Elongating

Expanding
Tensile
forming

Stretch indenting
Classification according to the state of stress:
Classification of metal forming processes II

Metal forming

Bending with a straight

tool movement
1.3 Classification of forming processes

Bending with a rotational

Bending

tool movement

Shear forming with

a straight tool motion
Shear
forming

Twisting
Chap. 1 - 32
Compressive forming

Tool
Work piece Coining die
Upper die
Work piece
Work piece

Lower die
Incremental die forging/
Coining Closed die forging /
Cogging
Impression die forging

Source: Sheffield Forgemasters Group Chap. 1 - 33

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Compressive forming of semi-finished products

Extrusion
Rolling

Chap. 1 - 34

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Tensile-compressive forming I

Punch

Tube drawing ring

Work piece
Drawing Drawing (Ironing of a cup)

Chap. 1 - 35

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Tensile-compressive forming II

Die Blank Work piece

Pressing ring

Work piece

Punch

Lower tool
Roller
Ejector
Outwards bulging Spinning of a hollow body

Punch
Blank holder

Work piece
Lower die

Source: IBF
Flanging with blank holder of a plane sheet
Chap. 1 - 36

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Tensile-compressive forming III

Punch
Blank holder

Sheet

Lower die

Drawn
sheet

Deep drawing during the first step with

blank holder
Source: IBF (left), Schuler (right) Chap. 1 - 37

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Tensile forming
Clamping

Work piece

Punch

Stretch forming

Source: EADS/Airbus (left, center), SONACA (right) Chap. 1 - 38

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Bending

Punch
Work piece
Bending
die

Bending with a straight tool movement

Work piece carrier

Work piece
Bending roller
Double exposed photography of
Clamping
a die bending process during the
Bending with a rotating tool movement V-bending of a sheet before and
during the process.
Chap. 1 - 39

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Shear forming

Blank holder

Tool

Work
piece
Shearing

Work piece

Twisting 13sec
Twisting
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 1 - 40

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Sheet metal forming vs. bulk forming

Deep drawing Bending Extrusion Compression Forging

Sheet metal forming Bulk forming

Thickness change is not intended Thickness change is intended

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 27 Chap. 1 - 41

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Sheet metal forming processes

Die Blank Work piece

Punch
Sheet
holder
Sheet

Lower die
Roller
Deep drawing during the first stage with a Spinning of a hollow body
sheet holder
Clamping

Work piece

Punch
Stretch forming

Other processes: flanging, bending

Source: IBF Chap. 1 - 42

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Cutting processes

 Mechanical processes: Punch

 Precision blanking
Sheet holder
 Shear cutting
Sheet
 Thermal processes: Lower die
 Laser cutting
Counter tool
 Plasma cutting
Precision blanking

Punch

Lower die

Open cutting Closed cutting

Source: IBF Chap. 1 - 43

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Bulk forming processes
 Cold bulk forming processes:
 Cold upsetting
 Cold extrusion

 Warm bulk forming Upsetting Rolling

 Hot bulk forming processes:

 Incremental die forging
 Closed die forging

Drawing Extrusion
 Profile extrusion

 Rolling:
 Sheet rolling
 Profile rolling

 Drawing by sliding Twisting Shear forming

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 4 Chap. 1 - 44

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Stationary and transient forming processes
Stationary forming: Transient forming:

Rolling Forging

Drawing
Deep drawing

Extrusion

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 4 Chap. 1 - 45

1.3 Classification of forming processes

Outline
1 Introduction

1.1 Classification of manufacturing processes

1.2 Historical development of metal forming technology

1.3 Classification of forming processes

1.4 Selected areas of application

Chap. 1 - 46
Hot rolling

Hot rolling mill for the processing of

aluminum Hot rolling mill for the processing of steel

Wide strip coils Split strip coils Sheets (plates) Chap. 1 - 47

1.4 Selected areas of application

Aluminum cold rolling mill

Cold rolling mill for the processing

of aluminum

Cold rolled aluminum coils

Chap. 1 - 48

1.4 Selected areas of application

Extrusion profiles
Examples of extruded profiles:

Aluminum

Copper

Different dies used for extrusion

Steel
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band II, Massivumformung, pp. 397, 404 Chap. 1 - 49

1.4 Selected areas of application

Profile rolling (caliber rolling)

Rolling mill for the production

of circular bars

Examples of different rolled profiles Final forming step in a roll forming

sequence
Source: SMS Demag (left), Schuler (right) Chap. 1 - 50

1.4 Selected areas of application

Deep drawing and forming of car body parts
Deep drawing Tools for the production of car side panels
Punch
Sheet
holder
Sheet

Lower die

Deep drawn products

Production steps of an
oil pan (stamping)

Car side panel (stamping)

Chap. 1 - 51

1.4 Selected areas of application

Tasks of a “metal forming engineer“

Task “Object”

Planning Processes

Simulation Plants

Development Machines
of
Optimization Tools

Production Products

Marketing Materials

... ...

Objectives: quality, economy, environment, ...

Chap. 1 - 52

1.4 Selected areas of application

Current development trends

Selected development goals for the metal forming technology:

Goal Example
Extremely large products Offshore-technology
Extremely small products Micro-motor
Extremely complex geometry Wheel mount
Extremely high forming ability Extrusion
Extremely high precision Gear wheel
Extremely light products Aerospace
Extremely safe products Traffic engineering
Extremely large number of products Automotive industry, electronics
Extremely small number of products Prototypes

Chap. 1 - 53

1.4 Selected areas of application

Examples of large components
Aerospace Offshore technology

Airbus side panel

Source: Kugelstrahlzentrum Aachen

Wind turbine

Hydro-wave shaft
Chap. 1 - 54

1.4 Selected areas of application

Examples of small components

Glow filament of light bulb with holder Glow filament

Fuses and resistors with

Micro screws Clockwork metallic caps at the ends
(Pencil in the background)
Chap. 1 - 55

1.4 Selected areas of application

Examples of large and small lot sizes
Large lot sizes Small lot sizes
 Rivets  Aerospace
 Needles  Architecture
 Electronic parts  Prototypes
 Connecting rod
(car)

Manual forming
Upper die

Lower die

Work piece

Closed die forging

CNC forming
Source: Schmiedetechnik (left), http://www.neunkirchen-am-brand.de/aktuelles/pressespiegel/pressemeldung/15644 (top right), IBF (bottom right) Chap. 1 - 56

1.4 Selected areas of application

Example of safety component with complex geometry

Swivel bearing of a car

Source: Schmiedetecknik, Audi

Chap. 1 - 57

1.4 Selected areas of application

Examples of precision forming

Pair of precision forged bevel gear

Tolerances according to DIN ISO 286 part 1

Forming method
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Cold rolled aluminum coils
Die forging □□□□ □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Precision forging □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■

Hot extrusion □□□□ □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Warm extrusion □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Cold extrusion □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Achievable accuracies in different
■■■■ = achievable by conventional manufacturing facilities
□□□□ = achievable using special measures and in exceptional cases bulk metal forming processes
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung („Massivumformung kurz und bündig“), SMS DEMAG Chap. 1 - 58

1.4 Selected areas of application

Summary
 The development of metal forming goes back for several thousand years
 human work force  machine force (water, steam, electricity,…)
 automation and tool technology  high productivity for large-scale production
 Metal forming processes change geometry, surface and material properties while
maintaining mass and material cohesion
 Classification according to
 hot, warm or cold metal forming
 stress state
 bulk or sheet metal forming
 stationary or transient metal forming
 first (semi-finished) or second (finished components) processing level
 Apart from directly cast components, metals pass through at least one metal forming
process of the first processing level
 Thus, metal forming is a key technology for almost all industrial sectors in which metals are
processed or used as components

Chap. 1 - 59
Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 1 - 60
Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity
2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening
2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 1
Structure of polycrystalline metals

Crystal lattice Unit cell (a  3.10-10 m)

Section plane of the

microstructure
Microstructure with grain
Spatial crystal boundaries; NiCr20Co18Ti
Source: Groche Chap. 2 - 2

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Important unit cells of metals
 Most of the metals crystallize into cubic (bcc and fcc) and hexagonal
(hcp) crystal systems (unit cells).

 The three-dimensional sequence of unit cells forms the crystal lattice.

Body-centered cubic Face-centered cubic Hexagonal close

(bcc) (fcc) packed (hcp)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 37 Chap. 2 - 3

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Crystal structures of important metals

Crystal Metals with single Metals with Temperature

structure structure multiple range in °C
structures
Face-centered Aluminum, nickel, gold, Iron 911 > x < 1392
cubic (fcc) copper, silver, platinum, Cobalt > 1120
lead

Body-centered Vanadium, chrome, Iron < 911 and >1392

cubic (bcc) niobium, molybdenum, Titanium > 882
tantalum, tungsten Zirconium > 852
Hafnium > 1975
Hexagonal Beryllium, magnesium, Titanium < 882
close packed zinc Cobalt < 1120
(hcp) Zirconium < 852
Hafnium < 1975

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 38 Chap. 2 - 4

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Stress-strain diagram of tensile test

Parameters related to the initial cross-

section:

𝐹
Engineering stress: 𝜎 =
𝐴0

𝑙−𝑙0 Δ𝑙
Engineering strain: 𝜀= =
𝑙0 𝑙0

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
ue Tensile strength: 𝑅𝑚 = 𝐴0
Uniform plastic deformation Non-uniform Elastic
plastic def. def.
𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑙0
Ultimate strain: 𝐴𝑥 = ⋅ 100%
Plastic strain 𝑙0

Total strain

𝐹 = Force w0
𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = length at failure
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area 𝐴0 = 𝑤0 ⋅ 𝑡0
t0
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 33 Chap. 2 - 5

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Engineering (nominal) vs true stress-strain diagram

 Increasing strain 𝐹
𝜎′ = = kf
𝐴
 Reduction of cross-sectional area

Stress σ, σ‘
of the specimen 𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴0
 True stress (flow stress) is
higher than engineering stress

 In German metal forming literature, the

flow stress is mostly referred as kf.

0 εpl (𝑙 − 𝑙0 )
Strain 𝜀 =
εpl + εel 𝑙0
Source: IBF Chap. 2 - 6

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Elastic deformation at mono-crystals

𝜏 =𝐺⋅𝛾
G = Shear modulus

Initial condition, Distorted

undistorted
Elastic deformation
 In an ideal crystal, the distortion about the angle 𝛾 leads to a change of the
position of the atoms compared to their equilibrium position.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 39 Chap. 2 - 7

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Plastic deformation at mono-crystals

Slip:

Schematic illustration of
the plastic deformation of
a crystal lattice by slipping

Deformation
Twinning: twins

Twin
plane

before after
plastic deformation 0.1 mm
Slightly deformed zinc
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 40 Chap. 2 - 8

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Slip planes and directions
 Slipping takes place primarily on certain planes
(slip planes) and in certain directions (slip
directions) of the crystal lattice ( slip system)

 Slip planes are usually the most densely filled

lattice planes. Slip directions are usually the most
densely filled lattice directions.
Slip plane
 The slip process and thus plastic deformation
initiates when a certain critical shear stress 0 is
Slip direction
reached in a slip system.

(max appears under 45° to the loading direction)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 40 Chap. 2 - 9

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Slip system of BCC lattice

6 slip planes with each

2 slip directions

 12 slip systems

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 41; IBF Chap. 2 - 10

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Slip systems of various metals
Number of Number of
Lattice Lattice
Slip systems Slip Slip Slip Slip systems
structure structure Slip Slip Slip
planes direc. syst. planes direc. syst.

fcc 4 3 12
1 3 3  More slip systems
 better formability

6 2 12  Hexagonal lattice is
disadvantageous
hcp 3 1 3 for forming (e.g.
magnesium)
bcc 12 1 12

6 1 6
24 1 24

Slip plane Slip direction

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 41 Chap. 2 - 11

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Example for lattice defect: dislocations

Spherical model of an ideal crystal,

simple cubic lattice

Screw dislocation,
Edge dislocation, dislocation line t
dislocation line t

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 47 Chap. 2 - 12

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Dislocation movement
 The movement of dislocations facilitates the plastic deformation:

a) b)

a) Schematic of the displacement of a carpet by means of folding

b) Slipping of an edge dislocation

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 46 Chap. 2 - 13

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Annihilation of dislocations

 Moving edge dislocations with opposite signs can neutralize each other.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 60 Chap. 2 - 14

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity
2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening
2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 15
Slip and work hardening
Start of yielding

Work hardening

Dislocations which are piled up

at grain boundaries

 Slipping starts in the planes with the highest resulting shear stress.

 With increasing strain, the moving dislocations block each other or they pile
up at grain boundaries.

 Further deformation is only possible using badly oriented slip planes and
requires higher stress. If the formability limit is reached, fracture will occur.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 64 Chap. 2 - 16

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Influence of temperature on tensile strength and formability
 Objectives of hot forming are generally: Start of yielding
 reduction of forming force
 large strains without failure of the material Work
hardening
i.e.:
 decrease of flow stress
 low or no work hardening

 This is reached by thermally induced mechanisms:

 recovery
 recrystallization

 reduction of work hardening (= softening) by changing the dislocation density

and the dislocation arrangement

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 70 Chap. 2 - 17

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Influence of temperature on tensile strength and formability
 With increasing temperature it can be observed that
 stress-related parameters decrease
 achievable formability increases
. Blue brittleness1
Tensile strength in N/mm²

Flow stress in N/mm²

High temperature .
strength
of brass
Phase change

Test temperature in °C

Hot forming Temperature in °C

region Principal temperature
dependence of the Temperature dependence of the flow stress
flow stress (Material: 100Cr6, 𝜑ሶ 𝑚 = 0.1 𝑠 −1 )

1caused by N and C atoms attached to

dislocations and grain boundaries
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 70 Chap. 2 - 18

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Recovery during polygonization of Fe-Al
 Recovery means:
 annihilation of dislocations
 formation of sub-grains (low angle grain boundaries)

Dislocation arrangement
in a bent crystal

1 µm
Dislocation arrangement
after polygonization
Low angle grain boundaries
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 72 f. Chap. 2 - 19

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Recrystallization
 Recrystallization means:
 formation of new grains in the deformed microstructure ( primary
recrystallization, in general grain refinement)
 displacement of large angle grain boundaries ( secondary
recrystallization/ grain growth)

100 µm 100 µm 100 µm

Strain hardened microstructure Recrystallized grains

Chap. 2 - 20

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Static and dynamic changes of microstructure during hot forming I
Terminology:

 Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) / dynamic recovery:

 in the forming zone/during forming
 fast processes, promoted by the constant regeneration of
vacancies and dislocations  reaching a state of equilibrium

 Static recrystallization/recovery:
 outside the forming zone, e.g. during cooling or subsequent
annealing
 changes the initial microstructure

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 75 f. Chap. 2 - 21

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Static and dynamic changes of microstructure during hot forming II

High stacking fault

energy (SFE) Dynamic
recovery High SFE

Static recovery + recrystallization

Dynamic
recovery Static recovery

Low SFE Dynamic recovery + recrystallization

Low SFE

Static recovery +
Static recovery + recrystallization
recrystallization
Hot rolling with h = 50 % Bar extrusion with A = 99 %

 Ratio of static to dynamic is controlled by:

 material (stacking fault energy)
 forming conditions (strain 𝜑, strain rate 𝜑,
ሶ temperature 𝜗)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 76 Chap. 2 - 22

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Schematic diagram of hot flow curves during dynamic softening
 Dynamic recovery or recrystallization processes influence the flow curve. Hot flow
curves with constant or slightly decreasing flow stress values 𝑘𝑓(𝑠) after the initial work
hardening are typical for dynamic recovery. For dynamic recrystallization, however, flow
curves show a steep drop after the initial work hardening. Afterwards the flow stress
values remain constant or decrease slightly.

Dynamic recovery
Flow stress

I Strain hardening phase

(increase of dislocation density)
II Stationary part
(formation of sub-grains, equilibrium between
formation and annihilation of dislocations)
True strain

Dynamic recovery and

Flow stress

high
dynamic recrystallization
low

True strain
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 77 Chap. 2 - 23

2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.1.1 Crystal structure and plasticity
2.1.2 Work hardening / Softening
2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 24
Anisotropy and texture
 In various metal forming processes, the directional material properties, i.e. the
anisotropy, has to be considered.
Example: earing formation during deep drawing of sheets

 For metal forming, the elastic and plastic anisotropy as well as the anisotropic
work hardening are matters of importance.

Sheet
Increasing anisotropy
before upsetting
after upsetting

Upsetting test Geometry of the sample Deep drawing test Earing

(top view)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 80/86, Hydro Aluminium (right) Chap. 2 - 25

2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

Sheet textures
 The crystal anisotropy in a polycrystalline material appears if the crystals are
oriented along preferred directions (= texture).

 A pronounced texture is named according the “ideal” crystal position. After forming
operations, such as rolling or stretch forming, sheets often have a fiber texture.

WE: rolling plane

WR: rolling direction

quasi isotropic (100)[011]-Texture [111]-Fiber texture

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 82 Chap. 2 - 26

2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

Microstructural anisotropy
 Anisotropy can also be caused by the distribution of grain size and grain shape and by the
arrangement of the microstructure. A typical example for the influence of the grain shape
is the secondary microstructure of a thin steel sheet, which has elongated grains (a).

 Next to the orientation according to the rolling direction, a crystallographic

orientation of precipitations is possible, e.g. in Al-Cu-alloys (b).
Grain form

Elongated grains

Orientated
precipitations
a b
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen, p. 84 Chap. 2 - 27

2.1.3 Anisotropy / Texture

Summary
 Plastic deformation is (primarily) based on the movement of dislocations.

 With increasing plastic deformation, the dislocation density increases, the dislocations
impede each other and work hardening starts.

 Softening during hot forming is based on:

 recovery, i.e. annihilation of dislocations

 recrystallization, i.e. formation of new grains

 Since recovery and recrystallization need time, velocity plays an important role during hot
forming: usually, the flow stress rises with increasing strain rate.

 During forming (e.g. rolling), a preferred orientation of the grains may occur (texture). The
resulting plastic anisotropy has influence on the flow properties.

Chap. 2 - 28

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 29
Definition of stress

Normal stress:

Δ𝐹𝑧
𝜎𝑧𝑧 = lim ≡ 𝜎𝑧 Typical notation
Δ𝐴𝑧 →0 Δ𝐴𝑧

Shear stress: 1st Index =

Surface normal
Δ𝐹𝑥
𝜎𝑧𝑥 = lim ≡ 𝜏𝑧𝑥
Δ𝐴𝑧 →0 Δ𝐴𝑧
2nd Index =
Direction of force
component
Δ𝐹𝑦
𝜎𝑧𝑦 = lim ≡ 𝜏𝑧𝑦
Δ𝐴𝑧 →0 Δ𝐴𝑧

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 5 Chap. 2 - 30

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Stresses in a volume element

Stress tensor:

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 with 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝑗 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧

With the invariants:

𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑘𝑘 (Trace of the stress tensor)

2 2 2
1 Summation convention:
𝐼2 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝜎𝑗𝑗
2 Summation over the
index appearing twice
2 − 𝜎 𝜏 2 − 𝜎 𝜏 2 = det 𝜎
𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧 in the same term
𝑦 𝑧𝑥 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑗
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 6 Chap. 2 - 31

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Symmetry of the stress tensor

Example: equilibrium of torque around the z-axis:

𝜏𝑦𝑥 ⋅ Δ𝑥 ⋅ Δ𝑧 ⋅ Δ
ด𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ⋅ Δ𝑦 ⋅ Δ𝑧 ⋅ Δ
ด𝑥
area leverarm area leverarm
⇒ 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦

In general:

The stress tensor is symmetric:

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

i.e. it consists of the following six components:

𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 7 Chap. 2 - 32

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Principal axis system

•
•

•
•
•

𝜎1 0 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏 𝜎𝑦𝑦
0 0 𝑦𝑥

For each state of stress σij, there is an orthogonal coordinate system, in which
all shear stresses vanish and the normal stresses reach their maximum
(principal normal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3).
Source: Johnson Chap. 2 - 33

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Principal axis system
For each state of stress σij, there is an orthogonal coordinate system, in which all
shear stresses vanish and the normal stresses reach their maximum (principal normal
stresses σ1, σ2, σ3).

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜎1 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
2α 𝜎3 = − + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
3
𝜎2 = 0
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝛼 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

Mohr’s circle and principal normal stresses for plane state of stress
(convention: 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3)
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.10 Chap. 2 - 34

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Sign convention
 The sign convention derives automatically from:
Δ𝐹Ԧ𝑗
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = lim
Δ𝐴𝑖 →0 Δ𝐴Ԧ
𝑖

 Normal stresses:
Tensile stress = positive (𝐴Ԧ same orientation as 𝐹)
Ԧ
Compressive stress = negative (𝐴Ԧ opposite orientation as 𝐹)
Ԧ

 Shear stresses:
In Mohr’s circle different to the stress tensor (xy = yx !) according to the following rule:
 Turning the volume element clockwise: positive
 Turning the volume element anticlockwise: negative

Source: Kopp, p. 6/9 Chap. 2 - 35

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Example: Signs in Mohr’s circle
 Stress tensor:

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 0 +700 −200 0 𝑁

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 0 = −200 −100 0
𝑚𝑚2
0 0 0 0 0 0
In Mohr‘s circle:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 turns volume element
clockwise ⇒ > 0
𝜏𝑦𝑥 turns volume element
2α
anticlockwise ⇒ < 0
3

2 ⋅ −200
tan 2𝛼 = = −0.5
700 − −100
2𝛼 = −26.6°
Source: Kopp, p. 10 Chap. 2 - 36

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

3-D state of stress in Mohr’s circle
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are principal axis 𝐼, 𝐼𝐼, 𝐼𝐼𝐼

A B C

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 6/11 Chap. 2 - 37

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

3-D state of stress in Mohr’s circle
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are principal axis 𝐼, 𝐼𝐼, 𝐼𝐼𝐼

A B C

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 6/11 Chap. 2 - 38

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

3-D state of stress in Mohr’s circle
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are principal axis 𝐼, 𝐼𝐼, 𝐼𝐼𝐼

A B C

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 6/11 Chap. 2 - 39

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Hydrostatic stress component

A state of stress, in which 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0, i.e.:

𝜎𝑚 0 0
0 𝜎𝑚 0
0 0 𝜎𝑚

is called hydrostatic stress state. In general, hydrostatic stress does not cause plastic
deformation but influences the formability. The hydrostatic stress component is given by:

1 1
𝜎𝑚 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑘𝑘
3 3

i.e., it is 1/3 of the first invariant of the stress tensor and hence, independent of the chosen
coordinate system.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 12 Chap. 2 - 40

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Stress deviator
With the hydrostatic stress component 𝜎𝑚 , every stress state can be split as follows:

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑚 0 0

𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 0 𝜎𝑚 0
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑚 0 0 𝜎𝑚

Stress tensor = Stress deviator + Hydrostatic stress

1
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝜎 𝛿
3 𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑗

Only the stress deviator causes plastic deformation.

1 0 0
𝛿𝑖𝑗 = Kronecker symbol for 0 1 0
0 0 1

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 12 Chap. 2 - 41

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Special states of stress
In the principal axis system
State of stress
Stress tensor Stress deviator
One-dimensional

σ1 σ1 0 0 σ1 − σ𝑚 0 0
σ𝑚 = σ𝑖𝑗 = 0 0 0 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 0 −σ𝑚 0
3 0 0 −σ𝑚
0 0 0
Two-dimensional
σ1 0 0 σ1 − σ𝑚 0 0
σ1 + σ2
σ𝑚 = σ𝑖𝑗 = 0 σ2 0 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 0 σ2 − σ𝑚 0
3 0 0 −σ𝑚
0 0 0
Three-dimensional
σ1 0 0 σ1 − σ𝑚 0 0
σ1 + σ2 + σ3
σ𝑚 = σ𝑖𝑗 = 0 σ2 0 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 0 σ2 − σ𝑚 0
3 0 0 σ3 0 0 σ3 − σ𝑚

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 13 Chap. 2 - 42

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Equilibrium condition

The three equilibrium conditions are:

𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

+ + =0 𝑥 direction
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
increment

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦

+ + =0 𝑦 direction
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧
+ + =0 𝑧 direction
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Example: derivation of the equation in x direction:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 Mass forces (weight, inertia)
𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 are neglected according to the
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 conditions in common metal
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 forming processes.
−𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑧
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 6/93 Chap. 2 - 43

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Summary
 The general stress state can be described by a symmetric tensor (3 normal stresses, 2 x 3
shear stresses).

 The stress tensor can be divided into a hydrostatic part (sm) and a deviatoric part (sij)
𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝜎𝑚 .

 The hydrostatic stress component does not cause plastic deformation.

 Increasing hydrostatic compression stress, increases the formability, i.e. the possible
deformation before failure.

 The deviatoric stress causes and determines the occurring plastic deformation.

 For each stress state, there is a coordinate system in which all shear stresses vanish. It is
called “principal axis system” and the stresses are called “principal normal stresses”.

Chap. 2 - 44

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 45
Introduction to deformation I
 Elastic deformation is reversible. Usual strain measures are based on the initial state
(Dl/l0). There is a linear relation between strain and stress (Hooke’s law: 𝜎 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝜀).

 Plastic deformation stays after unloading.

Engineering stress-strain The total deformation can be

diagram considered as the sum of elastic and
plastic deformation.

In metal forming, the elastic

deformation of the work piece can often
Hooke’s be neglected compared to the plastic
line deformation.
𝐹
ue Engineering stress 𝜎 =
𝐴0
Uniform plastic deformation Non-uniform Elastic
plastic def. def.
(𝑙 – 𝑙0)
Plastic strain Engineering strain 𝜀 =
𝑙0
Total strain
Chap. 2 - 46

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Introduction to deformation II
 Unlike the elastic behavior (e.g. 𝜎 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝜀), there is no direct relationship between the
degree of strain and the stress state in plastic deformation.

 However, there is a relationship between load (= stress state) and strain rate.

𝜀𝑖𝑗
ሶ = 𝑓 𝜎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑗 respectively

 It follows that: In general, plastic deformation must be described incrementally in its

chronological sequence.

 Approach:

 A small increase in deformation (deformation increment) is considered.

 Per time, this gives the strain rate.

 Integrated over the time / the process, this results in the total deformation.

Chap. 2 - 47

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Strain (related to change in length)

y
ux+∆ux  The change in length of a volume
ux
element corresponds to the
difference of the displacements of its
boundaries.
∆x ∆x+∆ux

 The strain 𝜀 is defined as change in 𝑢𝑥 + ∆𝑢𝑥 − 𝑢𝑥 ∆𝑢𝑥

length related to the initial length: 𝜀𝑥 = =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

∆𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥
 For the infinitesimal dimensions it is: 𝜀𝑥 = lim =
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Source: Hoffmann et al., Handbuch Umformen, p. 39; Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 15 Chap. 2 - 48

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Strain rate (related to change in length)

∆𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥
Strain increment: 𝜀𝑥 = lim =
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕
Strain rate: 𝜀𝑥ሶ = 𝜀𝑥 ≡ = = 𝑣𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
with vx = velocity in x direction

The strain rate of a volume element in the direction of a coordinate axis results from
the derivative of the velocity component in this direction with respect to this coordinate
direction:

𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧

𝜀𝑥ሶ = ; 𝜀𝑦ሶ = ; 𝜀𝑧ሶ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Source: Hoffmann et al., Handbuch Umformen, p. 39; Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 26 Chap. 2 - 49

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Shear strain and shear strain rate (related to angular variations)

Besides strain, also angular variations

(“shear strains”) occur. For small angular
variations it is: 𝛾 ≈ tan 𝛾 and ∆𝑢′ ≈ ∆𝑢.

Δ𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑦
𝛾𝑥 ≈ tan 𝛾𝑥 = lim =
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Δ𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥
𝛾𝑦 ≈ tan 𝛾𝑦 = lim =
Δ𝑦→0 Δ𝑦 𝜕𝑦

The total angular deformation in the xy

plane (shear strain) compared to the 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑥
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑥 + 𝛾𝑦 = +
initially rectangular angle is: 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Analogous to the strain rate, the shear 𝜕 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑥

𝛾𝑥𝑦
ሶ = 𝛾 = +
strain rate is: 𝜕𝑡 𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Source: Hoffmann et al., Handbuch Umformen, p. 39; Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 26 Chap. 2 - 50

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Tensor of the strain rate
It was derived: 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦
𝜀𝑥ሶ = 1 𝛾𝑥𝑦
ሶ = + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(1) see slide 2-49 (2) see slide 2-50

Analogous derivations for the other coordinate directions and the introduction of the
tensor notation using the definition:
1
𝜀𝑖𝑗
ሶ = 𝛾ሶ 𝑖𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
2
lead to the following representation of the strain rate tensor:

1 1
𝜀𝑥ሶ 𝛾ሶ 𝛾ሶ
2 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑧 Note:
1 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑗 1 1
𝜀𝑖𝑗
ሶ = + = 𝛾ሶ 𝜀𝑦ሶ 𝛾ሶ
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 2 𝑦𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 1 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥
1 1 𝜀𝑥𝑥
ሶ = 𝜀𝑥ሶ = + =
𝛾ሶ 𝛾ሶ 𝜀𝑧ሶ 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 𝑧𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦 as in (1)
xi, xj = coordinate directions x, y, z
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 26 Chap. 2 - 51

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Summary
 In metal forming, the elastic deformation can usually be neglected compared to the plastic
deformation (exception: e.g. spring back in sheet metal forming).

 In plastic deformation, there is no direct relation between stress and strain but a relation
between stress and strain rate.

 The integration of the strain rate over the forming process yields the total deformation.

 As strain increments, changes in length in all coordinate directions as well as angular

variations in all section planes can occur.

 It follows that the strain rate must be described by a tensor.

Chap. 2 - 52

2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 53
Difference between “true strain” and “engineering strain” I
 Assuming homogeneous strain, two ways defining the total strain are used:

Initial
𝑙0
∆𝑙1
𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1 − 𝑙0 ∆𝑙1
1. Increment ∆𝜀1 = = ⇒ 𝜀𝑙 = ∆𝜀1 + ∆𝜀2
𝑙0 𝑙0
𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1
∆𝑙2
𝑙1 − 𝑙0
=
∆𝑙2 𝑙0
2. Increment ∆𝜀2 =
𝑙0
𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1 + ∆𝑙2 = 𝑙1

𝑙1 𝑙1
𝑑𝑙 1 𝑙1 − 𝑙0 “Engineering strain”
𝜀𝑙 = න 𝑑𝜀𝑙 = න = න 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑙0 𝑙0 𝑙0 preferred for elastic
𝑙0 𝑙0 deformation
related to initial length
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 18-20 Chap. 2 - 54

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Difference between “true strain” and “engineering strain” II
 Assuming homogeneous strain, two ways defining the total strain are used:

Initial
𝑙0
∆𝑙1
∆𝑙1 ∆𝑙𝑖 → 0
1. Increment ∆𝜑1 =
𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1 𝑙0 𝑙1
∆𝑙2 𝑑𝑙 𝑙1
∆𝑙2 ⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = න = ln
2. Increment ∆𝜑2 = 𝑙 𝑙0
𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1 + ∆𝑙2 = 𝑙1 𝑙0 + ∆𝑙1 𝑙0

𝑙1 “True strain”
𝑑𝑙 𝑙1
𝜑𝑙 = න = ln
𝑙 𝑙0 preferred for plastic
𝑙0 related to current length deformation

𝑙1 𝑙1
𝑑𝑙 1 𝑙1 − 𝑙0 “Engineering strain”
𝜀𝑙 = න 𝑑𝜀𝑙 = න = න 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑙0 𝑙0 𝑙0 preferred for elastic
𝑙0 𝑙0
related to initial length deformation
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 18-20 Chap. 2 - 55

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Conversion between true strain and engineering strain
 In case of a homogeneous strain distribution, the following conversion is used:

True strain Engineering strain

𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙0
𝜑𝑙 = ln 𝜀𝑙 =
𝑙0 𝑙0
⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = ln 1 + 𝜀𝑙 ֞ 𝜀𝑙 = 𝑒 𝜑𝑙 − 1

Examples:
 Increase in length by 𝜀𝑙 = 20 % ⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = ln 1 + 0.2 = 0.18
Decrease in length by 𝜀𝑙 = 20 % ⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = ln 1 + −0.2 = −0.22

 Increase in length by 𝜀𝑙 = 40 % ⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = ln 1 + 0.4 = 0.34

Decrease in length by 𝜀𝑙 = 40 % ⇒ 𝜑𝑙 = ln 1 + −0.4 = −0.51
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 20/23 Chap. 2 - 56

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Inhomogeneous strain distribution

Homogeneous strain:

𝑑(𝑑𝑥1 ) 𝑑(𝑑𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑙𝑥

= =
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑙𝑥

Inhomogeneous strain:
𝑑(𝑑𝑥1 ) 𝑑(𝑑𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑙𝑥
≠ ≠
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑙𝑥

work piece

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.19 Chap. 2 - 57

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Difference between local and global point of view
 In case of an inhomogeneous strain distribution, the global true strain  is
the averaged local total strain. It is calculated based on the dimensional
changes of the whole volume.

1 𝑙𝑥
𝜑𝑥 ≡ 𝜀𝑥ҧ = න 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑥 0

work piece

 For a homogeneous strain distribution (𝜀𝑥 𝑥 = constant), the global true strain 
corresponds to the local strain. It is:
𝑙𝑥1
𝑑(𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑙𝑥 𝑑𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑥1
𝜑𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 = න 𝑑𝜀𝑥 = න =න ⇒ 𝜑𝑥 = න = ln
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑥0
𝑙𝑥0
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 18-19 Chap. 2 - 58

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Indexing conventions used in this lecture
 Homogeneous and inhomogeneous strain using the example of a compression test
z frictionless with friction
𝜀𝑒𝑞
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
h
r 0.3
d 0.2

Indexing convention:
 Local total strain: 𝜀𝑥𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧𝑧 , 𝜀𝑥𝑦 , 𝜀𝑥𝑧 , 𝜀𝑦𝑧 or 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜀3
(coordinate direction as index)
 Global engineering strain: 𝜀𝑙 , 𝜀𝑤 , 𝜀ℎ
(body dimension as index)
 Global true strain: 𝜑𝑙 , 𝜑𝑤 , 𝜑ℎ
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 21; IBF Chap. 2 - 59

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Multi-stage forming processes

stage 1 stage 2
Warning: When changing between
tension and compression, absolute
strain values must be considered.
𝜑ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜑1 + |𝜑2 |

ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ2
𝜑ℎ,1 = ln 𝜑ℎ,2 = ln 𝜑ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 = ln
ℎ0 ℎ1 ℎ0
𝑛
 True strains can be added:
𝜑ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ෍ 𝜑ℎ,𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑖=1

 Engineering strains cannot simply be added:

ℎ1 − ℎ0 ℎ2 − ℎ1 ℎ2 − ℎ0
𝜀ℎ,1 = 𝜀ℎ,2 = 𝜀ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ≠ 𝜀ℎ,1 + 𝜀ℎ,2
ℎ0 ℎ1 ℎ0

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 22/23 Chap. 2 - 60

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Summary of strain measures

Local strains 𝜺𝒊𝒋

 Change in length (strain): 𝜀𝑥𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧𝑧 (alternatively 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 )
 Angular variation (shear strain): 𝜀𝑥𝑦 , 𝜀𝑥𝑧 , 𝜀𝑧𝑦 (alternatively 𝛾𝑥𝑦 , γ𝑥𝑧 , γ𝑧𝑦 )

Global strain values

 True strain 𝝋:
 average of the local strain (logarithmic)
 for homogeneous strain, 𝜑 results from the change of the body
dimensions (e.g. 𝜑𝑙 = ln 𝑙1 /𝑙0 )

 Engineering strain 𝜺𝒍 , 𝜺𝒉 , 𝜺𝒘 :
 change of the body dimensions related to the initial dimensions
(e.g. 𝜀ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ0 /ℎ0 )

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 17/18 Chap. 2 - 61

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Global true strain  and engineering strain ε
True strain Engineering strain
𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙0
Length 𝜑𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀𝑙 =
𝑙0 𝑙0
coordinates
Cartesian

𝑤1 𝑤1 − 𝑤0
Width 𝜑𝑤 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀𝑤 =
𝑤0 𝑤0
ℎ1 ℎ1 − ℎ0
Height 𝜑ℎ = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀ℎ =
ℎ0 ℎ0
𝑟1 𝑑1 𝑟1 − 𝑟0
Radius (cylinder) 𝜑𝑟 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀𝑟 =
𝑟0 𝑑0 𝑟0
𝑡1 𝑡1 − 𝑡0
coordinates
Cylindrical

Wall thickness (tube) 𝜑𝑟 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀𝑟 =

𝑡0 𝑡0
Circumference 𝑐1 𝑐1 − 𝑐0
𝜑𝜗 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀𝜗 =
(use average circumference for 𝑐0 𝑐0
tubes 𝑑𝑚 ⋅ 𝜋 = 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑡 ⋅ 𝜋)
ℎ1 ℎ1 − ℎ0
Height 𝜑ℎ = 𝑙𝑛 𝜀ℎ =
ℎ0 ℎ0
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 20 Chap. 2 - 62

2.2.3 Local and global strain measures

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 63
Volume constancy in plastic deformation
 Plastic deformation does not change the volume.
(Exceptions: Porosity, compression of powder ...)

Volume constancy:
𝑙1 𝑤1 ℎ1
𝑙1 ⋅ 𝑤1 ⋅ ℎ1 = 𝑙0 ⋅ 𝑤0 ⋅ ℎ0 or ⋅ ⋅ =1
𝑙0 𝑤0 ℎ0
w0 w1

𝑙1 𝑤1 ℎ1
⇒ ln + ln + ln = ln 1 = 0 or 𝜑𝑙 + 𝜑𝑤 + 𝜑ℎ = 0
𝑙0 𝑤0 ℎ0

 With 𝜑 = ln 𝜀 + 1 the following relation is valid for engineering strain:

𝜀𝑙 + 1 ⋅ 𝜀𝑤 + 1 ⋅ 𝜀ℎ + 1 − 1 = 0 or 𝜀𝑙 + 𝜀𝑤 + 𝜀ℎ ≠ 0

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 28 Chap. 2 - 64

2.2.4 Volume constancy

Volume constancy in plastic deformation
Due to volume constancy, for the logarithmic global strain rates related to
the body dimensions it is:
𝜑ሶ 𝑙 + 𝜑ሶ 𝑤 + 𝜑ሶ ℎ = 0

According to the balancing at the volume

element, it follows for the local strain rates:
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
+ + = 0, i.e.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜀𝑥ሶ + 𝜀𝑦ሶ + 𝜀𝑧ሶ = 0

For axial symmetry it is:

𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑟 𝜕𝑣𝑧
𝜀𝑟𝑟
ሶ + 𝜀𝜗𝜗
ሶ + 𝜀𝑧𝑧
ሶ = + + =0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 28 Chap. 2 - 65

2.2.4 Volume constancy

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 66
Tensile test up to fracture
 For the material characterization, often the
initial cross section is considered:
𝐹
Engineering stress: 𝜎0 =
𝐴0
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
Tensile strength: 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐴0 fracture
 To determine the flow stress, the actual
cross section must be considered:
𝐹
Flow stress: 𝑘𝑓 = , for 0 < 𝜑 < 𝜑𝑢𝑒
𝐴
ue
or
𝑙
True strain: 𝜑= 𝑙𝑛 1 𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 + 𝜀𝑝𝑙
𝑙0

 Above the uniform elongation

𝜑𝑢𝑒 , 𝐹/𝐴 in the necking area until 𝜑𝑢𝑒 : 𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎
is larger than 𝑘𝑓 due to radial above 𝜑𝑢𝑒 : 𝑘𝑓 < 𝜎 Necking
tensile stresses. also: 𝜑ሶ ≫ 𝑣𝑤 Τ𝑙
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 44 Chap. 2 - 67

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Flow stress
 Definition: The flow stress (yield stress) 𝑘𝑓 is the stress that causes plastic flow
in a uniaxial stress state.

𝒌𝒇 = 𝝈𝟏 for uniaxial tension

𝒌𝒇 = 𝝈𝟏 for uniaxial compression

 𝑘𝑓 is depending on the material (alloy, microstructure) as well as on the strain,

strain rate and temperature:

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 (material, 𝜑𝑒𝑞 , 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 , 𝜗)

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 (material, 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝜀𝑒𝑞ሶ , 𝜗) 𝜑𝑒𝑞 , 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = equivalent strain,

see section 2.2.7

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 37/38 Chap. 2 - 68

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Flow curve
The representation of the function 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝜑, 𝜑,ሶ 𝜗 is known as flow curve:

Typical cold forming flow curve Typical hot forming flow curve
(work hardening) (work hardening, recovery,
recrystallization)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.39; IBF Chap. 2 - 69

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Global strain rate – using the example of a uniaxial tensile test
 The global strain rate ሶ is the volume average local strain rate.

y 1
𝑙 𝜑ሶ 𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥ሶ = න 𝜀𝑥ሶ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑣𝑡 𝑉

In case of homogeneous strain it is:

𝜕𝑣𝑥
0 x 𝜑ሶ 𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥ሶ = (see section 2.2.2)
𝜕𝑥
Velocity field
It follows:
vx
𝑣𝑡 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑡
0 ⇒ 𝜑ሶ 𝑥 =
𝑙 x 𝑙
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 28-30/33 Chap. 2 - 70

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

kf -determination using tensile test

 Uniaxial tensile test, here until the beginning of necking (uniform elongation)
 Disadvantage because in metal forming often larger strains occur

t 𝐹 𝐹⋅𝑙 𝐹 𝑙0 + Δ𝑙
𝑘𝑓 = = = 2 ⋅
t 𝐴 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑙0 𝜋𝑑0 /4 𝑙0
4𝐹 Δ𝑙
𝑘𝑓 = 2 1+ 𝑙
𝜋𝑑0 0
Δ𝑙
𝜑 = ln 1 +
𝑙0
𝑣𝑡
𝜑ሶ =
𝑙

For 𝜑ሶ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. the tool velocity 𝑣𝑡 has to be controlled as follows:

ሶ
𝑣𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑙0 ⋅ 𝜑ሶ ⋅ 𝑒 𝜑⋅𝑡 or 𝑣𝑡 = 𝜑ሶ ⋅ 𝑙0 + Δ𝑙

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41 Chap. 2 - 71

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

kf -determination using compression test without friction

𝑢0  0.05 𝑑0
𝑡0  0.02 𝑑0 𝐹 𝐹⋅ℎ 4𝐹 Δℎ
𝑘𝑓 = = = 1 −
𝐴 𝐴0 ℎ0 𝜋𝑑02 ℎ0
Lubricants:
ℎ0 1
< 300 °C Teflon 𝜑 = 𝜑ℎ = ln = ln
< 400 °C Graphite paste ℎ1 1 − Δℎ/ℎ0
< 800 °C Boron nitride paste |𝑣𝑡 |
800 °C - 1300 °C Glass 𝜑ሶ =
ℎ
Rastegaev experiment Simulation
𝜀𝑒𝑞 For 𝜑ሶ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. the tool
0.9 velocity 𝑣𝑡 has to be
0.8 controlled as follows:
0.6
0.5
𝑣𝑡 = 𝜑ሶ ⋅ ℎ = 𝜑ሶ ⋅ ℎ0 − Δℎ
0.3
ሶ
0.2 = ℎ0 ⋅ 𝜑ሶ ⋅ 𝑒 −𝜑𝑡
0
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 45; IBF Chap. 2 - 72

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Yield criteria
 Yield criteria define when a multiaxial stress state leads to plastic flow.

 A function is required which allows for a comparison of the multiaxial

stress state with the measured flow stress 𝑘𝑓 from the uniaxial tensile test:

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝑓 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘𝑓

Common yield criteria:

1. Maximum shear stress criterion (TRESCA)

2. Maximum distortion strain energy criterion (VON MISES)

Chap. 2 - 73

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

TRESCA – Maximum shear stress criterion
 Assumption: Flow (yielding) occurs when the largest shear stress max reaches a critical
value (= shear flow stress k) of the material.

 It follows: Flow begins when the largest difference in principal normal stresses reaches
the value of the flow stress.

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝑓 = 2𝑘

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘 or 2 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑘 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

pure shear stress general stress state uniaxial stress state

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 99 Chap. 2 - 74

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

VON MISES – Maximum distortion strain energy criterion I
Requirements on the yield criterion:
1. Plastic flow occurs when a function of all coordinates of the stress tensor
reaches the flow stress: 𝒇 𝝈𝒊𝒋 = 𝒌𝒇

2. The hydrostatic stress has no influence on the beginning of plastic flow:

𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒋 = 𝒌𝒇 (sij = stress deviator)

3. The beginning of plastic flow is independent of the chosen coordinate

system (invariant): 𝒇 𝑰′𝟏 , 𝑰′𝟐 , 𝑰′𝟑 = 𝒌𝒇
4. Since 𝐼1′ = 0 (the trace of the deviator is zero), it results
𝒇 𝑰′𝟐 , 𝑰′𝟑 = 𝒌𝒇

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 97 Chap. 2 - 75

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

VON MISES – Maximum distortion strain energy criterion II
Uniaxial tension with plastic flow: 𝜎1 = 𝑘𝑓
2
𝜎 0 0
3 1
𝜎1 0 0 𝜎1 1
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 0 0 ⇒ 𝜎𝑚 = ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 0 − 𝜎1 0
3 3
0 0 0
1
0 0 − 𝜎1
3
In this case, the second invariant of the deviator (see section 2.2.1) is:

2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2
𝐼2′ = 0 + 0 + 0 + 𝜎1 − 𝜎1 + 𝜎1 = 𝜎1 = 𝜎1
9 9 9 9 3

֞ 𝜎1 = 3𝐼2′

3
Thus, as possible yield criterion with 𝜎1 = 𝑘𝑓 , it results: 3𝐼2′ = 𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓
2 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 93ff Chap. 2 - 76

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Equations for equivalent stress according to von Mises
Von Mises’ maximum distortion strain energy criterion
in general cartesian coordinate system:

1 2 2 2 2 2
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2 + 3 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥
2

in cylindrical coordinate system with axial symmetry (𝜏𝑟𝜗 = 𝜏𝜗𝑧 = 0):

1 2
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝜗 2 + 𝜎𝜗 − 𝜎𝑧 2 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟 2 + 3𝜏𝑟𝑧
2

in principal axis system:

1 2 2 2
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1
2

𝑘𝑓 = 3𝑘 ≈ 1.73𝑘 k: shear stress

Quelle: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 100 Chap. 2 - 77

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Yield surface and yield locus
 The yield criteria according to TRESCA and VON MISES can be displayed in
the principle axis system:
Space
diagonal

The maximum difference

between von Mises
(circular cylinder) and
Tresca (hexagonal
cylinder) is 15 %.

 Inside the cylinder: elastic behavior

 On the cylindrical surface: plastic flow
 Stresses outside of the cylinder are not possible
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 104 Chap. 2 - 78

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Comparison of the yield criteria according to von Mises and Tresca
 Identical values for 𝜎𝑒𝑞 if:

𝜎2 = 𝜎1 or 𝜎2 = 𝜎3

 The maximum difference (15 %) occurs if:

1
𝜎2 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎3
2

𝜎𝑒𝑞 Tresca
(valid for plane strain)
von Mises
 Since the yield criterion according to Tresca is
easier to calculate, a modified Tresca formulation is
used to estimate the von Mises equivalent stress in
plane strain: 𝜎3 𝜎2 𝜎1
3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 𝜎𝑒𝑞,𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎
𝜎𝑒𝑞,𝑀𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ⋯ = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ≈ =
2 1.15 1.15
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 103 Chap. 2 - 79

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Anisotropic material behavior
 In the previous yield criteria, direction-independent properties (isotropy) were
assumed.

 Technical materials may show anisotropic behavior based on their crystal

structure, texture or microstructural orientation.

anisotropic
according to von
Mises (isotropic)
Increasing anisotropy
before upsetting
after upsetting
Upsetting test Geometry of the sample
(top view)

 In this case, the yield surface has a elongated, always convex shape.

Source: Lange (left); Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 105 (right) Chap. 2 - 80

2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 81
Flow law
 In the elastic region (s𝑒𝑞 < 𝑘𝑓) the relation between stress and strain
can be described by Hooke’s law.

 In the plastic region s𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘𝑓 the flow law provides a relation between
the stress state (deviator) and the strain rate.

𝜺ሶ 𝒊𝒋 = 𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒋

 The exact formulation of this equation depends on the material behavior.

Chap. 2 - 82

2.2.6 Flow laws

Models for the behavior of metals I

Rigid-ideal plastic Elastic-ideal plastic

Rigid-linear work hardening Elastic-linear work hardening

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 40 Chap. 2 - 83

2.2.6 Flow laws

Models for the behavior of metals II

Rigid-realistic work hardening Elastic-realistic work hardening

Rigid work hardening and softening Elastic work hardening and softening

Rigid-(elastic)-viscoplastic
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 40 Chap. 2 - 84

2.2.6 Flow laws

Flow law according to LÉVY-MISES
 Based on the considerations of LÉVY (1870), VON MISES (1913) formulated the
following flow law for an ideal plastic, non-viscous, isotropic material:

ሶ = 𝜆ሶ ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑗
𝜀𝑖𝑗 ሶ = 𝜆ሶ ⋅ 𝑠𝑥𝑥 = 𝜆ሶ 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚
⇒ e.g. 𝜀𝑥𝑥
ሶ = 𝜆ሶ ⋅ 𝑠𝑦𝑦 = 𝜆ሶ 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑚
𝜀𝑦𝑦
⋯
1
𝜀𝑥𝑦ሶ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦ሶ = 𝜆ሶ ⋅ 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
⋯ ⇒ 6 equations

1 3
Where 𝜆ሶ = 𝜀ሶ ⋅ 𝜀𝑖𝑗
ሶ is a function of location and time.
𝑘𝑓 2 𝑖𝑗

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 108 Chap. 2 - 85

2.2.6 Flow laws

Flow law according to PRANDTL-REUSS
 For cases, where the elastic strain is in the same order of magnitude as the
plastic strain, PRANDTL and REUSS developed a combined law based on
the equations of HOOKE and LÉVY-MISES.

 This law describes the strain as sum of its elastic and plastic parts.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 109 Chap. 2 - 86

2.2.6 Flow laws

Modeling of realistic materials
 For the modeling of realistic materials, strain hardening and the dependency of the flow
stress on the strain rate have to be considered:

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 (material, 𝜑, 𝜑,ሶ 𝜗) or 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 (material, 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝜀𝑒𝑞

ሶ , 𝜗)

 Since these flow curves were determined e.g. in uniaxial tests, appropriate equivalent
quantities are required for other strain states.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 39 Chap. 2 - 87

2.2.6 Flow laws

Equivalent quantities for the strain rate
 For the LÉVY-MISES flow law (derivation see e.g. ISMAR, KOPP), the
local equivalent strain rate 𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ is given by:

2 2 2
𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = 𝜀ሶ 𝜀ሶ = 𝜀𝑥ሶ + 𝜀𝑦ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑧ሶ 2 + 2 𝜀𝑥𝑦
ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧
ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥
ሶ 2
3 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 3

 For the special case of homogeneous strain without shear, it is:

2
𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑ሶ 1 2 + 𝜑ሶ 2 2 + 𝜑ሶ 3 2 (in the principle axis system,
3 i.e. without shear stresses)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 109 ff Chap. 2 - 88

2.2.6 Flow laws

Local equivalent strain / global equivalent (true) strain
𝑡
The equivalent strain 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = ‫𝑞𝑒𝜀 𝑡׬‬
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
0

is a local value like 𝜀𝑒𝑞

ሶ . It is related to the plastic work which is absorbed from
the volume element ( important for the work hardening).

In case of homogeneous strain without shear and without changing the

loading direction it is:

2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑1 2 + 𝜑2 2 + 𝜑3 2 (v. Mises)
3

𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (Tresca)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 116 Chap. 2 - 89

2.2.6 Flow laws

Example of equivalent true strain
Compression test example from section 2.2.4

Homogeneous, isotropic,
𝜑𝑤 + 𝜑𝑙 + 𝜑ℎ = 0
1
⇒ 𝜑𝑤 = 𝜑𝑙 = − 𝜑ℎ
w0 w1 2

2 2 1 2 1 2
⇒ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑤 2 + 𝜑𝑙 2 + 𝜑ℎ 2 = 𝜑ℎ + 𝜑ℎ + 𝜑ℎ2
3 3 4 4

2 3
= ⋅ ⋅ 𝜑ℎ2 = 𝜑ℎ
3 2

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 116 Chap. 2 - 90

2.2.6 Flow laws

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.2.1 Stress and equilibrium state
2.2.2 Strain increment and strain rate
2.2.3 Local and global strain measures
2.2.4 Volume constancy
2.2.5 Flow stress and yield criterion
2.2.6 Flow laws, material models and equivalent quantities
2.2.7 Summary

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 91
Summary of plasto-mechanic equations

10 unknown target values 10 basic equations

6 stress components 3 equilibrium conditions
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (x,y,z-direction)
𝜕𝜎𝑖𝑗
=0
𝜕𝑥𝑖
3 velocity components 1 flow condition
𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 (MISES, TRESCA, ...)

1 proportionality factor in the 6 stress-strain rate correlations

flow law 𝜆ሶ (flow laws)
ሶ = 𝜆ሶ ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑗
𝜀𝑖𝑗

Note: all components 𝜀𝑖𝑗ሶ can be

calculated out of the velocity field
𝑣𝑖 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 .

Chap. 2 - 92

2.2.7 Summary
Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.3.1 Friction
2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 93
Friction in metal forming

 Friction conditions depend on:

 surface geometry Thickness

 contact pressure 0.3...0.5 nm

1.0...10 nm
 relative velocity
>5000 nm
 layer composition
 lubricant
 ...
 There is a distinction between: Layer composition of metallic surfaces according to SCHMALZ

 static friction
 sliding friction
 roll friction
 ...

Chap. 2 - 94

2.3.1 Friction
Characterization of friction conditions

In metal forming:
Mainly mixed-film friction
because of the high normal
stresses in the contact zone
Solid state friction Fluid friction
(usually p > kf). (gas friction)

Boundary friction Mixed-film friction

Solid state Boundary layer Liquid (gas)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 71 Chap. 2 - 95

2.3.1 Friction
Coulomb’s friction law
 Coulomb (1870) formulated the
following common friction law: FN
𝐹𝑁 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝜎𝑁 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
Ffric 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 𝐹𝑁

Anom Anom = nominal contact surface

𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 𝜎𝑁
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘
 In metal forming, the occurring .
shear stress has to be limited to
.
the shear flow stress 𝑘 due to the
possible high normal stresses.
𝜎𝑁∗

For 𝜎𝑁 > 𝜎𝑁∗ , it is: 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘

Chap. 2 - 96

2.3.1 Friction
Consideration of surface topology
 In metal forming, the friction coefficient m also depends on the
normal pressure and the tangential displacement.
 This can be described qualitatively via changes of the surface
topology during the metal forming process. It is distinguished
between:
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
 nominal contact surface 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚
 real contact surface 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚

 For example, plastic deformation of the

roughness peaks increases the ratio of
real contact surface.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 73 Chap. 2 - 97

2.3.1 Friction
Common lubricants in metal forming

Chlorinated paraffin
Fats, fatty oils, mineral oils
Cold forming
Fatty acids, alcohols, amines
Soaps
Aqueous emulsions (oils dissolved in water) Cold and hot forming
High-pressure resistant additive (extreme pressure
≈ 200 °C
additive)
Solid lubricants
Polymeric or synthetic coatings up to 400 °C
MoS2
Graphite up to 800 °C
Glass 700 to 1300 °C

Chap. 2 - 98

2.3.1 Friction
Standard values for the friction coefficient I

Material
Forming Stainless
Strain Ti and Ti- Cu and Cu- Al and Al-
process Steel steel on Ni-
alloys alloys alloys
basis
Cold rolling 0.03-0.07 0.07-0.1 0.1 0.03-0.07 0.03

Cold low 0.01 0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
extrusion high 0.05 0.05 0.05
low 0.1 0.1
Cold forging 0.05 0.05 0.05
high 0.05 0.05-0.1

Wire low 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.03

0.05
drawing high 0.05 0.05 0.05-0.1 0.05-0.1
Bar drawing 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05-0.1 0.05-0.1
Tube
0.05-0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05-0.1 0.05-0.1
drawing
to be continued

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 77 Chap. 2 - 99

2.3.1 Friction
Standard values for the friction coefficient II
continued

Material
Forming Stainless
Strain Ti and Cu and Al and Al-
process Steel steel on Ni-
Ti-alloys Cu-alloys alloys
basis
Deep low 0.05 0.1
0.1 0.07 0.05
drawing high 0.05-0.1 0.05-0.07
Ironing 0.05-0.1 0.05 0.05-0.1 0.1 0.05
Hot rolling 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Extrusion 0.02-0.2 0.02 0.02 0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
Hot forging 0.2 0.2 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2

Standard values for friction coefficients µ in cold and hot forming according to SCHEY

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 77 Chap. 2 - 100

2.3.1 Friction
Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics

2.3 Boundary conditions

2.3.1 Friction
2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 101
Heat transfer
Forming processes are characterized by:
 Elevated temperatures
 Supply of forming energy  heat dissipation
 High temperature gradients
 in the work piece
 between work piece and tool
 between work piece and surrounding
 Temperature-dependent material properties

 Heat transfer significantly influences the forming processes.

Chap. 2 - 102

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Types of heat transport

Heat conduction: Heat transport inside of a body

Heat transfer: Heat transfer between body and surrounding

 Between two bodies
 From a body to a fluid  heat convection
 natural convection due to density differences
 forced convection due to pressure differences
 Heat radiation to the surrounding

Chap. 2 - 103

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Heat conduction I

One dimensional, stationary, without heat sources: 𝑄ሶ ′′

𝜗1 − 𝜗2
≡ 𝑞ሶ = 𝜆 ∙
𝐴 𝛿
𝜗1

𝑄ሶ 𝐴= Area
𝛿= Thickness
𝑄ሶ = Heat flow [W]
𝜗2
𝑞ሶ ′′ = Heat flow density [W/m²]
𝜗 𝜆= Heat conductivity [W/(m∙K)]
𝛿
x

𝜕𝜗
As differential equation: 𝑞ሶ ′′ = −𝜆 ∙ (Fourier’s law)
𝜕𝑥

Chap. 2 - 104

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Heat conduction II
The energy balance related to a volume element results in the equation for transient
heat conduction:
Change of Sum of Sum of
thermal energy in = incoming heat - outgoing heat + Heat sources
volume element flows flows

𝑑𝜗 𝜕 𝜕𝜗 𝜕 𝜕𝜗 𝜕 𝜕𝜗 Φሶ
𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑝 ∙ = ∙ 𝜆∙ + ∙ 𝜆∙ + ∙ 𝜆∙ +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜆
Where  = const. ; cp = const. and  = const.

𝑑𝜗 𝜆 𝜕2𝜗 𝜕2𝜗 𝜕2𝜗

= ∙ + + + heat sources
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜆
𝑎≡ is called “thermal diffusivity” [m²/s]
𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑝 (≠ heat conductivity)

Examples for heat sources: dissipation, forming heat, melting heat, other phase
transformation energy Chap. 2 - 105

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Reference values for typical material data

Material Density  Specific heat cp Heat conductivity 

(temperature)
[kg/dm3] [J/(kgK)] [W/(mK)]
Low alloy steel
20 °C 7.84 460 39
900 °C 7.57 600 27
1300 °C 7.38 715 32
Al-Si-alloys
20 °C 2.7 900 240
300 °C 2.6 1000 230
400 °C 2.6 1100 230
Cu-alloys Depending on alloy
20 °C 8.9 360 25 to 400
700 °C 8.6 490 60 to 360
1000 °C 8.4 490 70 to 340

Chap. 2 - 106

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Convective heat transfer to a fluid
u 

𝑄ሶ
Cooling medium

Q
𝑞ሶ ′′ = = 𝛼 ∙ 𝜗𝑤 − 𝜗∞
𝐴
Body w

Heat transfer
coefficient  = Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]
[W/(m²K)]  = f (geometry, material properties, velocity)
Natural convection gases 3 to 20 𝜗𝑤 = Surface temperature of the wall
water 100 to 600
Forced convection gases 10 to 100
 Heat transfer laws for the quantitative
water 500 to 10,000
determination of α for certain geometries
Boiling water 2,000 to 25,000 and conditions can be found e.g. in the
Condensation of water 5,000 to 100,000 VDI Heat Atlas (German: VDI-
vapor Wärmeatlas).

Source: VDI-Wärmeatlas Chap. 2 - 107

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Heat transfer between solid bodies
 The same form of the law is used for two solid bodies in contact:

ϑ
Body 1 Body 2
𝑄ሶ
𝑞ሶ ′′ = = 𝛼 ∙ 𝜗𝑠1 − 𝜗𝑠2 ϑs2
𝐴 ϑs1

 Here, the temperatures of the contact surfaces have to be inserted.

 In this case, the heat transfer coefficient also depends on the surface
structure and the normal pressure.
 metal - metal 200 to 20,000 W/(m2K)
 (in extremely favorable circumstances) up to 100,000 W/(m2K)

Chap. 2 - 108

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Heat transfer by radiation I
 According to the Stefan Boltzmann‘s law, a “black body” emits the following
heat flow density due to radiation:

s = 5.67·10-8 W/m2K4 (Stefan Boltzmann constant)

𝑞ሶ ′′ =𝜎∙ 𝑇4 T = absolute temperature [K]

 Alternatively, the following useful notation is valid:

4
′′ ∗
𝑇 s* = 5.67 W/m2K4
𝑞ሶ = 𝜎 ⋅ T = absolute temperature [K]
100

 Because of the 4th power of the temperature, heat losses caused by radiation
are significant at high body temperatures.

Chap. 2 - 109

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Heat transfer by radiation II
 For a closer examination of the heat losses caused by radiation, the following
aspects have to be considered:
 interaction between the bodies: received radiation  emitted radiation
 spatial orientation of the radiating surfaces
 radiation properties of the respective technical surface
(emissivity ε, directionality, ...)
 There is a simplified estimation for “small” radiating bodies in a “large”
surrounding:

4 4
𝑞ሶ ′′ = 𝜀 ∙ 𝜎 ∙ 𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

0 < 𝜀 < 1 Emissivity

Chap. 2 - 110

2.3.2 Heat transfer / Heat transport

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions

2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes
2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 111
Global technological target values
 Important technological target values (e.g. for the design of a forming machine)
are:
 deformation force (= forming force) e.g. for hydraulic press, rolling mill, ...
 deformation work (= deformation energy)
e.g. for hammer, i.e. energy restricted machine  weight, drop height
 deformation power e.g. hydraulic press  pressure, oil volume flow;
rolling mill  torque, rotational speed
 Moreover, for the feasibility of a forming process

 formability of the material (forming limit)

 temperature increase during forming

are relevant.

Chap. 2 - 112

2.4 Global technological target values

Force-displacement diagram of compression and tensile test
Force
Feff
t
t
Compression test

Feff Tensile test

Displacement

Compression test: Tensile test:

 The force is the integral of the normal  The force is the product of 𝑘𝑓 and the
stress over the contact area. current cross section of the specimen.
 The force increases with strain  The force increases first due to strain
hardening and increasing contact area. hardening and then decreases during
necking.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124 Chap. 2 - 113

2.4 Global technological target values

Power-time diagram of compression and tensile test
Power
Peff
t
t
Compression test

Peff Tensile test

Time

 Since the tool velocity vt is constant, in the same diagram the force (F) can be
substituted by power (P) and the displacement by time.

 In general it is: deformation power is the dissipation energy per time.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124 ff Chap. 2 - 114

2.4 Global technological target values

Work during compression and tensile test
Power
Peff
t
t
Compression test

Peff Tensile test

Time

 Deformation work is the integral of

 power over time,

 force over displacement.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124 ff Chap. 2 - 115

2.4 Global technological target values

Calculation of the technological target values
 For real metal forming processes, i.e.
 complex geometry  influence of temperature
 influence of friction  strain hardening / softening
a numerical simulation (FEM) is necessary for the “precise” calculation.

 However, an estimation with elementary models is sufficient for most practical

purposes. In metal forming, usually the following partitioning is applied:
1. Ideal part: based on “inner” stress and strain
(usually without shear)
2. Friction part: based on friction and relative movement
in the contact area
3. Shear part: based on “unwanted” shear (as far as
it is not considered in 1.) Drawing

Chap. 2 - 116

2.4 Global technological target values

Calculation of deformation work from stress and strain
Work in the entire body (1-D):

Δ𝑙
𝑊 = 𝐹 ⋅ Δ𝑙 = 𝜎 ⋅ 𝐴Δ𝑙 = 𝜎 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑙0 ⋅ = 𝜎 ⋅ 𝑉 ⋅ 𝜀
𝑙0
work = force ⋅ displacement = ... = stress ⋅ volume ⋅ strain

Work increment in the volume element (1-D):

𝑑 𝑑𝑊𝑥 = 𝑑𝐹𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ⋅ 𝜎𝑥

𝜕 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜀𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
⇒ 𝑑 𝑑𝑊𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝜀𝑥
work increment = volume ⋅ stress ⋅ strain increment
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 35 Chap. 2 - 117

2.4 Global technological target values

Calculation of ideal work and power

The work increment is 𝑑𝑊 = ‫𝑗𝑖𝜀 𝑗𝑖𝜎 𝑉׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝑗𝑖𝜀𝑑 𝑗𝑖𝜎 𝑉׬‬

ሶ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

with equivalent quantities 𝑑𝑊 = ‫𝑞𝑒𝜀 𝑞𝑒𝜎 𝑉׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜀𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜎 𝑉׬‬

ሶ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

with seq = kf and integration over the total strain follows for the internal work:

𝑊 = ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜀 𝑓𝑘 𝑉׬‬ (𝑘𝑓 as local value)

in the special case of homogeneous forming without shear it is:

for the ideal work: 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 (𝑘𝑓𝑚: mean flow stress)

𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑑
for the ideal power: 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝜕𝑡

 “ideal” because shear and friction are not considered

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 119 Chap. 2 - 118

2.4 Global technological target values

Friction and shear parts
Friction:

𝒔𝒓𝒆𝒍 FN
𝐹𝑁 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 for the friction work and power:
𝜎𝑁 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
Ffric 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
Anom 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝜎𝑁
Anom = contact surface 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement velocity

Shear:
Analogous to the ideal parts, for the shear parts it is:

for the shear work: 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (𝑘: shear flow stress;
1
𝑘 = 2 𝑘𝑓 acc. to Tresca)
for the shear power: 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦
ሶ
Chap. 2 - 119

2.4 Global technological target values

Summary:
Approximate formulas for deformation energy and deformation power

Work Power Simplifications

homogeneous strain,
Ideal part 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞
without shear

𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
Friction part 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡

homogeneous strain,
Shear part 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦
ሶ
ideal plastic material

𝑉 = volume; 𝑘 = shear flow stress; 𝑘𝑓𝑚= mean flow stress; 𝑠 = displacement

Total deformation work and power

of the forming process:
Force for compression test:
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑊𝑠ℎ
1 𝑑
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑑 + 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑃𝑠ℎ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑓 1+ 𝜇
3 ℎ
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 118/122 Chap. 2 - 120

2.4 Global technological target values

Resistance to forming at direct pressure
 The resistance to forming 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 combines all parts.

 For direct pressure (upsetting, rolling), it is defined by the force:

𝐹 Force
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑐 Projection of contact area on a plane being normal to the direction of force

 For the required force it is:

𝐹𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑓 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
kres
fric kf 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝐴𝑐

 Thus, 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 is:

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓 ∙
𝐹𝑖𝑑
c

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 123-127 Chap. 2 - 121

2.4 Global technological target values

Resistance to forming at indirect pressure
 The resistance to forming 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 combines all parts.

 For indirect pressure (e.g. drawing), it is defined by the deformation work:

𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞

𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞

Drawing 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡
⇒ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙
𝑊𝑖𝑑

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 123-127 Chap. 2 - 122

2.4 Global technological target values

Deformation efficiency
 The deformation efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual effort (power, work) to
the virtual minimum effort, assuming that the forming result could be achieved
without friction and shear:

Example:
 Currently, i.e. at every 𝑃𝑖𝑑
time in the process, it is: 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡

Drawing
𝑊𝑖𝑑 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ
 Overall, i.e. averaged 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
over the process, it is: 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝜇 2𝛼
𝐹 = 𝐴1 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑 1 + +
𝛼 3𝜑

𝑘𝑓𝑚 1
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
 This generally means: 𝜇 2𝛼
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 1+ +
𝛼 3𝜑
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 127 Chap. 2 - 123

2.4 Global technological target values

Formability
 The amount of plastic strain that the material can stand without damage
(fracture, cracking) is described both locally and globally:

 Local term: “local formability” = maximum possible plastic local equivalent

strain eq,f

 Global term: formability = maximum possible global equivalent true strain

eq,f

 eq,f and eq,f depend on:

 temperature (𝜀𝑒𝑞,𝑓 ↑ and 𝑒𝑞,𝑓 ↑ if  ↑, exception: blue brittleness)
 strain rate (generally 𝑒𝑞,𝑓 ↓ if 𝜑ሶ ↑)
 state of stress (𝑒𝑞,𝑓 ↑ if s𝑚 ↓, i.e. at superposition of hydrostatic
compression stress)
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 131 ff Chap. 2 - 124

2.4 Global technological target values

Influences on formability

eq,f
eq,f
Blue
brittleness

Effect of temperature on formability Effect of stress state on formability,

schematic according to STENGER

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 132/133 Chap. 2 - 125

2.4 Global technological target values

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 126
Overview of the solving methods

Solving methods of plasto-mechanics

Analytical and numerical methods Empirical-analytical methods

Upper and Method of

Elementary Slip line Similarity Visio-
lower bound weighted
theory theory theory plasticity
method residual

 Detailed consideration in the following lectures:

Finite Finite Boundary
Element Difference Element  Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal
Method Method Method Forming
(FEM) (FDM) (BEM)  Modeling of Forming Processes (German)
 Introduction to FEM (German)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 137 Chap. 2 - 127

2.5 Solving methods and test methods

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 128
Elementary theory of plasticity
 Collection of simplified solution procedures for the basic forming processes (forging,
rolling, drawing and extrusion)
 The most important simplifying assumptions concern:
 the kinematics of deformation
 the stress distribution
 The theory is based on volume elements that are matched to the part which is
deformed. Their dimensions are infinitesimal in only one spatial direction:
 (a) strip model
strip
 (b) disk model (a)
 (c) tube model
(c)

tube
(b) disk

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 138 Chap. 2 - 129

2.5.1 Elementary theory

Assumptions concerning kinematics
 The elements do not change their characteristic shape:
 Plane strips and disks stay plane (no bending).
 Cylindrical tubes stay cylindrical (no bulging).

 This means:
 Velocities perpendicular to finite surfaces are constant within the surface.
 They depend purely on the time 𝑡 and on the third local coordinate.
 Since the forming kinematics is defined by a valid velocity field, the strain rates 𝜀𝑖𝑗
ሶ are
known.
 This state of movement corresponds to a homogeneous strain state inside the
volume element.
 According to the flow law, constant stresses result inside the cross section.

Chap. 2 - 130

2.5.1 Elementary theory

Assumptions concerning the stress state
 The frictional shear stresses at the contact surfaces, i.e. between work piece and tool,
are described with the Coulomb’s friction law.
 However, the coordinate system oriented to the volume element is considered as
the principal axis system, i.e. shear stresses acting inside the body in the
coordinate directions are neglected.
 Two principal normal stresses are left as unknowns.
 To determine these stresses, the following two equations are available:
 the equilibrium condition in the coordinate direction in which a stress gradient is
allowed.
 the yield criterion according to Tresca, which in case of plane strain has to be
multiplied with the factor 1.15 to adapt it to the more precise von Mises criterion.

Chap. 2 - 131

2.5.1 Elementary theory

The strip model
 For forming processes with plane strain
strip
 Examples: strip rolling, flat drawing, flat
compression test

 Assumptions concerning kinematics:

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑥, 𝑡

 Assumptions concerning the stress state:

 principal axis system
 𝜎𝑥 𝑥, 𝑡 and 𝜎𝑧 𝑥, 𝑡
 due to plane strain, the third normal
stress is 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 /2

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 138 ff Chap. 2 - 132

2.5.1 Elementary theory

The disk model
 For axially symmetric drawing and
extrusion processes disk
 Examples: drawing (of round parts), round
bar extrusion, …

 Assumptions concerning kinematics:

𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 𝑧, 𝑡
 Assumptions concerning the stress state:
 principal axis system
 𝜎𝑧 𝑧, 𝑡 and 𝜎𝑟 𝑧, 𝑡
 the tangential stress 𝜎𝜗 results from
the first equilibrium condition: 𝜎𝜗 = 𝜎𝑟 ,
because 𝜎𝑟 ≠ 𝑓 𝑟 and 𝜏𝜗𝑟 = 𝜏𝑧𝑟 = 0

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 138 ff Chap. 2 - 133

2.5.1 Elementary theory

The tube model
 For axially symmetric forming processes
where the lateral surface of the work piece is
not in contact with a tool

 Example: compression of circular cylinders

 Assumptions concerning kinematics:

𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝑟 𝑟, 𝑡
tube

 Assumptions concerning the stress state:

 principal axis system
 𝜎𝑟 (𝑟, 𝑡) and 𝜎𝑧 (𝑟, 𝑡)
 it is as well: 𝜎𝜗 = 𝜎𝑟

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 138 ff Chap. 2 - 134

2.5.1 Elementary theory

Application area and limitations of the elementary plasticity theory
 The error of the calculated stresses increase as the differences between
the given kinematics and the reality increase.
 For integral target values such as forces, torques, energies and
powers, however, the elementary theory provides acceptable results.
 One advantage is that the resulting formulas allow for a discussion of
the effect of the individual influencing parameters.

 Example: Formula for the force in a compression test

1 𝑑
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑓 1 + 𝜇 fric
3 ℎ

Chap. 2 - 135

2.5.1 Elementary theory

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 136
Slip line theory (approach and requirements)
Approach:
 The equilibrium conditions and the yield criterion can be attributed to a hyperbolic
system of partial differential equations.
 As solutions, orthogonal sets of curves also known as characteristics result. These sets
of curves determine the directions of the maximum shear stress in which the material
slips (slip lines).

Requirements and assumptions:

 Rigid-ideal plastic material behavior
 𝑘𝑓 = constant, i.e. neither strain rate (hot forming) nor work hardening is considered.
 Plane strain
(except for some axially symmetric applications)
 No friction in the contact area (contact with the tool)
(Exceptions are possible with considerable additional work)

Chap. 2 - 137

2.5.2 Slip line theory

Slip line theory (application and limitations)
Advantages:
 The basic equations are solved exactly (with the aforementioned assumptions).
 Local distribution of stress and strain can be determined reliably.

Using FRY’s etching,

Slip line field for the plastic zone in the
plain drawing deformation area
according to Hill (during drawing) is
made visible.

Disadvantages:
 High graphic effort and considerable limitations due to the assumptions that have to be
made.
Today:
 Has mostly been replaced by FEM.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 274 Chap. 2 - 138

2.5.2 Slip line theory

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 139
Upper and lower bound method (approach and requirements)
 Approximate solutions by localizing the exact solution with an upper and a lower
bound for the deformation power

 Requirements and assumptions:

 knowledge of the plastic region
 knowledge of the flow stress in the plastic region (if necessary iteratively)
 knowledge of the boundary conditions (boundary stresses and velocities)

 Lower bound: For each (guessed) statically admissible stress field, the calculated
deformation power is smaller than the power of the actual (unknown) stress field.
(statically admissible: equilibrium condition, yield criterion, stress boundary conditions).

 Upper bound: For each (guessed) kinematically admissible velocity field, the
calculated deformation power is greater than the power of the actual (unknown)
velocity field.
(kinematically admissible: volume constancy, velocity boundary conditions, compatibility condition)

Chap. 2 - 140

2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method

Upper and lower bound method (application and limitations)
 Stress fields are difficult to guess  lower bound is difficult
 Velocity fields can be described easier (visioplastic investigations are compared with
idealized operations)  upper bound is easier
 Often, the upper bound is sufficient because the results are conservative (e.g. when
designing or selecting a forming machine)
 Often, the deformation power can be determined realistically with very simple approaches
for the velocity field. The realistic material flow and stress field cannot be calculated with
these simple approaches.
 Local target values can be Velocity field in drawing
calculated more reliably with velocity
fields that are determined or verified tool
by visioplastic methods.
 The upper and lower bound method
has lost its importance compared to
FEM.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 286 Chap. 2 - 141

2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 142
Visioplastic method (approach)
 Empirical-theoretical solving method:
 measuring of the velocity field
 calculation of parameters that can be determined from the velocity field

Pressure disk

Container

Marked
billet

Die

 Transient processes: Repeated measurement of the grid in small time intervals.

 Stationary forming processes: The “frozen” state of the distorted line net contains all
information (set of lines).
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 282-283 Chap. 2 - 143

2.5.4 Visioplasticity
Visioplastic method (application area and limitations)
 Widespread industrial use in sheet metal forming:
 optimization of deep drawing tools
 selection of suitable materials
 material testing
 Large experimental effort in bulk metal forming
 only limited application

 Very effective method for the investigation of metal

forming processes:
 development and verification of material flow models
 influences of forming parameters on strain and stress
distributions
 determination of friction coefficients
 Direct comparison to the results of numerical computation
methods (e.g. FEM)

Chap. 2 - 144

2.5.4 Visioplasticity
Visioplastic method in sheet metal forming
 The objective is usually to determine the local strains:
 change of sheet thickness
 direction of the major strains
 Automatic evaluation using CCD cameras
and the respective software

Strain

Initial condition

After deformation

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 283; IBF Chap. 2 - 145

2.5.4 Visioplasticity
Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 146
Finite element method
 The finite element method (FEM) enables the
numerical solution of partial differential equations.
 FEM is suitable for elastic/ plastic deformation,
electric field problems, temperature field problems
and fluid flow problems.
 In metal forming FEM can compute
 material flow
 stress distribution
 strain distribution
 temperature distribution
 microstructure distribution
 …

Source: IBF Chap. 2 - 147

2.5.5 Finite element method

Finite element method (basic approach)
1. Partitioning of the area into geometrically simple
elements (discretization) Element shapes

2. Choice of an adequate approach for the functions

describing the problem in each element Line
3. For each time step:
3.1 Setting up a linear system of equations for
the function values at the nodes considering:
- an adequate extremum principle Triangle Rectangle

- boundary conditions
- the requirement of continuity
3.2 Solution of the system of equations
(iteratively if necessary) Tetrahedron Pyramid Hexahedron
4. Calculation of secondary results

(Most of these steps run automatically in the program)

Chap. 2 - 148

2.5.5 Finite element method

Finite element method (examples)

Lateral extrusion Deep drawing

of a gear of a cup
Source: IBF Chap. 2 - 149

2.5.5 Finite element method

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values

2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.5.1 Elementary theory
2.5.2 Slip line theory
2.5.3 Upper and lower bound method
2.5.4 Visioplasticity
2.5.5 Finite element method (FEM)
2.5.6 Similarity theory

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 150
Similarity theory (approach)
 The similarity theory can be used in almost all areas of technology and physics.
 The basic principle is
 measuring the target values at a geometrically similar model
 transferring the results to the main process using suitable “transfer laws”

Upset Plunger Transfer laws

specimen

Specimen
Support

Model process Main process

 The models can be scaled up or down or can be simplified with regard to material,
temperature or velocity etc. depending on the requirements.
 The laws for physical similarity (usually dimensionless quantities) have to be
observed.
 This can lead to unsolvable contradictions (see the following example).
Chap. 2 - 151

2.5.6 Similarity theory

Similarity theory (example: model experiment with wax)
Material flow experiments with wax models allow for a simple optimization:

55 sec
Source: IBF Chap. 2 - 152

2.5.6 Similarity theory

Example: Model experiment to determine the upsetting force (cold)
Question 1: How do force, work and power react in a model scaled down by a factor of
10 during an upsetting process?

vRH M: Model
R: Reality
FM
vM
𝑑2 hRH
𝐹=𝜋∙ ∙ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 hM
4
dM
dRH

Force: From dR=10·dM follows FR = 100·FM

Work: From FR = 100·FM and the upsetting path sR=10·sM follows WR=1000·WM

Power: Power depends on the ratio of the force and on the chosen ratio of velocity.

Chap. 2 - 153

2.5.6 Similarity theory

Example: Limits of transferability in hot forming
Question 2: Can the force for hot forming be determined reliably in a model of a slow
upsetting process scaled down by a factor of 10?
vRH
FM ℎ1
vM global strain: 𝜑 = ln
hRH
ℎ0
hM

𝑑𝜑 𝑣
dM strain rate: 𝜑ሶ = =
dRH 𝑑𝑡 ℎ

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝜑, 𝜑,ሶ 𝜗

In the model experiment, 𝜑ሶ and 𝜗 must be kept the same as in reality.

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑀 ℎ𝑀
𝜑ሶ = const. means: ℎ 𝑀
= ℎ 𝑅
or 𝑣𝑅
= 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚ℎ = ℎ𝑅
⇒ equal deformation time

However, the smaller model cools down much faster, so that  is not maintained.
Chap. 2 - 154

2.5.6 Similarity theory

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.6.1 Classification according to process area
2.6.2 Classification according to size scale

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 155
Systematic classification of the process areas

1. Deformation zone (determination of

the plastic state)
2. Material properties of work piece
before forming (influence on
material behavior in the deformation
zone)
3. Material properties of work piece
after forming
4. Contact zone: tool – work piece
(threshold region between partially
elastic, partially plastic work piece
and elastic tool)
5. Tool
6. Work piece outside the contact
zone tool – work piece
7. Machine tool
8. Environment of the machine tool

Chap. 2 - 156

2.6.1 Classification according to process area

Process areas in different processes

1. Deformation zone
2. Properties of work piece before forming
3. Properties of work piece after forming
4. Contact zone tool - work piece
5. Tool
6. Work piece outside the contact zone tool - work piece

Chap. 2 - 157

2.6.1 Classification according to process area

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)

2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.6.1 Classification according to process area
2.6.2 Classification according to size scale

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

Chap. 2 - 158
Target values and required detailing I
Forming process Target values Method

global view
force, work, power, elementary
(homogeneous
mean temperature etc. models
continuum)

local homogeneous local strain, strain rate,

FEM
continuum stress, temperature etc.

phase boundaries, FEM +

multiphase material phase transformation material
etc. models

crystalline structure FEM +

polycrystal (grain size, grain growth material
etc.) models
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 2 dimension in m Chap. 2 - 159

2.6.2 Classification according to size scale

Target values and required detailing II

Forming process Target values Method

FEM +
Crystal Texture, anisotropy etc. crystal
plasticity

Dislocation
Slip systems
arrangement, particle
hardening etc.

Atomistic deformation
Dislocations
mechanism

dimension in m

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 2 Chap. 2 - 160

2.6.2 Classification according to size scale

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary

Chap. 2 - 161
Classification of the forming machines

Forming machines

With linear relative With non-linear Special

movement of the relative movement purpose
tools of the tools machines

Rolling Drawing Rolling Drawing Bending Working Working

Presses
machines machines machines machines machines medium energy

Chap. 2 - 162

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Forming machines with linear relative movement of the tools

Rolling machine Drawing machine Press

1 – Work piece

2 – Tool

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 163

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Forming machines with non-linear relative movement of the tools

Rolling machine Tangential stretch Bending machine

forming machine

1 – Work piece

2 – Tool

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 164

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Presses

Forming presses

Work / energy Force / load Stroke restricted

restricted restricted

 Hammers  Hydraulic presses  Crank and eccentric presses

 Friction screw presses  Radial forging machine  Knuckle joint presses
(flywheel)  Screw presses without  Linkage drive presses
flywheel  Radial forging machine

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 165

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Work restricted presses
W=3EN Working stroke

1st 2nd 3rd

working wc wc

Forming force F
cycle
(wc)

Drop hammer Counterblow hammer 10sec

Deformation / stroke s

 Work restricted presses offer a predefined amount of work capacity in every working
cycle.
 If the demand of work of the forming process is higher, the process can be split into
several working cycles.
 Example: Hammer, friction screw presses
Source: Lange, Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 2 - 166

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Force restricted presses

Hydraulic press

Nominal force

Forming force F,
punch force FP

Deformation stroke s 16sec

 Force restricted presses provide maximally their nominal force FN independent of

the position of the ram (punch).
 Examples: Hydraulic presses, screw presses without flywheel

Source: Lange, Sendung mit der Maus Chap. 2 - 167

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Stroke restricted presses

Forming force F,
punch force FP
Nominal force FN

𝐹𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃 (ℎ)

Deformation stroke s
Crank press Ram stroke h

 The ram (punch) passes through a stroke-time characteristics which is determined by the
kinematics of the main gear.
 The size of the maximum punch force 𝐹𝑃 depends on the respective position of the ram.
 At the end positions, the punch force can theoretically exceed all limits ( danger of
overloading).
Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 168

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Dwell time
 The dwell time is an important parameter in hot forming. During this time, the work piece
is in contact with the tool under forming pressure.
 Long dwell times lead to
 larger tool wear (thermal load)
 cooling of the work piece  increasing of the flow stress  higher forces
 The dwell time in bulk metal forming is about:

Hammer 10-3 to 10-2 s

Friction screw presses 10-2 to 10-1 s
Stroke restricted presses 10-1 to 5.10-1 s
Hydraulic presses 10-1 to 1 s

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 169

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Tool velocity
 The tool velocity vT is an important parameter.
The following aspects are important for forming
processes:
 impact velocity 1 hammers
 development of the tool velocity. 2 hydraulic presses
3 stroke restricted presses
 Hammer:
 vT results from the process data.
(High impact velocity is slowed down)

 Stroke restricted presses:

 The kinematics and stiffness of the press
define the development of the velocity.

 Force restricted presses:

 Free programming of stroke and time is
possible.
Deformation stroke s

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 170

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Accuracy quantities I
 The accuracy of a forged part is determined (amongst others) by the positional
accuracy of the guidance of the tool elements.
 Deviations from the geometrically ideal conditions lead to positional errors of the tool
elements against each other:
 positional error at initial contact: geometrical inaccuracies of the machine in
the unloaded state
 errors due to machine deformation: inaccuracies of the machine in the loaded
state
Follow-on die with pillar guide

Source: IBF, Herzmaier Chap. 2 - 171

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Accuracy quantities II
 The geometrical inaccuracies of
the unloaded machine lead to: plane

 errors in parallelism
 errors in height plane

 center line offset

(eccentricity)
 angular offset

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 172

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Elastic deformation
 The elastic shifting of the tool supporting machine parts under load may affect all four
types of accuracy errors.

Shifting at a press Deformation of Elastic shifting of

with O-frame under O-frames under presses with a C-
centered load eccentric load frame under load
Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 173

2.7.1 Forming machines – overview

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary

Chap. 2 - 174
Hammers (principle, advantages and use)
 Hammers accumulate the necessary forming energy as potential energy (drop
height, pressure).
 Advantages of hammers:
 generation of a high force

 transmission of a defined energy (work) capacity

 cheap forming machine

 simple design

 forces are not transmitted by elements of the gear or by the frame

 cannot be overloaded

 hammers are flexible, i.e. “one more stroke”

 Main applications are:

 open die forging and closed die forging

 special cases: coining, hot extrusion und sheet metal forming

 Nowadays, new hammers are built at rare intervals in Europe.

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 175

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Classification of hammers
 The following scheme gives a rough classification of hammers according to their design

Hammers

Anvil base hammers Counter-blow hammers

Double-acting only one ram is both rams are

Drop hammers
hammers directly driven directly driven

Stroke of ram: Drive of ram: Drive of ram: Drive of ram:

Mechanical (Mechanical) Pneumatic (Mechanical)
Pneumatic Pneumatic Hydraulic Pneumatic
Hydraulic Hydraulic
Coupling of ram: Coupling of ram:
Mechanical Hydraulic
Hydraulic

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 176

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Anvil base hammer and counter-blow hammer

Drive
Double-
acting drive
Top ram
Ram

Upper die
Upper die
Frame
Anvil Lower die
Lower die

Bottom
ram

Hydraulic
ram coupling

Anvil base hammer with Counter-blow hammer with

hydraulic drive system hydraulic coupling
Source: IMU Chap. 2 - 177

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Energy capacity and blow efficiency of hammers
 The work capacity of an anvil base hammer is given by the mass and the velocity of the
1
ram: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

For drop hammer: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝐻

For double-acting hammer: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑝𝑚 𝐴 𝐻 with 𝑝𝑚 = mean pressure

𝐻 = drop height
𝐴 = pressure-acting surface

 In a blow (stroke), the energy capacity 𝐸 is turned into usable energy 𝑊𝑈 and dynamic loss
energy 𝑊𝐿 , which consists of the rebound loss energy of the ram 𝑊𝑅 and the loss energy of
the anvil 𝑊𝐴 :

𝐸 = 𝑊𝑈 + 𝑊𝑅 + 𝑊𝐴
𝑊𝑈
The blow efficiency 𝜂𝑏 = is 0.3 to 0.6 at closed die forging
𝐸
and 0.8 to 0.9 at open die forging
Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 178

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Characteristic values of anvil base and counter-blow hammers

Impact
Energy E
Type of hammer Examples velocity v
[kNm]
[m/s]
belt/ board/ chain/ plunger high 𝜑ሶ in
Drop hammers rod drop hammer 16 to 100 4 to 5 case of
Anvil base
hammers

small work
pieces
pneumatic/ open die, single
Double-acting
frame/ open die, double 40 to 250 5 to 8
hammers
frame/ closed die hammer
hydraulic drive + hydraulic
Counter-blow

Rams of equal coupling, 125

6 to 14
hammers

masses pneumatic drive + hydraulic to1500

coupling
hydraulic-pneumatic drive,
Rams of unequal
electronic control, without 400 6
masses
coupling

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 179

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Friction screw presses
 In friction screw presses, the energy which is needed for the forming process is stored
as kinetic energy in a flywheel. The press frames usually consist of two stands.
One disk press with
Four disk press One disk press direct electric drive

Source: IMU Chap. 2 - 180

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Examples of drives of friction screw presses
 The energy of the flywheel is transmitted to the drive screw via friction. The axial
displacement of the drive wheels allows for the drive of work stroke and back stroke
without reversing the flywheel.
Three disk press Four disk press Three disk press

The drive wheel connected to This set-up avoids slipping at • Stationary screw
the spindle is moved with the the back stroke due to reduced • The frame-shaped ram
spindle  high slip at the circumferential speed. absorbs the forming
beginning of the back stroke. force.
Source: Wikipedia Chap. 2 - 181

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Work restricted presses

Flywheel

Clutch disk

Bearing of
the screw

Screw

Carriage

Upper die

Lower die
Machine frame

Screw press with direct drive Clutch-operated screw press

Source: Müller Weingarten Source: IMU Chap. 2 - 182

2.7.2 Work restricted presses

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary

Chap. 2 - 183
Force restricted presses
 Hydraulic machine tools are established in almost all areas of metal forming in
which a linear tool movement is required.
 Classification according to drive:
 presses with delivery rate source (direct drive from the pump, i.e. the pump power,
which is pressure times volume flow, must meet the required deformation power; accordingly,
hydraulic presses are usually relatively slow.)
 machines with pressure source (pump continuously fills a pressure accumulator
from which the oil volume required for the stroke can be provided quickly.)
 Another differentiating factor is the kind of processed work piece:
 hydraulic presses for sheet metal forming
 hydraulic presses for bulk metal forming
 Moreover, the hydraulic presses are named according to the forming process
they are used for, e.g. open die forging press, extrusion press, …

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 184

2.7.3 Force restricted presses

Example:
Hydraulic high performance press line for sheet metal forming

Source: Müller Weingarten Chap. 2 - 185

2.7.3 Force restricted presses

Example: Hydraulic open die forging presses

55 MN open die forging press 75/85 MN open die forging press

(Edelstahlwerke Buderus AG) (Saarschmiede Freiformschmiede)

Source: Edelstahlwerke Buderus AG; Saarschmiede Freiformschmiede Chap. 2 - 186

2.7.3 Force restricted presses

Example: Servo press
 Servo motor drive
 Servo presses combine the
flexibility of hydraulic presses
with the velocity, precision and
reliability of mechanical presses
 Main application in sheet metal
forming
 Using servo presses with ball
screw, maximum force and
maximum velocity are available
at every tool position

Source: www.Muhr-metalltechnik.de; Osakada, CIRP Annals – Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 651-672 Chap. 2 - 187

2.7.3 Force restricted presses

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary

Chap. 2 - 188
Classification of stroke restricted presses

Stroke restricted presses

Presses with Presses with

crank drive cam drive

Presses with Presses with

simple crank drive extended crank drive
(total stroke variable)

Presses with crank-

double crank drive

steering arm drive

Presses with drag

knuckle joint drive
(total stroke not

Eccentric press

Presses with

Presses with
Crank press

link drive
variable)

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 189

2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses

Design of different types of drives

Direct crank drive Knuckle joint drive Cam drive

Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 190

2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses

Example: Double acting mechanical press
Head

8-piece ram drive

Drive of the blank
holder

Connecting rod of the ram

Connecting rod of the blank holder Drawing ram

Punch of the blank holder Punch

Work piece
Blank holder
Die

Table of the press Base

Source: Schuler Chap. 2 - 191

2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses

Example: Knuckle joint press with under floor drive

Frame of the press

Flywheel

Housing
Connecting rod
Fixed table of Crank shaft
the press

Knuckle joint

Source: Schuler Chap. 2 - 192

2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses

Example: C-frame eccentric press

 One-stand eccentric presses

for small series production
 Used as manually operated
single press or as part of a
production line

Source: Müller Weingarten Chap. 2 - 193

2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses

Outline
2 Fundamentals of metal forming

2.1 Fundamentals of plastic deformation

2.2 Concepts of plasto-mechanics
2.3 Boundary conditions
2.4 Global technological target values
2.5 Solving methods and test methods (overview)
2.6 Systematic consideration of forming processes

2.7 Basic types of forming machines

2.7.1 Overview
2.7.2 Work restricted presses
2.7.3 Force restricted presses
2.7.4 Stroke restricted presses
2.7.5 Summary

Chap. 2 - 194
Summary: Characteristics of the different press types
Functional Force
Work restricted Stroke restricted
principle restricted
Double-acting Counter-blow Eccentric Knuckle joint Mod. knuckle Hydraulic
Drop hammer Screw press Crank press
hammer hammer press press joint press press

Characteris- 𝐸 = 𝑚⋅g⋅ℎ 𝐸 =𝑚⋅𝑔⋅ℎ 𝐸 = 𝐴‫ 𝑝 ׬‬ℎ 𝑑ℎ 1 ℎ ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ 1 − cos 𝛼 ℎ ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ 1 − cos 𝛼 ℎ = 𝑓 𝛼, 𝑟, … ℎ = 𝑓 𝛼, 𝑟, … 𝐹 = 𝑝⋅𝐴

1 𝐸 = 𝐽𝜔2
tic values +𝐴‫ 𝑝 ׬‬ℎ 𝑑ℎ 2 for 𝑟 ≪ 1 for 𝑟 ≪ 1
= 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑣2 1 1
2
= 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢 + 𝑚𝑙
2 2
Displaceme
nt-time
curve of the freely
ram controllable

Important Low cost Low height High strain High forming High High High final Low working Flexible dis-
advantages rate accuracy productivity productivity forces speed placement-
of the time behavior
functional High strain High strain High forming High forming Adjustable High stroke Low working High back of the ram
principle rate rate energy energy stroke speed stroke velocity
𝑡: time 𝐸: forming energy 𝛼: crank angle
𝑣: velocity 𝐽: mass moment of inertia ℎ: stroke
𝑚: ram mass 𝜔: angular velocity 𝐴: piston area
𝑚𝑢 : upper ram mass 𝑟: crank radius 𝑝: pressure of the working fluid
𝑚𝑙 : lower ram mass l: connecting rod length 𝐹: forming force
Source: Lange Chap. 2 - 195

2.7.5 Summary
Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 2 - 196
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 1
Main processes in forging
Punch
Clamping tools
Extrusion die
Upper die Upsetting die

Work-
Lower die piece

Work piece

Work piece
Ejector
Closed die forging Upsetting Extrusion

Main roll Saddle

Tapered rolls
Mandrel
Work piece

Saddle
Work piece

Ring rolling Open die forging

Source: IMU, slide 17 Chap. 3.1 - 2

3.1 Forging
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 3
Forging processes for changes of the cross section I
 Changes of the cross section
cause corresponding changes
in length.
 Changes of the cross section
are achieved due to
 material displacement
 material accumulation
 Material displacement
predominates.
 The deformed material is
subjected to multiaxial
compressive stresses except
for its free faces.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 39 Chap. 3.1 - 4

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Forging processes for changes of the cross section II

Backward
hot
extrusion

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 39 Chap. 3.1 - 5

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Forging processes for changes of the direction

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 41 Chap. 3.1 - 6

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Forging processes for the production of cavities

Turning

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 42 Chap. 3.1 - 7

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Closed die forging processes
 Closed die forging (drop forging, closed impression die forging) is suitable for the
production of complex component geometries with a high accuracy of dimension
and volume.
 The predominant process used in industry is impression die forging (closed die
forging with flash).

Flash

Flashless die forging

Heading (closed die forging Impression die forging
without flash)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 42 Chap. 3.1 - 8

3.1.1 Forging – overview

“Fiber flow” in forged components
 By selecting the process sequence, it is possible to adapt the “fiber flow” to the
requirements of the application.
 The influence of the fiber direction on properties determined in tensile tests is negligible.
 Larger differences can result for parameters determined under cyclic loading conditions,
such as impact toughness and bending fatigue strength.

Drawing out

Drawing out and upsetting

Upsetting

Example
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 41 Chap. 3.1 - 9

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Trimming processes for forging
 The trimming Shearing Requirements:
(shear cutting)
processes used for  Volume accuracy
forging are mainly
 Quality of the cutting surface
cutting processes.

 The shear cutting of Closed cutting

bar material can be with cutting
conducted hot or edge
cold. Also steel bars
with relatively large
cross sections (e.g. Wedge-
d > 150 mm) can be shaped cutting
trimmed.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 44 Chap. 3.1 - 10

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Special cases in trimming for forging
 Trimming of bars (usually made of nonferrous metals) to save worksteps in
closed die forging (a).

 “Cleaving” of raw parts for closed die forging (b). Cleaving enables at the same
time an appropriate mass distribution of the semi finished part. Due to the
scrapless blank arrangement, no material is lost.

Shearing

Cleaving

a) Shearing from Bending b) Cleaving of raw

a profiled bar to parts for the closed die
Closed die forging
produce butterfly forging of screw
nuts. Closed die forging wrenches.

Trimming, machining Trimming, machining

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 45 Chap. 3.1 - 11

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Application of slitting for open die forging components
 Slitting with a closed cutting line, e.g. for the forging of rings
 Slitting with an open cutting line, e.g. for forging parts with forks or spreadings

Forging of rings Forking of forks

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 45 Chap. 3.1 - 12

3.1.1 Forging – overview

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting Bolt
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

75/85 MN open die forging press

(Saarschmiede Freiformschmiede)
Chap. 3.1 - 13
FEM simulation of an upsetting process
 In many process steps in forging, upsetting occurs.
 Upsetting without friction  homogeneous strain distribution
 Upsetting with friction  bulging and inhomogeneous strain distribution

Upsetting without friction Equivalent Upsetting with friction

( = 0; homogeneous) (µ = 0.3; inhomogeneous)
strain
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 14

3.1.2 Upsetting
Geometry in upsetting Schmiedesattel
B
s
SB

0
l0

b
(d 0 ) Initial geometry
h0 h0 h
h1 l1 z
Final geometry
y
(d1)
x l

d0 Stauchen
Initial diameter of the specimen before forging Reck
d1 Final diameter of the specimen after forging
l0, l1 Initial and final length of the specimen
(is used due to its analogy to drawing out)
h0 Initial height of specimen before forging
h1 Final height of specimen after forging
h Change in height in upsetting, h = h0-h1
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 141 Chap. 3.1 - 15

3.1.2 Upsetting
Geometric conditions in upsetting (cylindrical specimen)
 For axisymmetric upsetting of circular cross sections, volume constancy is valid:

𝜋 𝜋
ℎ0 𝑑0 2 = ℎ1 𝑑1 2 = 𝑉 = const. (homogeneous, no friction)
4 4

 (Global) true strain:

ℎ1 𝑟1 2𝜋𝑟1
𝜑ℎ = ln ; 𝜑𝑟 = ln ; 𝜑𝜗 = ln 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑ℎ
ℎ0 𝑟0 2𝜋𝑟0

 (Global) engineering strain:

ℎ1 −ℎ0 𝑑1 −𝑑0
𝜀ℎ = 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝜗 =
ℎ0 𝑑0

ℎ0
 In addition, the “upsetting factor” 𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠 is used: 𝛾 ≡ 𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠 ≡
ℎ1

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 145 Chap. 3.1 - 16

3.1.2 Upsetting
Kinematic conditions in upsetting (cylindrical specimen)
 Strain rates for homogeneous upsetting

𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝜑ሶ ℎ 𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙
𝜑ሶ ℎ = 𝜑ሶ 𝑟 = 𝜑ሶ 𝜗 = − 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 =
ℎ 2 ℎ

 Some values for strain rates

 hydraulic press: 0.01 to 10 s-1
 spindle, crank, eccentric press: 4 to 25 s-1
 hammer: 40 to 160 s-1

 Impact velocities
 hydraulic press: v0 = 1 to 150 mm/s
 hammer: v0 = 5 to 8 m/s

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 144 Chap. 3.1 - 17

3.1.2 Upsetting
Static conditions in upsetting (cylindrical specimen)
F Without friction: 𝜏
𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑧

𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓 𝜎

r With friction: 𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟
𝜏
𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧

𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑟
F 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧 𝜎
The radial compression stress
𝜎𝑟
decreases from inwards to outwards (by
overcoming the compression stress) 𝜎𝑟
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 124 Chap. 3.1 - 18

3.1.2 Upsetting
Normal stress distribution in upsetting acc. to Siebel (cylindrical specimen)

 The tube model of the elementary theory provides basic equations depending
on the boundary conditions and the mathematical simplifications:

Upsetting without friction Upsetting with friction

2𝜇 𝑑 2𝜇 𝑑
𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓 𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓 1 + −𝑟 𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓 exp −𝑟
ℎh 2 hℎ 2
a) Series expansion b) Exponential function
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 150 Chap. 3.1 - 19

3.1.2 Upsetting
Upsetting force for cylindrical specimens
 The upsetting force is calculated by integrating the normal stress distribution
over the compressed surface 𝐴𝑐 with 𝑑𝐴𝑐 = 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 and the integration limits
0  𝑟  𝑑/2:

From equation a) it follows:

𝜇 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝐹 = න 𝑘𝑓 1 + 2 −𝑟 𝑑𝐴𝑐 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑓 1 + 𝜇
ℎ 2 3 ℎ
𝐴𝑐
Friction part
Ideal part
𝐹
 With the definition of resistance to forming 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = it follows:
𝐴𝑐
1 𝑑
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓 1 + 𝜇
3 ℎ

𝜋 2
 For slender specimens with ℎ/𝑑 > 0.5 it is approximately: 𝐹 ≈ 𝑑 𝑘𝑓
4
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 151/155 Chap. 3.1 - 20

3.1.2 Upsetting
Deformation work (upsetting of a cylinder)
 Basically, the force over the stroke should be integrated:

ℎ ℎ 4 𝑉 1 1
𝑊 = ‫׬‬ℎ 1 𝐹𝑑ℎ for 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. it is e.g.: 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉 ln 0 + ⋅𝜇 −
0 ℎ 9 1 𝜋 ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ0 ℎ 0

 For practical cases the following simplification is sufficient:

𝑊 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑ℎ

 With: 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 = resistance to forming averaged over the process

𝑑𝑚 = (𝑑0 + 𝑑1)/2
ℎ𝑚 = (ℎ0 + ℎ1)/2
1 𝑑𝑚
it is approximately: 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 1 + 𝜇
3 ℎ𝑚

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 155 Chap. 3.1 - 21

3.1.2 Upsetting
Thermal conditions in upsetting
 The deformation energy is mainly converted into heat and thus causes a
temperature rise within the work piece.
 Assuming adiabatic conditions, the following relation holds:

𝑊 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑ℎ
Δ𝜗𝑚 = =
𝜌 ⋅ 𝑐𝑝 ⋅ 𝑉 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑐𝑝

 The temperature rise caused by the deformation heat is reduced due to a cooling
caused by radiation, convection or conduction in case of direct contact of work
piece and tool.
 In comparison to the slow cooling, rapid forming processes are
approximately adiabatic.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 58 Chap. 3.1 - 22

3.1.2 Upsetting
Production of simple upsetting parts
 In a simple compression process with closed dies, the final geometry of the part is
produced in one single stroke.
 Process limits: Risk of buckling in case of a high slenderness ratio s = 𝑙0/𝑑0
 recommendation: s  2.3
 Application: (Screws), rivets, ...

1 Insertion of the
material and shearing
2 Transfer of raw part to
die
l0 3 Insertion of raw part
into die
d0
4 Heading
5 Ejection
1 2 3 4 5
a) Positioner; b) Inserter; c) Shear blade; d) Shear die; e) Upsetting die;
f) Punch; g) Ejector pin; h) Ejector
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 20 Chap. 3.1 - 23

3.1.2 Upsetting
Multiple step upsetting processes, open die
 For larger slenderness ratios such as 2.3  𝑠  4.5 (e.g. screws), multiple upsetting
process steps are necessary.
 In the first forming step (stroke), the intermediate shape is achieved. In the second
step, the final shape is generated with a different upper die but in the same lower die.

1 2 3 4
1) Insertion of material and shearing; 2) Pre-forming; 3) Final upsetting; 4) Ejection
a) Positioner; b) Shearing die; c) Shear blade; d) Upsetting die; e) Intermediate upsetting die;
f) Ejector; g) Upsetting punch
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 20 Chap. 3.1 - 24

3.1.2 Upsetting
Maximum slenderness ratio in cold upsetting

 In open die upsetting, the slenderness ratio s = l0/d0  2.3 can be achieved in
one step (stroke).
 For larger slenderness ratios, upsetting must be conducted in multiple process
steps.
 For the maximum slenderness ratio
“Guided length” prevents buckling
the following values are applicable:
 for 1 step s  2.3
 for 2 steps s  4.5
 for more than 3 steps s  8.0
 for unsplit die
(problem: ejection) s  10.0
 for split die s  20.0

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 20 Chap. 3.1 - 25

3.1.2 Upsetting
Examples of cold upsetting parts I

Screw

Source: Tekkaya, E., Umformtechnik Chap. 3.1 - 26

3.1.2 Upsetting
Examples of cold upsetting parts II

Screw

Bolt

Source: Tekkaya, E., Umformtechnik Chap. 3.1 - 27

3.1.2 Upsetting
Typical damages in cold upsetting

Crack formation
in the part

Crack formation in the part

Crack formation
Buckling in the die
Source: Tekkaya, E., Umformtechnik Chap. 3.1 - 28

3.1.2 Upsetting
Limitations in cold upsetting of steel
Feasibility of upsetting depends on three process limitations:
s=0.5  1 step s=4.0  2 steps
Limit: εl = -0.63 Limit: φl = -1.6
𝑙1
1. Global true strain 𝜑𝑙 = ln
(Limit: Formability) 𝑙0

𝑙0
2. Slenderness ratio 𝑠=
𝑑0

Engineering strain
(Limit: Buckling)

3. Engineering strain 𝑙1 − 𝑙0
𝜀𝑙 =
(Limit: Tool load) 𝑙0

Upsetting in Upsetting in Upsetting in

one step two steps multiple steps
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 13 Chap. 3.1 - 29

3.1.2 Upsetting
Spring-loaded pre-forming tool

 Spring-loaded pre-forming tool facilitates to achieve larger slenderness ratios.

 The pre-forming tool moves back against a spring and thus allows a free
movement of the upset material.
 As the forming length is small, there is no risk of buckling.

1 Die
2 Work piece
3 Pre-forming tool
4 Upsetting pin
5 Upsetting ram
6 Compression spring

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 18 Chap. 3.1 - 30

3.1.2 Upsetting
Electro-upsetting
 The electro-upsetting allows larger slenderness ratios.

 The work piece is heated locally by an electric current between the clamping jaws
and the anvil electrode.

Initial shape
1 Upsetting punch
2 Clamping jaw
Intermediate shape
3 Electrode
4 Wear plate
5 Anvil electrode
Final shape
6 Current transformer

Photo: Schaad

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 16 Chap. 3.1 - 31

3.1.2 Upsetting
Machines and working steps for the production of upsetting parts
 All kinds of hammers and presses can be used for upsetting.
 Stroke restricted presses are particularly suitable for upsetting as a force peak
occurs at the end of the process. For cold bulk metal forming, numerous special
presses were developed.
 They are used for the production of nails, pins, rivets, bolts, screws, nuts, bowls
and rolls.

Working procedure:
 The material is predominantly
 inserted as wire
 straightened by roller leveling
 trimmed to specific lengths
 The raw part
 is formed in single or multiple steps
 ejected
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 25 Chap. 3.1 - 32

3.1.2 Upsetting
Transfer press

58 sec
Source: Hatebur Chap. 3.1 - 33

3.1.2 Upsetting
Tool room of a transfer press

Source: Hatebur Chap. 3.1 - 34

3.1.2 Upsetting
Design of an upsetting tool
 Upsetting tools are primarily subject to compressive load.
 They fail because of crack or wear.
 Therefore hard and high-strength tool elements are used. They may be
reinforced by shrink rings.

1 Pressure plate
2 Upsetting tool
3 Shrink ring
4 Counter punch
5 Ejector

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 32 Chap. 3.1 - 35

3.1.2 Upsetting
Reduction of upsetting force using incremental orbital presses
 Goal: Reduction of the force due to smaller contact areas
 Solution: upper die executes an orbital rocking motion and forms the workpiece stepwise
 smaller contact surfaces
 lower stress because less influence of friction
 the forming forces reach only about 10 to 20 % of the forces which are required in
conventional upsetting
Normal stress

Circular motion Spiral motion

a) b) Oscillation in Complex
one direction motion
Contact surface
a) Upsetting with plane tools; b) Upsetting with orbital tools
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 23 Chap. 3.1 - 36

3.1.2 Upsetting
Tool room of an orbital press
 The work piece is formed partially and not as a whole during orbital forging.
 The press ram performs with the punch an orbital rocking motion which generates a
combined pressing and rolling operation.

1 Lower die
2 Work piece
3 Ejector
Circular motion Spiral motion 4 Upper die
5 Press ram
6 Press frame
7 Bearing of the ram
𝛾 Orbital angle

Oscillation in Complex motion

one direction

Possible motions of the

upper tool in orbital forging
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 23 Chap. 3.1 - 37

3.1.2 Upsetting
Example parts produced by orbital forging
 Especially suitable for plane, disk-shaped workpieces.
 Advantages of orbital forging:
 smaller presses
 lower loading of the die
 higher formability compared to conventional upsetting
 Combination with extrusion processes is possible.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 24 (left); umformtechik.net (right) Chap. 3.1 - 38

3.1.2 Upsetting
Increasing accuracy via coining
 Flat coining is upsetting with small thickness reductions between flat, parallel tool
surfaces at room temperature.
 Sizing:
 local improvement of thickness tolerances of forged parts, sheet metal parts, …
 Planishing:
 improvement of the surface quality.

In sizing, the bulge of the work piece should be

minimized. This results from the elastic
deformation of the tools and the locally different
elastic springback of the work pieces because of
the 𝜎𝑧 distribution over r according to the Siebel-
formula:
𝑅−𝑟
𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓 1 + 2𝜇
ℎ

A small εℎ ⇒ 𝑘𝑓 small , good lubrication (⇒ 𝜇

small) and a small ratio of 2R/h are advantageous.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 512 Chap. 3.1 - 39

3.1.2 Upsetting
Tool material and work piece bulging in coining
 A small bulge can be reached by tool inserts with a high modulus of elasticity
(hard metal).
Bulge per coining area

Work piece Steel tool

Hard metal tool

Engineering strain 𝜀ℎ = Δℎ/ℎ0

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 513 Chap. 3.1 - 40

3.1.2 Upsetting
Achievable improvement of accuracy due to sizing

Work piece type Material Accuracy Sizing accuracy

a) Closed die forging
Circular section Steel IT 12 … 14 IT 9 … 11
Annular section Steel IT 12 … 14 IT 8 … 10
b) Sheet metal cut out
Circular section Steel IT 12 … 15 IT 10 … 12
Annular section Aluminum IT 12 … 15 IT 9 … 11

The tolerance range of the ISO tolerance system (DIN ISO 286) are:

IT01..IT4 (close tolerances, high accuracy)

IT5..IT11 (medium tolerances)
IT12..IT18 (large tolerances, low accuracy);

The absolute tolerance ranges depend on the respective nominal size.

Source: Lange / Labisch, Weber Chap. 3.1 - 41

3.1.2 Upsetting
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 42
Products – open die forging II - during forging -

Turbine shaft

Water turbine shaft

Chap. 3.1 - 43

3.1.3 Drawing out

Products – open die forging - finished -

Source: Dergenaue (bottom center) Chap. 3.1 - 44

3.1.3 Drawing out

Working steps in open die forging

Upsetting Drawing out

Source: Saarschmiede GmbH Freiformschmiede Saarstahl AG, Buderus Edelstahl GmbH Chap. 3.1 - 45

3.1.3 Drawing out

Example movie I

1 min

Source: Buderus Edelstahl GmbH Chap. 3.1 - 46

3.1.3 Drawing out

Example movie II

33 sec

Source: Saarschmiede (120MN press), Sendung mit der Maus Chap. 3.1 - 47

3.1.3 Drawing out

Process principles

 In general, in the upsetting process the whole surface of the work

piece is in contact with the tool and the overall height of the work
piece is reduced.

 In drawing out (also: cogging, stretching), it is generally aimed for

the largest possible stretching of the work piece with minimum
possible bulging.

Chap. 3.1 - 48

3.1.3 Drawing out

Possible defects in cast forging ingots
Open die forging is a process for the single part or small series production of work pieces
with masses of 1 kg to 500 t.

Filiform shrinkage Large cavity Sponge zone

In case of smaller ingot weights up to 100 t, the cast ingots are generally without defects.
For the production of bigger turbine shafts, in which cast ingots of up to 600 t are required,
defects may occur in casting.

Forging ingots of highest quality are produced in a large scale by means of electroslag
remelting (weights: 2 t to 165 t; Source: Saarstahl).
Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski Chap. 3.1 - 49

3.1.3 Drawing out

Production steps of a large shaft

1. Step
Ingot Stretched forging

2. Step Compressed forging

3. Step
Stretched forging Finished shaft

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 43 Chap. 3.1 - 50

3.1.3 Drawing out

Tools for the upsetting of large forgings
 In open die forging,
drawing out is often
conducted after the
upsetting.
 Therefore, the upsetting
tools must be designed
Ring tool Upper tool
suchlike that a “handle”
remains. Handle Work piece

Lower tool

Source: ASM International Chap. 3.1 - 51

3.1.3 Drawing out

Geometry parameters in drawing out

TBw

1
b
w0 / w1 : Initial / final width of the work

>
bsSBw

L
piece

0
b
w: Change in width, w = w1 - w0

b1
A0
Tw: Tool width
h0 h h1 A1
h0 / h1: Initial / final height of the work
piece
h: Change in height, h = h0 - h1 l
bw : Bite width: length of the contact
surface between tool and work
piece
sBw
b
bw/h: Bite ratio

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 157 Chap. 3.1 - 52

3.1.3 Drawing out

Terms in drawing out

Bite width bw: Part of the tool width which is in contact with the
work piece; corresponds to the manipulator feed
rate

Bite ratio bw/h: Most important characteristic of the forming

geometry in drawing out, on which many
technological target values depend; Ratio of bite
width to the height of the forging part

Forging pass: Sequence of bites over a partial length or the whole

length of the work piece

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 156/157 Chap. 3.1 - 53

3.1.3 Drawing out

Geometrical relations in drawing out
 The material flow in drawing out is primarily depending on
 change in height h0/h1 and
 bite ratio bw/h0.
 With the manipulator feed rate, the contact length bw can be adjusted.

Global true strains:

ℎ1
Thickness (height): 𝜑ℎ = ln <0
ℎ0
𝑙1
Length: 𝜑𝑙 = ln > 0
𝑙0
𝑤1
Width: 𝜑𝑤 = ln >0
𝑤0

bw bite width
(contact length) ⇒ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 ≈ 1.15 𝜑ℎ
Tw Tool width
F Force
Equivalent strain for
S Tool edge radius “plane strain” assumption
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 56 Chap. 3.1 - 54

3.1.3 Drawing out

Reminder: Equivalent strain for plane strain condition

2
𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑1 2 + 𝜑2 2 + 𝜑3 2 von Mises global equivalent true strain
3 (see section 2.2.6)

𝜑2 = 0 ⇒ 𝜑1 = −𝜑3 Volume constancy

2
⇒ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑1 2 + 𝜑3 2
3

4
= 𝜑1 ≈ 1.15𝜑1
3
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 116/159 Chap. 3.1 - 55

3.1.3 Drawing out

Other standard measures for the global strain in drawing out

Stretching rate draw (measure for total strain):

𝑙1 𝐴0 A0 A1
V = const. 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = =
𝑙0 𝐴1 l1
l0

Engineering strain  : TBw

1
b
>
bsSwB

L
0
b
ℎ1 − ℎ0

b1
Thickness (height): 𝜀ℎ = A0
ℎ0 h0 h h1 A1

𝑙1 − 𝑙0 l
Length: 𝜀𝑙 =
𝑙0
𝑤1 − 𝑤0
𝑤 = 0 for 𝑤0 ≫ 𝑏𝑤 ; or considering change in width: 𝜀𝑤 =
𝑤0
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 159 Chap. 3.1 - 56

3.1.3 Drawing out

Comparison of the different strain measures
Upsetting Drawing out

ℎ0 𝐴1 𝑙1 𝐴0
𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠 = = 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = =
ℎ1 𝐴0 𝑙0 𝐴1

A0 A1
h0 h1
l0 l1
h0 = 400 mm l0 = 1500 mm
h1 = 340 mm l1 = 1680 mm

  
Upsetting - 0.16 1.18 - 0.15

Drawing out 0.11 1.12 0.12

Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 57

3.1.3 Drawing out

Total stretching rate and total forging rate
 The total stretching rate for multiple forging passes is given by:

𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜆1 ⋅ 𝜆2 … 𝜆𝑛

 The stretching rate alone is not sufficient as a quality criterion because the final shape
can be achieved in multiple forging passes by different means.
 The goal has to be to achieve a sufficiently high and homogeneous strain distribution
also in the core of the work piece (microstructure, closing porosity).

 In sequences of upsetting and drawing out, also the total forging rate is used:

𝜆𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑔 = 𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠 ⋅ 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤,𝑡𝑜𝑡 product of upsetting factor and (total) stretching rate

 The technical meaning of this ratio is doubtful!

Better: separate indication of 𝜆𝑢𝑝𝑠 and 𝜆𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 159/160 Chap. 3.1 - 58

3.1.3 Drawing out

Change in width in drawing out
 The material flow in drawing out of rectangular cross
sections using plane tools is mainly determined by the TBw

1
b
>
𝑏 𝑏𝑤 bsSwB

L
relations 𝑤𝑤, .

0
0 ℎ0

b1
𝑏𝑤
A0
 For ≪ 1 the plane strain condition is assumed: h1 A1
𝑤0 h0 h
𝜑ሶ 𝑤 ≈ 0; 𝜑ሶ 𝑙 = −𝜑ሶ ℎ
𝑤0 l
≥ 10 is very wide  plane strain
ℎ0

 For all other cases, the approximate spread can be calculated using the experimentally
determined formula by Tomlinson and Stringer:
𝛽 2
𝑤1 ℎ0 𝑏𝑤 𝑏𝑤
= 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝛽 = 0.14 + 0.36 − 0.054 “Forging cross”:
𝑤0 ℎ1 𝑤0 𝑤0
Inhomogeneous
spread after
𝑤1 𝑏𝑤
⇒ ↑ if ↑ one pass
𝑤0 𝑤0

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 158; IBF; Tomlinson, A. und Stringer, J.D., „Spread and elongation in flat tool forging“, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute (October 1959) Chap. 3.1 - 59

3.1.3 Drawing out

Calculation of force in drawing out
 According to the strip model of the elementary theory, the force for drawing
out rectangular cross sections is given by:

1 𝑏𝑤 1 ℎ
𝐹 = 1.15 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 + with 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑏𝑤 ⋅ 𝑤𝑖
2 ℎ 4 𝑏𝑤
i ∈ (0,1)

𝐹
 It follows for the resistance to forming: 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐
𝜇 𝑏𝑤 1 ℎ
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (1.15)𝑘𝑓 ⋅ 1 + +
2 ℎ 4 𝑏𝑤

Friction Shear

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 160 ff Chap. 3.1 - 60

3.1.3 Drawing out

Deformation work and temperature rise in drawing out

With the deformation work

𝑊 = ‫𝑑𝐹 ׬‬ℎ = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑ℎ

the average adiabatic temperature rise in the deformation zone is

given by:

𝑊 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑚 ⋅𝜑ℎ
Δ𝑇𝑚 = =
𝜌⋅𝑐𝑝 ⋅𝑉 𝜌⋅𝑐𝑝

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 161-163 Chap. 3.1 - 61

3.1.3 Drawing out

Reference values of typical materials in open die forging

Material Strength Forming Flow Density Average Temperature

an- temper- stress1 specific rise ΔT in K
nealed ature heat
at

C-Steel (0.25C)
Copper
Brass
Pure aluminum
Al-Mg alloy
Mg alloy

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 59 Chap. 3.1 - 62

3.1.3 Drawing out

Strain distribution after multiple forging passes
 The strain distribution is not homogeneous in the real process.

εh= 10 % 2nd bite

Equivalent strain εeq

3rd bite bw 1st bite
bw bw

0.6
0.4
0.2
0

After the 1st forging pass

 The goal of the forging strategy has to be to achieve after multiple forging passes a
 homogenous and
 intensive
equivalent strain in the core of the work piece, which has a high risk for casting defects.
Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, Umformtechnik, Plastomechanik und Werkstoffkunde, p. 659/660 Chap. 3.1 - 63

3.1.3 Drawing out

Influence of bite offset on the strain distribution in the core
 With bite offset, a more homogeneous strain distribution in the core of the work piece can
be achieved

bw
εh,core

cumulative curve

2nd pass without

bite offset
1st pass
x
bw
εh,core
bw
cumulative curve

2nd pass with

bite offset
1st pass
x
Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 64

3.1.3 Drawing out

Definition

Bite offset: bwi

This is an offset of the

starting point of the strokes After
1st pass eq,k1
in the following pass:

 1st stroke is shifted by ½ bwi+1

xw
bite; the following bites have eq,k eq,ktot
the full bite width After
2nd pass eq,k1 eq,k2

Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, Umformtechnik, Plastomechanik und Werkstoffkunde, p. 669 Chap. 3.1 - 65

3.1.3 Drawing out

Influence of bite offset on the strain distribution in the core
 With a large bite ratio, a higher strain at the core can be achieved

 Disadvantage: large bw  large Ac  high force

Equivalent
strain (eq)

h,core
1.0
bw
0.8
bw
bw0/h0 = 0.8 0.7

0.4
0.3

0.1

x
bw0/h0 = 0.3

Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 66

3.1.3 Drawing out

FEM simulation of drawing out

Equivalent strain
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 67

3.1.3 Drawing out

Defects in drawing out

In case of unfavorable overlap of the individual forging passes, typical defects

may occur

Surface cracks in a
drawn out forging

Material overlap on a
drawn out forging

Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, Umformtechnik, Plastomechanik und Werkstoffkunde, p.658/659/667; Fehlerkatalog zu Freiformschmiedestücke, Lehmann, TU Freiberg, 2005 Chap. 3.1 - 68

3.1.3 Drawing out

Defects in drawing out – overlap

bwb/wh0 = 0.2 bw / h0 = 0.7

Overlap in drawing out

C15, 1200 °C
εh = 47 %

Material flow in case of large bite ratio Material flow in case of small bite ratio
Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, Umformtechnik, Plastomechanik und Werkstoffkunde, p.658/659/667 Chap. 3.1 - 69

3.1.3 Drawing out

Drawing out with different tools and forging geometries
Common tool geometries in open die forging are:

The target is an
optimal forging of the
core in order to close
Flat/flat Flat/angular Angular/angular cavities caused by
the casting process.

Round/Round Flat/Round Other

Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, Umformtechnik, Plastomechanik und Werkstoffkunde, p. 653 Chap. 3.1 - 70

3.1.3 Drawing out

Required press force in open die forging

 The required press force depends

on the maximum ingot weight that
has to be forged.

 For the appropriate choice of

press force
forging machine and tool, the
material flow must be observed
carefully.

 Too small tools, insufficient

pressure or not sufficiently heated
forging ingots lead mainly to a
deformation of the surface layers. ingot weight
Thus, the core of the ingot might
not be sufficiently forged. Reference values of the press force in
dependence on the ingot weight

Source: Spur, Feldmann, Pick, Büsch, Recker, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 239; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 59 Chap. 3.1 - 71

3.1.3 Drawing out

Forged products

Typical products in open die forging are

Semi finished products: Billets, slabs, plates, bars

Standard products: Disks, disks with hole, rings, nuts, die blocks

Large forged products: Crank shafts, hollow products, pressure vessels,

rotors, turbine blade, other machine components

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 109 Chap. 3.1 - 72

3.1.3 Drawing out

Examples for the application of open die forging I
 Some typical process steps with drawing out, spread forging, bending, partial
parting by chiseling and offsetting are shown in the next slides.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 110 Chap. 3.1 - 73

3.1.3 Drawing out

Examples for the application of open die forging II

Material removed
with flame cutting

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 110 Chap. 3.1 - 74

3.1.3 Drawing out

Forging sequence for the production of a disk with hole
Working steps divided into two parts:
1. Starting with a square ingot, in three forging steps a circular disc (Ø400mm) is generated
2. With a conical mandrel, a hole is generated by upsetting the disc to Ø550mm and 75mm
thickness. The circumference is forged plane and the hole is punched from the back with
a sharp-edged mandrel

Raw part Step 1 Step 1 Step 1

(≈150 kg) (1st shape) (2nd shape) (3rd shape)

conical mandrel

punched disk
Material: steel
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
(4th shape) (2nd shape)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 110 Chap. 3.1 - 75

3.1.3 Drawing out

Schematic depiction of the forging process for a crank shaft

 Forging of shaft for the assembly of

a large crank shaft. The forging
Raw part Removal of ingot
ingot;ends;
Drawing out
Removal of Drawing process considers:
out to 90%
to 90% of of originaldiameter
original diameter
 Forging of the core
 Adjustment of material texture
Upsetting
Upsetting Drawing out to
Drawing to square
square and geometry
cross section (3:1)
cross section (3:1)

Ingot: 29.4 t
Work piece: 15.7 t
Prebending
Pre-bending
Forging
Forging to stretched
stretched Material: Steel (0.35 C, 0.7 Mn,
final
final shape
shape 0.25 Si, 0.14 V)
Machine: 50 MN hydraulic forging press

Finish-bending
Finish-bending Weight
15,700 kg
Opendie
Open die forged
forged part
part (dimensions in mm)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 111 Chap. 3.1 - 76

3.1.3 Drawing out

Forging of a crank shaft from a 65 ton ingot

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 112 Chap. 3.1 - 77

3.1.3 Drawing out

Example – Forged rings for pressure vessels
Upper anvil

Forged ring Mandrel

Automated
detection
system for
non-
destructive
testing

Source: Kobe Steel (top left), Areva (bottom and top right), 19th International Forgemasters Meeting, 2014 Chap. 3.1 - 78
Control technology in forging
 The mechanization & automation of forging processes allows for the central control of
manipulators and press.

 Reduction of machine time and the number of necessary heating steps to finish a
forging part

Manipulator
Open die forging press

PLC

PLC

Main control unit

Forging plan
calculation

Source: SMS Meer Chap. 3.1 - 79

3.1.3 Drawing out

Two-column underfloor press with manipulator
Application of
 two-column presses with underfloor drive up to 40 MN press force
 four-column presses up to 120 MN press force
 single-column presses and hammers in combination with rail mounted or off-track
manipulators
 Diagonal setup of the press for better visibility und higher resistance to forces in
longitudinal direction of the manipulator

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 113 (left) Chap. 3.1 - 80

3.1.3 Drawing out

Hydraulic four-column open die forging press
 Hydraulic four-column presses are especially bending resistant (rigid) in
case of eccentric loading and deliver up to 750 MN press force.

Force level 16, 25, 41 MN

Fluid pressure 315 bar

1 Columns
2 Column feet
3 Lower arm
4, 5 Sleeves
6 Cylinder arm
7 Moving arm
8 Main cylinder
9 Piston
10 Side cylinder
11 Guide bearings
12 Retracting cylinders
13 Plunger
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 160 Chap. 3.1 - 81

3.1.3 Drawing out

Drawing out with forging robot

40 s
Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 82

3.1.3 Drawing out

Forging machine

Chap. 3.1 - 83

3.1.3 Drawing out

Radial forging

Tool

Work piece

Thickening of the wall

in the middle at the edge
33 s
 Long work pieces are forged in radial
direction
 Application of very high pressure allows for Material flow outwards
a proper forging of the core of the part
 Reduction / avoidance of tensile stresses
Material flow inwards
 Closing of shrinkage cavities and pores
inside of the work piece
Source: GFM
Combined material flow Chap. 3.1 - 84

3.1.3 Drawing out

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 85
Conditions in shearing I
 According to the simple model, the velocity
field is calculated with:
𝑥
𝑣𝑧 = − 𝑣𝑡
𝑢
vt
𝑣𝑥 = 0
 The equivalent strain rate of the whole plastic
area can be calculated with:
𝑣𝑡
𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 =
3⋅𝑢
and the equivalent strain:
𝑠
for u > 0 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = ‫𝜑 ׬‬ሶ 𝑒𝑞 𝑑𝑡 =
3⋅𝑢

 With the help of these equations, the

force is calculated with 𝑘 = 𝑘(𝜑𝑒𝑞 ):
vt
𝐹 =𝑘⋅𝑤⋅ ℎ−𝑠
k = shear flow stress; w = width
Chap. 3.1 - 86

3.1.4 Shearing, twisting, cutting

Conditions in shearing II

Equivalent strain rate according to von Mises:

2 2
𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = 𝜀𝑥ሶ + 𝜀𝑦ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑧ሶ 2 + 2 𝜀𝑥𝑦
ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧
ሶ 2 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥
ሶ 2
3
1 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑥
𝜀𝑧𝑥
ሶ = +
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 1 𝑣𝑡
with 𝑣𝑥 = 0 and 𝑣𝑧 = − 𝑣𝑡 it follows: 𝜀𝑧𝑥
ሶ =
𝑢 2 𝑢

2 1 𝑣𝑡2 1 𝑣𝑡
⇒ 𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = ⋅2⋅ 2⋅ 2 = ⋅
3 2 𝑢 3 𝑢
1 𝑣𝑡
homogeneous ⇒ 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = ⋅
3 𝑢

Chap. 3.1 - 87

3.1.4 Shearing, twisting, cutting

Conditions in twisting I
 Because of relatively simple analysis of circular sections, the torsion of
bars and tubes is considered.

 The work piece is fixed at one end and is twisted around its longitudinal axis 𝑧
with a constant angular velocity. Assuming plane cross sections and no change
in length of the sample during deformation, the material flow is described by the
following velocities:
𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑟 = 0
𝑟⋅𝜔⋅𝑧
𝑣𝜓 = −
𝑙 Chap. 3.1 - 88

3.1.4 Shearing, twisting, cutting

Conditions in twisting II - only for information -
Using the velocity equations, the strain rates for the twisting of a circular bar can
be calculated:
𝜀𝑧ሶ = 𝜀𝑟ሶ = 𝜀𝜓
ሶ =0
𝛾𝑧𝑟
ሶ = 𝛾ሶ 𝑟𝜓 = 0
𝑟 ⋅𝜔
𝛾ሶ 𝜓𝑧 =−
𝑙

𝑟𝜔 𝑟 𝜓𝑙
According to von Mises, it results: 𝜀𝑒𝑞
ሶ = and 𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
3⋅𝑙 3⋅𝑙

Chap. 3.1 - 89

3.1.4 Shearing, twisting, cutting

Conditions in twisting III - only for information -
For the simple linear torsion model, the stress state is defined by the only stress
component that is not vanishing: z. This stress is equal to the shear flow stress 𝑘
and is constant over 𝑟 for ideal plastic material behavior.

For materials showing work hardening and if the flow stress depends on the
velocity, z increases from the center to the surface of the bar.

The torque moment 𝑀𝑡 in dependence on the strain rate is given by:

𝑅
𝑀𝑡 = 2𝜋 න 𝑟 2 𝑘 𝛾, 𝛾ሶ 𝑑𝑟
0

where the shear flow stress 𝑘 = 𝑘 𝛾, 𝛾ሶ is a function of 𝑟.

2
For ideal plastic material it is: 𝑀𝑡 = 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑅3 ⋅ 𝑘
3
Chap. 3.1 - 90

3.1.4 Shearing, twisting, cutting

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 91
Main processes in forging
Punch
Clamping tools
Extrusion die
Upper die Upsetting die

Work-
Lower die piece

Work piece

Work piece
Ejector
Closed die forging Upsetting Extrusion

Main roll Saddle

Tapered rolls
Mandrel
Work piece

Saddle
Work piece

Ring rolling Open die forging

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 92

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Process steps in closed die forging
Process steps of a
closed die forged swivel
bearing for a car

Cutting Heating Mass Pre- Final

distribution forming forging Process steps in
the production of
a typical closed
die forged part
Trimming/ Post Heat Scale Machining (schematic)
punching forming treatment removing

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 93

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Basic steps in filling of die impressions
1. Upsetting:
 Reduction in height
 Without extensive spreading and without
substantial flow at the tool wall
Free
 Material flow mainly parallel to the tool
upsetting
motion

2. Spreading:
 Lateral outward displacement
Contact-  Long flow paths under high normal
ing the pressure
die
 Material flow mainly perpendicular to the
tool motion

Filling 3. Rising:
 Filling of deep die cavities by a local rise
of the initial height
 High normal pressures
Upsetting Spreading Rising
 Material flow mainly into the flash gate

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 43 Chap. 3.1 - 94

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Schematic depiction of filling a closed die

Initial shape

Punch Upper die

Impression cavity Flash gate

Lower die
Impression die

Flash gutter

Without flash With flash Without flash With flash

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 70 Chap. 3.1 - 95

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Material flow in rising and spreading
 If the tool geometry and the geometry of the preform is not carefully adjusted to
the given conditions (material, temperature, work piece size, dimensions)
especially with regard to the radii, forging defects such as “cold shut” may occur.

Rising Spreading

 The initial shape is shown dashed

 At location “A” cold shut may occur
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 70 Chap. 3.1 - 96

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Shape classes for closed die forged parts I
 The initial geometry has to undergo certain intermediate steps (mass distribution,
bending, preforming) before achieving the final geometry.
As guideline:
 Simple, compact geometries corresponding to “shape class” 1 and 2 can be forged
with one die and one impression without intermediate steps. The same holds for parts
of shape class 3, if the initial shape is closely adapted to the final shape by cleaving,
casting, extrusion or rolling.

 In all other cases, especially in shape class 3, the number of intermediate steps increases
with increasing complexity of the work piece geometry, with decreasing formability of the
material and with increasing batch size.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 118 Chap. 3.1 - 97

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Shape classes for closed die forged parts II

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 118 Chap. 3.1 - 98

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Shape classes for closed die forged parts III

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 118 Chap. 3.1 - 99

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Closed die forging of a lever
Forging of the end geometry, which requires the highest forces, should preferably be
performed in the middle of the die. Hence, the forming forces act in the center. In multi-stage
dies, it is forged from the outside to the inside.
Die face
Fullering impression Finishing impression (finisher) Initial shape
Rolling impression Preforging impression (blocker)
Bending impression Drawn-out part

Rolled part

Bent part

Preforged part

Section through fullering impression

Finish-forged part
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 122 Chap. 3.1 - 100

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Closed die forging of a moped part
Using an eccentric press, the preforming is performed in several strokes per impression.
The final shape is generated by impression die forging (closed die forging with flash).

Punching
Primary Upsetting Pre-forming Final forging and trimming
material

Source: Weck p.89 Chap. 3.1 - 101

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Production steps of a 5 stroke crank shaft
Example for the forging using a mechanical wedge press

Lower pre-forging die Lower finish forging die Trimming tool Trimming punch

Source: Weck p. 97 Chap. 3.1 - 102

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Production steps of a forged car rim

1. Cast part 2. Pre-forging 3. Finish-forging

27sec

4. Punching 5. Flow forming 6. Finishing

1min 08sec
Source: Otto Fuchs Chap. 3.1 - 103

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Kinematic and static conditions in closed die forging
 Due to its complexity (process sequence, geometry, ...), closed die forging
operations can only be considered with elementary theory applying severe
simplifications.

 1. Consideration of small critical areas

2. Experience for the “shape classes” is written down in tables and standards

3. Discussion of influencing parameters

4. Simulation using FEM

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 45 Chap. 3.1 - 104

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Force-stroke diagram in closed die forging without flash
Apart from the difficulties to control the variations in volume, it was shown for closed die
forging without flash (flashless die forging) that the filling of the impression edges can only be
achieved using very high forces. The kink in the force-stroke diagram marks the required
effort for the edge filling.
Forming force

Compression

Material C15, forging

temperature 1200 °C with
Edge filling lubricant (oil-graphite)

Stroke
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 67 Chap. 3.1 - 105

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Resistance to forming in closed die forging of gears without flash
In gear forging, e.g. deviation of the edge width in the range of 1 ≤ 𝑐ҧ ≤ 3 𝑚𝑚 are only
reached at very high values of the resistance to forming (1200 ≤ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ≤ 1600 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ).
Resistance to forming 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠

Material C15, forging

temperature 1200 °C
with lubricant (oil-
graphite)

Tooth shape 1: Tooth shape 2:

m1 = 2 mm m1 = 3 mm
Edge width cത
t01 = 2 t02 = 3
Shape 1 d01 = 56 mm d02 = 54 mm
x Shape 2 without slope between dk1 = 60 mm dk2 = 60 mm
body and tooth flank df1 = 52 mm df2 = 48 mm
Shape 2 with 45° slope between Z1 = 28 Z2 = 18
body and tooth flank r = 0.5 mm r = 1.0 mm
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 69 Chap. 3.1 - 106

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Qualitative stress distribution in closed die forging with flash

higher than
because the exiting flange
causes radial stresses

w1 w2 w1 < w2

1 Narrow flash gate

2 Wider flash gate
3 flash exiting into flash gutter;
A plastic zone, B rigid zone

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 76 Chap. 3.1 - 107

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Closed die forging of a connecting rod

From the initial shape to the final shape

(from 36,000 to 76,000 elements)
Source:IBF Chap. 3.1 - 108

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Design of closed die forging parts

Closed die forged parts have to be designed:

 load adapted

 material flow adapted

 tool adapted

 accurate to size

 machining adapted

Chap. 3.1 - 109

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Flow and tool adapted cross sections of closed die forging parts
 To reduce the resistance to forming and avoid forging defects, sharp edges, abrupt
changes in cross section and high, small fins shall be avoided.
 Base and sidewalls should be thick enough in order to avoid rapid cooling.
 Raw part and forged part have to be matched with regard to a favorable “fiber flow”.

Basic shape Forging shape

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 144 Chap. 3.1 - 110

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Design rules for closed die forging parts I

DesignDesign
criterion Principe
Principle Beispiel
Example

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 145 Chap. 3.1 - 111

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Design rules for closed die forging parts II
Design criterion Principle Example

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 145 Chap. 3.1 - 112

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Offset, draft angle, rounding
 The permitted die offset has to be added to the tolerated dimensional deviation.
 The necessary draft angles depend on the forming process and the shape of the
work piece.
 The edge rounding, grooves, base thickness or the cross sectional changes
should be set as high as possible without restricting the function of the part.

Offset Offset Offset

Variation in
alignment

Offset in forging parts Misalignment in forging parts

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 113

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Design and cost efficiency

 The batch size and the

(A) (A) (A) (A)
necessary adjustment of
Small Medium Large
the forged part to the batch size
~50 ~500 ~5000
finished part determine the
most economical
(B)
manufacturing process.
adjustment
to finished
(B) Low (B) Moderate (B) High part
 The total costs of a finished
part decrease with 4
increasing batch size due
Costs
4 4
1 Tool
to a better adjustment of 3 3 3 2 Material
the forged part to the 2 2 2 3 Production
finished part, even though 1 1 1 4 Machining
the costs for the forged part Forged part Machined part
rise.
Dependence of the costs of forged part and finished
part on the number of produced parts (batch size).
Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 114

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Accuracy of forged parts
 For closed die forged parts made of steel, mainly the tolerances according to DIN EN
10243-1 are valid.
 Closer tolerances for closed die forged parts have to be defined between manufacturer
and customer.
 For upsetting parts and open die forged parts made of steel as well as for forged parts
made of nonferrous metals, special
tolerance standards are available.

Tolerances according to DIN ISO 286 part 1

Forming method
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Die forging □□□□ □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Precision forging □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■

Hot extrusion □□□□ □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Warm extrusion □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

Cold extrusion □□□□ □□□□ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■

■■■■ = achievable by conventional manufacturing facilities

□□□□ = achievable using special measures and in exceptional cases

Achievable accuracies in different Pair of precision forged spiral bevel gear

bulk metal forming processes with ready-to-install clutch dogs.
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung („Massivumformung kurz und bündig“) Chap. 3.1 - 115

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Working steps before forging
 Before the forging process, the following process steps are necessary:
 cutting of the primary material
 heating up to the required forging temperature

Shear cutting of the primary material Induction heating

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 116

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Reducer rolling
 Reducer rolls are longitudinal-profiled-
rolling machines. The tools are easily
exchangeable roll segments.
Upper reducer roll

 Reducer rolls usually work with a return

stroke, i.e. within one rotation the
inserted work piece is pushed back; Work piece
Rolling by through-feed method is also Lower roll
Rolling process
possible.

Automatic ram

Fully automatic reducer rolling

Flywheel
machine for the preforming of closed Drive rolls
die forging parts in mass production
Reducer roll

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 117

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Working steps after forging
Trimming punch
 By trimming and punching Arm after
bending and
Forged part with flash
the flash is removed Forged part sizing

Trimming plate

 Post-forming operations Arm before

bending
(e.g. bending, sizing,
Flash
repressing) save material
Forged part Big and little
and processing costs, ends in as forged
improve geometric condition

accuracy and allow for the Piercing punch

production of undercuts. Forging with

Big and
little ends
internal
punched
flash Forged part
to size

Before
Piercing die
expanding

Forged part

After
expanding

Forged part
Internal flash

Trimming and punching Post-forming operations

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 118

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Automatic production line of closed die forging
 This picture shows a fully automated production line to forge crank shafts and front axle
beams in large batch sizes.
 The transportation between the machines is realized with conveyor belts and the
transportation within the machines via manipulators.

1 Reducer roll; 2 Wedge press; 3 Trimming press; 4 Twisting machine; 5 Straightening and sizing press
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 168 Chap. 3.1 - 119

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Production of forged parts
Film – Forged parts / manufacturing and application

External player

17 min

Source: Deutsche Massivumformung Chap. 3.1 - 120

3.1.5 Closed die forging

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 121

Forging tools
 Closed die forging tools are adapted to the work piece geometry

 For open die forging, dies with different working surfaces are used
Lower die with flash gap

Flat dies

Simple Multiple Multi-stage

impression die impression die die
V-shaped dies Closed impression Die with multiple parting
die lines Movable die
Upper die Upper die parts (opened)
Work
piece
Lower die
Round dies
Lower die

Movable die
Ejector parts (closed) Work piece Ejector

Open die forging: Closed die forging: Closed die forging:

different die shapes typical types of dies lower tool and upper tool

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 122

3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging

Parts of forging dies
The parts of forging dies are shown using the example of a hammer die. The required
minimum dimensions can be determined easily with the given die impression depth, block
width, block height and block length.

Abutting face
Die impression
Reference faces
Clamping surface W
Hole for mandrel

Support surface

The die impression face has to be

carefully planed, milled and smoothed, w w
parallel to the support surface and Die impression depth Block height
exactly angular to the reference faces. w Die impression width Block length
Web width W Block width
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 147 Chap. 3.1 - 123

3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging

Manufacturing of dies
 The impression of a forging die is produced by eroding (e.g. EDM) or CNC milling.
 The die impression surfaces are refined to increase the tool life.

CAD construction of die

impression geometry
Milling of
electrode
CNC
milling of
impression

Eroding Finishing
of die of die
Surface
refinement of
impression

Finished die

Dies produced by EDM Process of the die HSC – High Speed Cutting
(electrical discharge machining) impression production
Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 124

3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging

Loading conditions of forging dies
 Forging dies are subject to high mechanical and thermal stresses:

 Forging stresses vary from zero up to peak values of 800 to 1000 N/mm² and
occasionally above

 Frictional wear as a result of metal sliding under pressure at speeds up to 50 m/s

 Shear stresses in surface layer in transition zone between sliding and sticking zone
(shear crack formation)

 High heating of the die impression face at contact with the work piece under pressure.
Short-time temperature rise from 100-200 °C up to 650-680 °C in case of hammer
dies and forging of steel

 Higher through heating in case of press dies (350 up to over 570 °C)

 Local annealing in case of “sticking” of forged parts (over 700 up to 800 °C for steel)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 148 Chap. 3.1 - 125

3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging

Failure phenomena at forging dies
 Locations at which die impressions fail preferably due to friction wear or plastic
deformation and mechanical and thermal fatigue.
 Wear not only depends on the geometry of the forging work piece and the material of the
die but also on the heat treatment of the work piece and additional surface treatments of
the die impression.

Wear (abrasion)

Thermal fatigue

Mechanical fatigue

Plastic deformation

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 150 Chap. 3.1 - 126

3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 127

Forging machines
 Forging is performed by means of hammers (drop hammers, double-acting anvil
hammers, counter-blow hammers) and presses (screw presses, crank or eccentric
presses, hydraulic presses).
 For certain component geometries, horizontal forging machines, multi-stage hot presses
and ring rolling mills are suitable. Radial forging machines, electro-upsetting machines
and forging rolls are used for pre-forming. Trimming and piercing as well as straightening
or bending after the closed die forging are carried out on presses (crank or eccentric
presses and hydraulic presses).
 The selection of the most suitable forming machine depends on the operation to be
performed, the work piece, the batch size and the possible degree of automation. It has
also to be considered up to which scale the individual machine types can be reasonably
designed and produced.
 The forming process is described by the force-stroke relation, temperatures and times.
 Forming process and machine influence each other. Material, strain rate, forming
temperature, work piece geometry, raw part mass, friction and lubrication affect the force
and work demand and the operation accuracy.
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 153-154 Chap. 3.1 - 128

3.1.7 Forging machines

Automation of the main forming machine
 Automatic transport systems in main forming machines can be designed for
large batch sizes or for a flexible production.

Insertion tongs Drive unit Insertion tongs Transport tongs

Lower die
Gripper
arms
Gripper
Lower die slide
Drive Traction
unit drive
Transport
tongs
Lifting bars
Machine stand Machine stand Cross slide

Lifting bar system Gripper arm system

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 129

3.1.7 Forging machines

Types of forging machines I

Source: Lange, Handbook of Metal Forming, Chap.11, p. 91 Chap. 3.1 - 130

Types of forging machines II

Source: Lange, Handbook of Metal Forming, Chap.11, p. 92 Chap. 3.1 - 131

Types of forging machines III

ed

Source: Lange, Handbook of Metal Forming, Chap.11, p. 93 Chap. 3.1 - 132

Open die forging machines
 Open die forging is the oldest forging technology

 It is used for the production of single parts, small series or high unit weights

Forging press

Work piece Manipulator

Die blocks

Die blocks Manipulator

Forging tools
Forging machine
Work piece
Manipulator

Fully automatic open die forging press as Axial forging machine with four radially
underfloor construction with integrated arranged tools for the production of slender
manipulator long forging parts
Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 133

3.1.7 Forging machines

Automatic hot transfer presses
 Automatic hot transfer presses work self-acting

 The working velocity of these machines allows for a high productivity

Automatic hot transfer press with upstream Tool room of a four-stage hot forging
heating for bars machine

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 134

3.1.7 Forging machines

Hammers for closed die forging
The most important machine types are anvil base hammers and counter-blow hammers.
Anvil base hammer with Counter-blow hammer with a
hydraulic drive system hydraulic clutch 1. Double-acting drive
2. Ram
6
3. Upper die
1 4. Lower die
2 7 5. Anvil base
6. Drive
8
3 7. Upper ram
9 8. Upper tool
5 4
10 9. Frame
10. Lower tool
11 11. Lower ram
12. Hydraulic ram clutch

12
Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 135

3.1.7 Forging machines

Animation of a spindle machine

4
5
1. Flywheel
6 2. Clutch disk SPKA 262_2cgr.avi

3. Collar bearing
7 of screw
01:53
8 4. Screw
5. Carriage
6. Upper die
7. Lower die
8. Press frame
Source: Schmiedetechnik/ SMS Chap. 3.1 - 136
Eccentric press (left) / Wedge press (right)

10
1 1. Eccentric shaft
2 2. Push rod
2 3. Push bolt
11
3 4. Ram
4
4 5. Press frame
5 6. Upper die
5
6 6 7. Lower die
7 7 8. Press table
8 8
9. Ejector
10. Flywheel
9 9 11. Wedge
Eccentric press Wedge press

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 137

3.1.7 Forging machines

Hydraulic presses
Hydraulic press for hot Automatic hydraulic press
extrusion for cold extrusion
Hydraulic presses are
used for hot and cold
extrusion in the forging
industry.

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 138

3.1.7 Forging machines

Automation in closed die forging

 Nearly all machines

and plants can be
adjusted for the
automatic operation

 Physical effort of the

workers is reduced by
automation in closed
die forging

 The degree of
automation depends
on the economy of the
process
Automated production line for closed die forging

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 139

3.1.7 Forging machines

Automation of forming processes
Due to the automation of the preforming, a high reproducibility in closed die forging is
reached.

Upper reducer roll

Work piece
Lower roll
Rolling process

Automatic ram

Fully automatable
Fully automatable reducer roll for
reducer roll for the the preforming of
Flywheel
preforming of stretched closed
Drive rolls
closed die forged die forged parts
parts in mass Reducer roll in medium batch
production sizes

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 140

3.1.7 Schmieden – Maschinen zum Schmieden

Forgable materials
 In general, all ductile metals can be used for forging
 Forged parts made of steel have a high importance because of the variety of steel
grades with their adjustable properties
Steel grade Standard
Unalloyed mild steels
high

Mild steel Heat-treated steels

Mo-alloy Case-hardened steels
Formability

Stainless Nitriding steels

Hot working steel
steel Steels for flame and
middle

induction hardening
Al- / Mg- Ni-/
Wrought alloy Bearing steels
Co-
alloy High temperature steels
Low

Free cutting steel Ti-

alloy Low temperature steels
Low middle high
Stainless steels
Force
Power demand for for
requirements forming
forming
Precipitation hardening ferritic pearlitic steels

Formability of different material groups

Formability of the different material groups Standard sheet with typical steel grades for
forging

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 141

3.1.7 Forging machines

Application of forged components
 Forged components are used:
 for the transfer of forces and movements
 at high static and dynamic loads
 at height wear loads
 for space and weight saving constructions

Example: Truck front axle

(forged components are
shown in red)

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Daimler Benz Chap. 3.1 - 142

3.1.7 Forging machines

Car space rod rear axle

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Daimler Benz Chap. 3.1 - 143

3.1.7 Forging machines

Truck control gear

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Daimler Benz Chap. 3.1 - 144

3.1.7 Forging machines

Bus front axle

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Daimler Benz Chap. 3.1 - 145

3.1.7 Forging machines

Vehicle drive shaft

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Gelenkwellenbau Chap. 3.1 - 146

3.1.7 Forging machines

Crawler chassis

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Caterpillar/ Intertractor Chap. 3.1 - 147

3.1.7 Forging machines

Goods wagon bogie

1 4

2 5
1 Lower pivot bearing
3 6
2 Brake lever joint
8
3 Axle
9
4 Side bearer
7
5 Slack adjuster
10
3 6 Brake block slack adjuster
1 7 Brake lever
8 Bow girder
2
9 Brake block shoe
8 10 Wheel tyre

10
Forged components are shown in red
Source: Schmiedetechnik/ ABB Daimler-Benz Transportation Chap. 3.1 - 148

3.1.7 Forging machines

Control valve
Forged components are
1 shown in red
2

3 1 Handwheel
4 2 Collar
9
3 Neck
5
4 Gland follower
5 Bonnet
6
6 Casing
7 Flanges
7
8 8 Seating ring
9 Eyebolt

Valve for welding at a wire tube Valve with flanges for screwing
Source: Deutsche Massivumformung, Schmiedetechnik, Persta Chap. 3.1 - 149

3.1.7 Forging machines

Jet engine

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Pratt & Whitney Chap. 3.1 - 150

3.1.7 Forging machines

Car 6-cylinder V-engine
Valve
Valve spring

Piston ring

Cam shaft

Connecting rod

Crank shaft
Cylinder sleeve

Forged components are shown in red

Source: Schmiedetechnik/ Daimler Benz Chap. 3.1 - 151

3.1.7 Forging machines

Wind turbines
1 8
1 Drive shaft

2 2 Generator

3 3 Planetary gearing

5 4 Blade adjustment, rotor pitch

4 5 Disk brake

6 Connecting rings to steel tubular tower

7 Large roller bearing with azimuth

adjustment

8 Blanks for gear-wheels, rolling and

6 plain bearings

View into the pod of a modern wind energy plant Chap. 3.1 - 152

3.1.7 Forging machines

From the supplier to the system partner
 Customer and supplier develop in cooperation and simultaneously a component
 The product development phase is shortened, the component is technically and
economically optimized

Determination of the load FE analysis on the basis of Unmachined and ready-to-

parameters for different the CAD data of the forged install, serial component after
loading cases at a component component finishing the optimization with
regard to weight and stiffness

Source: Schmiedetechnik Chap. 3.1 - 153

3.1.7 Forging machines

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.1.1 Overview
3.1.2 Upsetting
3.1.3 Drawing out
3.1.4 Shearing and twisting
3.1.5 Closed die forging
3.1.6 Tools for (closed die) forging
3.1.7 Forging machines
3.1.8 Ring rolling

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3.1 - 154

Radial-axial ring rolling
 The diameter increases by reducing
the ring wall thickness and height 4
1 3
3
(volume constancy!) 2

 Two forming zones: 4 3

 Radial rolls: Initial ring
unsymmetrical conditions, different
roll diameters, non-driven mandrel
(idling roll)
1 4
 Axial rolling gap: 2 3

symmetrical conditions
4 3
 Transient process: ring geometry
Final ring
changes permanently
 “wedge-shaped” ring 1 Main roll 3 Conical rolls
2 Mandrel 4 Guide rolls
Chap. 3.1 - 155

3.1.8 Ring rolling

Ring rolling

37 s

Source: IBF Chap. 3.1 - 156

3.1.8 Ring rolling

Ring rolling – product range
 Aerospace industry
 Food industry
 Generation of energy
 Petroleum industry
 Automobile industry
 Railed and tracked vehicles

Oil platform

Wind energy Structure element

plant aerospace

Source: www.rotheerde.com Chap. 3.1 - 157

3.1.8 Ring rolling

Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 3.1 - 158

Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 3-2 - 1
Schematic depiction of extrusion and drawing
 Differentiating factors:
 Application of the force (push  pull)
 Tools (rigid, working medium, rolls)
 Work pieces (solid, hollow, round, profiled,...)

Extrusion process Drawing process

𝐹𝐸 𝐹𝐷

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 254 Chap. 3-2 - 2

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Products of selected drawing and extrusion processes
Drawing Extrusion Profile extrusion

Chap. 3-2 - 3

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Material flow in drawing, extrusion and profile extrusion
Drawing Extrusion Profile extrusion

Tool

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 261/262 Chap. 3-2 - 4

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Deformation zone and stress state in extrusion and drawing

 For solid bodies and in case of axial symmetry, it is according to the elementary theory:
 principle normal stresses are: 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜎𝑟 , 𝜎𝜗
 for the radial and tangential stresses: 𝜎𝑟 ≈ 𝜎𝜗

Drawing 𝐹𝐸 Extrusion

𝛼 𝜎𝑟 ≈ 𝜎𝜗 are compressive stresses

𝜎𝜗 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑟 Tresca: 𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟
𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝜗
Extrusion ⇒ 𝜎𝑧 = compression ⇒ 𝜎𝑚 large
Drawing ⇒ 𝜎𝑧 = tensile ⇒ 𝜎𝑚 small
Deformation
zone
𝐹𝐷
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 264 Chap. 3-2 - 5

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Stress state and forces in extrusion of solid bodies

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 Exit A1: Entry A0:

𝜎𝑧 = 0 𝜎𝑧0 = 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 / 𝐴0
𝑘𝑓1 ≈ 𝜎𝑟1 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟 ≈ 𝑘𝑓0

𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤
𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝜗
𝜎𝜗
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠

kf1 > kf0 (hardening)

Tensile stress Compression

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 265 Chap. 3-2 - 6

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Stress state and forces in drawing of solid bodies

Entry A0: Exit A1:

𝜎𝑧 = 0 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐹𝑧 Τ𝐴1 < 𝑅𝑚
𝑘𝑓0 ≈ 𝜎𝑟0 ⇒ Process limit
𝑘𝑓1 = 𝜎𝑟1 − 𝜎𝑧1

𝜎𝜗
𝜎𝑟
𝑭𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄,𝒔
𝜎𝑧

𝜎𝜗

Tensile stress Compression

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 266 Chap. 3-2 - 7

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 8
Overview of extrusion processes

Extrusion

Reducing Extrusion Profile extrusion

Extrusion using Extrusion using Profile extrusion Profile extrusion using

rigid tools working media using rigid tools working media

Direct Indirect Lateral Hydrostatic Hydrostatic

Direct Indirect Lateral
extrusion extrusion extrusion direct extrusion direct
profile profile profile
profile
extrusion extrusion extrusion
extrusion

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 254 Chap. 3-2 - 9

3.2.1 Extrusion
Characteristics of extrusion processes

Reducing Extrusion Profile extrusion

Principle

Forming primarily cold primarily cold primarily warm

temperature

Product primarily single Single parts  Profiles 

parts finished parts semi-finished
parts
Max. strain 𝜑 small direct extrusion direct profile
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 1.4 to 1.6 extrusion
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 7
Tool without support container, die and container, die and
by container punch punch

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 254-260 Chap. 3-2 - 10

3.2.1 Extrusion
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 11
Direct extrusion process
 The direction of work piece movement and tool movement are identical.

Solid extrusion Hollow extrusion Cup extrusion

Forward/ direct extrusion

Solid direct extrusion Hollow direct extrusion Cup direct extrusion

1 – initial geometry of work piece

2 – final geometry of work piece

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 459 Chap. 3-2 - 12

3.2.1.1 Process overview

Indirect extrusion process
 The direction of work piece movement and tool movement are opposite to each
other.

Solid extrusion Hollow extrusion Cup extrusion

Backward/ indirect
extrusion

Solid indirect extrusion Hollow indirect extrusion Cup indirect extrusion

1 – initial geometry of work piece

2 – final geometry of work piece

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 459 Chap. 3-2 - 13

3.2.1.1 Process overview

Lateral extrusion process
 Work piece movement is transverse to the tool movement.

Solid extrusion Hollow extrusion Cup extrusion

Initial form
Initial form
of the work End form of the
Lateral/ transverse extrusion

of the work End form of the

Initial form of End form of the piece work piece
piece work piece
the work piece work piece Punch
Punch
Container
Punch Container
Container Die Work piece
Work piece Mandrel
Die

Work piece
Mandrel

Ejector

g Solid lateral extrusion Hollow lateral extrusion Cup lateral extrusion

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 459 Chap. 3-2 - 14

3.2.1.1 Process overview

Components produced by cold extrusion
 Produced on transfer presses by combining the aforementioned process steps

Source: Schuler Chap. 3-2 - 15

3.2.1.1 Process overview

Film cold extrusion

22 s

Chap. 3-2 - 16

3.2.1.1 Process overview

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 17
Typical force-stroke diagram in solid direct extrusion

0-1: Compressing the work piece

into the die
1-2: Filling the die shoulder
2-3: Transition from static to sliding
friction
3-4: Decrease of friction force in
container
Force F

a)

tot b)

Stroke h
Stroke h
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 268 Chap. 3-2 - 18

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Material flow in solid direct extrusion
 At the beginning, the forming process is transient until the nozzle is filled with
material.

 This transient area is characterized by a differently distorted mesh.

Stationary Transient

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 463 Chap. 3-2 - 19

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Static conditions in solid direct extrusion
 For the design of the plant and the tool loading, the force 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 (number 2 in the
force-stroke diagram on slide 3.2-19) is decisive.

 The elementary theory according to Siebel leads for the quasi-stationary part of
the extrusion process to 𝐹 as sum of:
 ideal forming force 𝐹𝑖𝑑
 friction force at shoulder 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠
 friction at container wall 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤
 shear force 𝐹𝑠ℎ

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ

 For the solid direct extrusion, the force parts are estimated in the following slides.
For all other process variants, see literature (e.g. Lange, Vol.2).

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 465 Chap. 3-2 - 20

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the ideal forming force in solid direct extrusion
 For plane material flow, the ideal forming work 𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 for the loss-free deformation
of a material element is given by the relation:
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑡 ∙ 𝜎𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝜎𝑧 ∙ 𝑑𝛥𝑧
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝛥𝑧 ∙ 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝜎𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 2 ∙ 𝜎𝑧 ∙ 𝑑𝛥𝑧
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝛥𝑧𝑑𝐴𝜎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑑𝛥𝑧𝜎𝑧

with: volume constancy Δ𝑉 = 𝐴 ⋅ Δ𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

Tresca 𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟
and 𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝐴/𝐴

follows the approximation

𝐴0
𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑛
𝐴1
and
𝑊𝑖𝑑
𝐹𝑖𝑑 = = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙0
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 269-270 Chap. 3-2 - 21

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the ideal forming work in solid direct extrusion
 Work of external forces = force . displacement = stress . surface . displacement

𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑡 ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝐴 ⋅ 𝜎𝑧 ⋅ 𝑑Δ𝑧 (1) 𝐴

𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑧 ⋅ 2𝜋𝑟 ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅ 𝜎𝑧 ⋅ 𝑑Δ𝑧
𝑙
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑧 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 + 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑑Δ𝑧 ⋅ 𝜎𝑧
𝑑𝐴 𝑑Δ𝑧
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑧 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 + Δ𝑧 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ ⋅ 𝜎𝑧 (2)
Δ𝑉
𝐴 Δ𝑉
Δ𝑧 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑡
= lateral
 Volume constancy: surface area
෍ 𝑑∆𝑉 = 0

Δ𝑧 ⋅ 2𝜋𝑟 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅ 𝑑∆𝑧 = 0
Δ𝑧 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 + 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑑∆𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝐴 𝑑Δ𝑧
=− (3)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 269-270
𝐴 Δ𝑧 Chap. 3-2 - 22

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the ideal forming work in solid direct extrusion
 (3) in (2):
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑉 ⋅ ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 − ⋅ 𝜎𝑍
𝐴 𝐴
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑉 ⋅ ⋅ 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝑧
𝐴
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑉 ⋅ − ⋅ 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟 | 𝑘𝑓 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑟
𝐴
𝐴1
𝑑𝐴
𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓 ⋅ න −
𝐴
𝐴0
𝐴0
𝑊𝑖𝑑 = Δ𝑉 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓 ⋅ ln
𝐴1

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 269-270 Chap. 3-2 - 23

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the friction force at the tool shoulder
 A disk-shaped volume element with the cross section 𝐴, the average circumference
𝑐 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑑 and the thickness 𝑠 is displaced in the shoulder zone by 𝑑𝑧 in extrusion
direction. As a result, the friction work according to Coulomb’s law follows:

𝜋𝑑Δ𝑠 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 = 𝜇𝑘𝑓𝑚
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼
with 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑 ⋅ 𝑑𝑧 ⋅ tan 𝛼 = −𝑑𝐴
Δ𝑉
and Δ𝑠 =
𝐴
Δ𝑉 1
follows 𝑑𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 = −𝜇𝑘𝑓𝑚 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼
Area A 2𝜇
and 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 = 𝑉𝑘𝑓𝑚 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
sin 2𝛼
Circumference C
𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 2𝜇
and 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 = = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⋅
𝑙0 sin 2𝛼
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 271 Chap. 3-2 - 24

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the friction force at the container wall
 A cylindrical body with the circumference 𝐶 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑑0 is moved along a container wall
with the length 𝑙. With the frictional shear stress 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 , the friction force 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 results
as follows:

𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 ⋅ 𝐶 ⋅ 𝑙

with 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 = 𝜇 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓0

(assumption: 𝜎𝑟 = 𝑘𝑓0 )

follows 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 = 𝜇 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓0 ⋅ 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑0 ⋅ 𝑙

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 271; IBF Chap. 3-2 - 25

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Derivation of the shear force in solid direct extrusion
 Assumptions for calculating the shear work 𝑾𝒔𝒉 :
 Shear is restricted to small zones in the area of the direction change.
 Under the shear flow stress 𝑚𝑎𝑥0 = 𝑘𝑓0 Τ2, a circular volume element 𝑑𝑉 is displaced
by an angle  where the material enters the forming zone.
 The shear work 𝑊𝑠ℎ0 for small angles is given by:

1
𝑑𝑊𝑠ℎ0 = 𝑘𝑓0 ∙ 𝛾 ∙ 𝑑𝑉
2

Stationary
As approximation follows
2
𝑊𝑆ℎ = ⋅ 𝑉 ⋅ 𝛼ො ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚
3

Transient
and

𝑊𝑠ℎ 2
𝐹𝑠ℎ = = ⋅ 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝛼ො ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚
𝑙0 3

𝛼:
ො angle in radians
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 272/273 Chap. 3-2 - 26

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Inner defect – central burst (“chevron cracks”)

Material: 100Cr6
2a = 100°
j = 0.25

Source: Tekkaya & Yavuz Chap. 3-2 - 27

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Cause of the “chevron cracks”
 Inhomogeneous plastic deformation along the cross section with radial
compression stresses and elongation leads to high longitudinal tensile stresses in
the core, which can exceed the forming limit.

Source: Hirschvogel (left), Avitzur (right) Chap. 3-2 - 28

3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 29
Cup extrusion

Preform Phosphated Upsetting Backward cup

& soap extrusion

Process combinations:

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 478/479 (left); Kammerer, Stuttgart (right, top) Chap. 3-2 - 30

3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 31
Basic principle of lateral extrusion processes
 In lateral extrusion, the material flow is transverse to the movement of the punch.

Solid lateral extrusion Hollow lateral extrusion Cup lateral extrusion

Lateral extrusion

I – initial geometry of work piece a – punch, b – container, c – work piece,

II – final geometry of work piece e – ejector, f – mandrel
Chap. 3-2 - 32

3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion

Shape classes for lateral extrusion parts
Secondary shape elements in one plane Secondary shape
elements in multiple
Solid Hollow Profiled planes
Flange
Round
shape
Lateral secondary
shape elements

Long shape

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 490 Chap. 3-2 - 33

3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion

Components produced by lateral extrusion
 Component with flange (A) that can be used as raw part for gear wheels. The
gearing is produced later by machining.

 Components with lateral shape elements:

 cross fittings for universal joints and tripods
 ball hubs for kinetic drives

(A)

Source: Lasco Chap. 3-2 - 34

3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion

Hardness distribution and fiber flow in a laterally extruded cross fitting

 The forming process in lateral extrusion is transient.

 The strain distribution is inhomogeneous over the cross section.

Vickers hardness
Hardness
distribution

Equivalent strain εeq

Relationship between hardness

Fiber flow
and equivalent strain

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 491 Chap. 3-2 - 35

3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion

Objectives of warm extrusion
 The attempt to combine the advantages of cold forming with those of hot forming
leads to warm forming:

Temperature:  blue brittleness (200 to 400 °C for low alloy carbon steels
and case hardening steels)

 red brittleness (ca. 800 to 1000 °C for steels with high sulfur
content but low manganese and carbon
content)

 Advantages:
 wider range of materials (including high alloy tempered and bearing
steels)
 higher strains
 better tolerances than in warm forging
 less forming steps than in cold extrusion

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 491; Dahl, Stahlkunde, p. 457; Bauer, Handbuch der Eisen- und Stahlgießerei, Grundlagen, p. 338 Chap. 3-2 - 36

3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 37
Process combinations in extrusion
 When two or more identical or different processes are performed single-stage
in one tool at one stroke, it is called a process combination.

Cup direct/ cup Solid direct/ cup Hollow direct/ Solid direct/
indirect extrusion indirect extrusion cup indirect solid indirect

Cup indirect/ Cup indirect/ Cup indirect/ Cup indirect/

upsetting of flange cup indirect Solid indirect cup direct/
flange lateral
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 503 Chap. 3-2 - 38

3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants

Hydrostatic extrusion

FP
 The extrusion force is transferred
Punch Seal by a working fluid instead of a
punch.

Working fluid  Using hydrostatic extrusion with

back pressure, brittle materials
Raw part
can also be extruded.

Container  Overall reduced force because of

less friction.

Work piece

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 500 Chap. 3-2 - 39

3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants

Hydrostatically extruded work piece cross sections

 Starting from circular billets,

non-circular work piece
cross sections are
produced by hydrostatic
extrusion.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 500 Chap. 3-2 - 40

3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.1.1 Process overview
3.2.1.2 Solid extrusion
3.2.1.3 Cup extrusion
3.2.1.4 Lateral extrusion
3.2.1.5 Process combinations and variants
3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 41
Example: shape classes for rotationally symmetric extruded parts I
 The profitability is determined by a production-oriented design and an
appropriate choice of the material of extruded parts.
 The shapes shown below can be produced by solid and hollow direct extrusion
and by cup indirect extrusion.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 510 Chap. 3-2 - 42

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Example: shape classes for rotationally symmetric extruded parts II

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 510 Chap. 3-2 - 43

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Examples of asymmetric cold extrusion components

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 511 Chap. 3-2 - 44

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Overview of materials for cold extrusion – steel (examples)

Material Application
UQSt 36-2, QSt 32-3, QSt 38-3 Cold extrusion parts without specific strength or
corrosion properties and without subsequent
additional heat treatment
Cq 15, Cq 22, Cq 35, Cq 45 Cold extrusion parts with increased strength
with/without subsequent additional heat treatment
Ck 10, Cq 15,15Cr3, 16MnCr5, 20MnCr5, Cold extrusion parts that are case-hardened
20MoCr4 (carbonized)
Cq 35, Cq 45, 34Cr4, 37Cr4, 41Cr4, 42CrMo4, Cold extrusion parts that are hardened and
25CrMo4 tempered
Cq 45, 41Cr4, 42CrMo4 Cold extrusion parts that are partially hardened
X10Cr13, X8Cr17, X5CrNi18-9, X22CrNi17 Cold extrusion parts that have to fulfill requirements
with regard to an increased corrosion resistance

Source: Spur, Geiger, Herlan, Handbuch Umformen, p. 340 Chap. 3-2 - 45

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Overview of materials for cold extrusion – nonferrous metals (examples)

Material Application
Pure aluminum Electrical parts
(e.g. Al99.5 / AA 1050-H14)
Aluminum

Work hardening Al alloy Vehicle parts

(e.g. AlMg5W / AA 5083-O)
Precipitation hardening Al alloy Vehicle parts
(e.g. AlMgSi0.5 / AA 6060)
E-CuF20 / UNS C11000 Hot extruded parts
SnB22F26 Screws, tubes
Copper

CuNi2SiF30 / UNS C64700 Screws, bolts, armature

CuZn37F30 / UNS C27400/C27200 Cold extruded parts
CuZn33F29 / UNS C26800/C27000 Higher cold formability
CuZn28F28 / UNS C26000 Excellent cold formability

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 517 Chap. 3-2 - 46

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Achievable accuracy of different processes
 The work piece accuracy is primarily determined by the process sequence and tool
accuracy.
 Changes in the dimensions of the tools can be reduced by tool materials with high Young’s
modulus, high heat conductivity and low heat expansion.
IT - specification (DIN ISO quality)
Forming processes
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
hot extrusion

warm extrusion
warm extrusion / cold
calibration
cold extrusion

ironing

upsetting

reducing
reachable with special processes
reachable without special processes
Source: Spur, Geiger, Herlan, Handbuch Umformen, p. 350 Chap. 3-2 - 47

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Example: Tool setup for solid direct extrusion
 The guidance frame facilitates the setup. It is not suitable to absorb lateral forces.
 The pressure plate and possibly the intermediate plate stabilize the punch and the die
and distribute the pressure to the base plates.
 In solid or hollow extrusion, the compression strength of the punch is important.

 In cup extrusion, also the

wear resistance is
important.
 The die insert requires
both high fatigue
resistance and good
wear resistance.
 Shrink rings provide the
necessary radial pre-
stressing for the die
insert.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 527 Chap. 3-2 - 48

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Factors determining the tool life quantities in extrusion processes

Surface condition of work Lubricant/ Friction:

piece material:
- Lubricant application Tool
Allowed
material:
work piece
tolerances: - Hardness
- Dimensional - Compressive
tolerances strength
- Surface roughness - Wear resistance
- Toughness
Influences on the - Temperature
tool life quantities resistance

Flow stress of
work piece material:
- Flow curve
Tool design/
geometry:
Hot
- Structural setup
- Geometric
design
Cold

Forming temperature: Forming machine:

- Force restricted
- Cold forming - Stroke restricted
- Hot forming - Work restricted

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 547 Chap. 3-2 - 49

3.2.1.6 Shape classes, materials and tools

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 50
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.2.1 Overview
3.2.2.2 Principles of the process
3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion
3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes for profile extrusion
3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 51
Profile extrusion
 Production of semi-finished products: bars, tubes, profiles,...
 Very large strains (up to j = 7)
 Often flat dies are used

 Deformed mesh after extrusion:

 “smooth” material flow

 Deformed mesh after profile

extrusion:
 friction dependent shear zone
at die wall
 “dead” zone between die and
container
 shear zone between deforming
zone and dead zone

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 261 Chap. 3-2 - 52

3.2.2.1 Overview
Shape variety of extruded profiles made of aluminum
 Sophisticated profiles, possibly as
multiple hollow profiles
 High accuracy and surface quality

Chap. 3-2 - 53

3.2.2.1 Overview
Extruded profiles made of copper and brass
Typical application areas

 Pipelines

 Valves, armatures, faucet

 Electric conductor

Chap. 3-2 - 54

3.2.2.1 Overview
Aluminum – extrusion profiles in construction engineering

Chap. 3-2 - 55

3.2.2.1 Overview
Extruded profiles in mechanical engineering
 High material utilization:  Lightweight design in structures of
“bearing block” produced by machines:
cutting an extruded profile to Extruded profiles with high stiffness as
length guidance and carrier

Chap. 3-2 - 56

3.2.2.1 Overview
Extrusion profiles in vehicle construction
 Lightweight design of structures with large
profiles:
 high stiffness at low weight
 efficiency due to modular construction
system

Chap. 3-2 - 57

3.2.2.1 Overview
Maximum profile cross sections

Solid profile Hollow profile

Alu Singen (100 MN press)

Source: Alu Singen Chap. 3-2 - 58

3.2.2.1 Overview
Extruded profiles in car body construction I
 Aluminum space frame structure in Audi A2

Source: Audi Chap. 3-2 - 59

3.2.2.1 Overview
Extruded profiles in car body construction II
 Aluminum body in white in Audi A8

Sheet
Profile
Casting

Source: Audi Chap. 3-2 - 60

3.2.2.1 Overview
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.2.1 Overview
3.2.2.2 Principles of the process
3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion
3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes for profile extrusion
3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 61
Direct profile extrusion (solid forward)
 Friction between billet and container requires high forces

Punch Dummy block Container

Extruded profile

Billet Die Die holder

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 62

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Direct profile extrusion press (schematic)

Chap. 3-2 - 63

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Direct profile extrusion press

45 sec

Sources: picture: SMS Hasenclever; Animation: SMS Meer Chap. 3-2 - 64

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Production line with direct profile extrusion press

Source: SMS Hasenclever

1 Stock 2 Billet furnace 3 22MN direct extrusion press 4 Pump basement 5 Extrusion track 6 Quadruple profile
extractor 7 Cooling station 8 Quenching station 9 Cutting roller table 10 Lower part cutting 11 Transfer, weighing
scales and storage facility 12 Wire coiler 13 Coil transport system with quenching and tying-off station 14 Collector
15 Coil conveyor system Chap. 3-2 - 65

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Work flow in direct profile extrusion

Loading
Extruding

Stripping Cutting

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 66

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Indirect profile extrusion (solid backward)

Closure plate Container Hollow punch

Extruded profile

Billet Die

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 67

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Indirect profile extrusion press (schematic)

Chap. 3-2 - 68

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Indirect profile extrusion press

Source: SMS Hasenclever Chap. 3-2 - 69

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Production line with indirect profile extrusion press

Source: SMS Hasenclever

1 Strand stock 2 Billet saw 3 Billet stock 4 Billet furnace 5 28/31MN indirect extrusion press 6 Pump room 7 Exit
roller conveyor with hot saw 8 Fans 9 Cooling station 10 Cutting roller table 11 Lower part cutting 12 Acid descaling
of profiles 13 Wire coiler 14 Coil transport system 15 Fans 16 Cover ladle emptying 17 Acid descaling of wire
Chap. 3-2 - 70

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Hydrostatic profile extrusion

Punch Dummy block Container Seal

Extruded profile

Working medium Billet Die Die holder

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 71

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Direct hollow extrusion with fixed mandrel

Punch Dummy block Container

Extruded profile
(hollow)

Billet Mandrel Die Die holder

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 72

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Direct hollow extrusion with moving mandrel

Punch Dummy block Container

Extruded profile
(hollow)

Billet Mandrel Die Die holder

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 73

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Direct hollow extrusion with porthole die
 In the porthole die consisting of several parts (see sect. 3.2.2.4), the inner die is clamped
via “bridges” to the outer ring.
 These bridges separate the material flow, which rewelds after passing the bridge.

Punch Dummy block Container

Extruded profile
(hollow)

Billet Porthole die Die holder

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 74

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Lateral profile extrusion
Solid lateral extrusion Hollow lateral extrusion

Punch

Dummy block
Container
Billet

Extruded profile

8
Die
Die holder

1 Punch 5 Die
2 Container 6 Die holder
3 Dummy block 7 Extruded profile
4 Billet 8 Mandrel
Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 75

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Profile extrusion with and without shell (example of direct extrusion)

Solid direct extrusion without shell Solid direct extrusion with shell

1 Punch 5 Die
2 Container 6 Die holder
3 Dummy block 7 Extruded profile
4 Billet

Chap. 3-2 - 76

3.2.2.2 Principles of the process

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.2.1 Overview
3.2.2.2 Principles of the process
3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion
3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes for profile extrusion
3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 77
Geometrical conditions
 In profile extrusion of solid cylindrical bodies, the global true strain is calculated
as:
𝑟1 2𝜋𝑟1 𝑙1 𝐴0
𝜑𝑟 = ln ; 𝜑𝜗 = ln = 𝜑𝑟 ; 𝜑𝑙 = ln = ln
𝑟0 2𝜋𝑟0 𝑙0 𝐴1

with 𝜑𝑟 = 𝜑𝜗 = − 𝜑𝑙 Τ2

 In extrusion of tubes:
𝑡1
𝜑𝑟 = ln
𝑡0
t0
t1 2𝜋𝑟𝑚1
𝜑𝜗 = ln
2𝜋𝑟𝑚0
rm0 rm rm1
𝜑𝑙 = − 𝜑𝑟 + 𝜑𝑡

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 248 Chap. 3-2 - 78

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Opening angle in solid direct profile extrusion
 In solid direct profile extrusion, it is distinguished between
 flat dies and
 conical dies
 The die opening angle is called 2α

dummy block

conical
die

db inserted billet

upset billet
flat
die

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 240 Chap. 3-2 - 79

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Dead zone in solid direct profile extrusion (flat dies)
 In solid direct profile extrusion, mostly flat dies (elastically) loaded area
are used (die opening angle 2α = 180°).
 This results in a “dead zone” at the die edges. deformation
zone
 A “shear zone” develops at the dead zone F
2a v1
boundaries. This shear zone leads to a virtual v0
die opening angle of 2adz. conical die
 usually it is considered: 2adz = 90°.
 for the calculation, the angle of the shear
zone is used (for flat dies adz). (elastically) loaded area

dead zone
deformation
flat die zone/ shear zone
F
2adz 2a v1
v0
flat die

ldz
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 241; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 261/274 Chap. 3-2 - 80

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Strain rate and equivalent true strain I
 Due to the inhomogeneous deformation in profile extrusion, the strain rate in the
deformation zone is not constant. The average strain rate can be calculated as:

𝜑 𝐴0
𝜑ሶ 𝑚 = with 𝜑 ≈ ln shear is neglected
𝑡 𝐴1

and the time 𝑡, in which a volume particle passes the deformation zone with the
length 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓 .
𝑉𝑑𝑒𝑓
𝑡= 𝑉𝑑𝑒𝑓 = frustum volume
𝑣𝑜 ⋅ 𝐴0

𝜋 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓 ⋅ 𝑑02 + 𝑑0 𝑑1 + 𝑑12

𝑡= ⋅ 𝜋
12 𝑣0 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑑02
4
ldef
𝑑0 −𝑑1
with 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓 =
2 tan 𝛼

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik Chap. 3-2 - 81

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Strain rate and equivalent true strain II
 Assuming that the diameter of the extruded profile d1 << d0 (upset billet
diameter), the missing volume of the frustum tip can be neglected. Then, the
strain rate can be simplified as:

6𝑣0 tan 𝛼
𝜑ሶ 𝑚 ≈ ∙𝜑
𝑑0

 As an approximation, the equivalent true strain considering shear according to

von Mises is given by:
𝐴0 2 2
𝜑𝑒𝑞 ≈ ln + ⋅ 𝛼ො
𝐴1 3 3 𝛼:
ො angle in radians

Note: 𝜑𝑧 = ln(𝑙1/𝑙0) = ln(𝐴0/𝐴1) = 2ln(𝑑0/𝑑1)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.248-249 Chap. 3-2 - 82

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Static conditions
 For the calculation of the force in solid direct profile extrusion of cylindrical billets, the
relations derived for extrusion are valid:

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤

It is:
𝐹𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 2𝜇 ෝ
2 𝛼
⇒ 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 ∙ 1 + +
sin 2𝛼 3 𝜑𝑙
2𝜇
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 ⋅
sin 2𝛼
1
2 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 ∙
𝐹𝑠ℎ = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝛼ො 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
3

 The friction and shear parts in the deformation zone are usually described by the
deformation efficiency 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 .

𝑘𝑓𝑚 1
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤 = 𝐴0 ⋅ ⋅ 𝜑 + 𝑘 ⋅ 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑0 ⋅ 𝑙𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 with 0 ≤ 𝑙𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ≤ (𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓 )
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑙 2 𝑓0

 In profile extrusion, the sum of the force parts of friction and shear in the deformation
zone has the same magnitude as the ideal part  low “deformation efficiency”
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 254-264 Chap. 3-2 - 83

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Force parts in direct profile extrusion

Geometry: 4000
Ideal force
d0 = 50 mm Container friction
Die entry friction
d1 = 30 mm Shear force
3000 Total force
h = 120 mm
μ = 0.1
Force [kN]
2000

Material:
𝑘𝑓 = 700 ∙ 𝜑0.25 𝑀𝑃𝑎 1000
𝑅𝑝 = 𝑘𝑓0 = 320 𝑀𝑃𝑎

0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
Opening angle [2a]

Source: Tekkaya Chap. 3-2 - 84

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Force-stroke diagram in direct profile extrusion

3 1 Beginning of process
Fmax 4
6
2 End of upsetting
Ffric,w
Fdef 3 Beginning of extrusion
5
3-4 Force reduction due to
transient starting
4-5 Force reduction due to
Fup,max reduced friction length
2
Fup,0 5-6 Force increase at extrusion
of butt, end of process
1
6 End of process
d0B d0 Butt

upset billet (l0)

inserted billet (l0B)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.264-265 Chap. 3-2 - 85

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Forces in direct profile extrusion I

1. Elastic deformation up to
3
Fmax 4
6 𝐹𝑢𝑝,0 = A0B ⋅ 𝑘𝑓0
Ffric,w
Fdef
5
2. Plastic compression until the
billet is fully upset

𝐹𝑢𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓,𝑢𝑝
Fup,max 2 𝜋
Fup,0 = ⋅ 𝑑0 2 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓,𝑢𝑝
4
1
≈ 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓0

d0B d0 Butt

upset billet (l0)

inserted billet (l0B)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.264-265 Chap. 3-2 - 86

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Forces in direct profile extrusion II

4.-5. Profile extrusion with

3
Fmax 4
6
Ffric,w 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑤
Fdef 𝑘𝑓𝑚
5 = 𝐴0 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓
1
+ 𝑘𝑓0 ⋅ 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑0 ⋅ 𝑙
2
Fup,max 2 ( force decreases)
Fup,0

1 5.-6. Force increase at the end

𝑙 → 𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑓
d0B d0 Butt (extruding the butt)
upset billet (l0)
inserted billet (l0B)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.264-265 Chap. 3-2 - 87

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Force-stroke diagram in direct and indirect profile extrusion

Fmax

Ffric,w

Fdef Fdef

Fup,max Fup,max
Fup,0
Fup,0

butt butt

lbutt lbutt
l0 (upset billet) l0 (upset billet)
l0B (inserted billet) l0B (inserted billet)

Schematic force-stroke relation in Schematic force-stroke relation in

direct profile extrusion indirect profile extrusion

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p.264-265 Chap. 3-2 - 88

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Thermal process window in profile extrusion
 High pressure conditions require high forces.
 The possibilities to reduce the press force by increasing the billet temperature are
limited by the considerable heat dissipation.

 Heating due to:

 friction of billet shell
𝑘𝑓𝑚 1
 dissipation: Δ𝜗𝑚 = ⋅ ⋅ 𝜑𝑒𝑞
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜌⋅𝑐𝑃

 Heat loss:
 to the tools

𝑊𝑖𝑑
 Deformation efficiency: 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 372 Chap. 3-2 - 89

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Heat balance in direct profile extrusion
 Heat dissipation is generated in the deformation zone and in the shear/friction zone.
 Heat is transported to the tools which causes heat losses.
 As a result, the material gets more frictional heat at the end of the billet and has contact
to warmer tools.

Deformation zone Convection

Shear / friction zone Heat conduction
Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 90

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Influence of extrusion velocity on thermal conditions
 Isothermal lines in solid direct profile extrusion of AlMgSi1 with d0 = 71 mm, j = 1.6,
workpiece=tool= 450 °C (723 K), l0 = 152 mm, a = 4 kW/m2K
 Comparison top to bottom: the temperature of the exiting profile increases with the stroke.
 Comparison slow to fast: the temperature difference increases from 16 to 50 K.

stroke = stroke =
34 mm 34 mm

stroke = 68 mm stroke = 68 mm

vt = 2.5 mm/s vt = 31.5 mm/s

Tmax = 16 K Tmax = 50 K

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 374 Chap. 3-2 - 91

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Constant exit temperature by temperature profile in billet
 To achieve a constant quality of the extruded profiles, it is important to keep the extrusion
exit temperature as constant as possible.
 Approach: Temperature profile in the inserted billet

temperature
Billet entry
Extrusion exit
temperature
Stroke (punch travel)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 379 Chap. 3-2 - 92

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Influencing the exit temperature by controlling the extrusion velocity
 For long billets, it is recommended to use a temperature profile and
additionally to control the punch velocity.
 Example: Punch velocity in profile extrusion of AlZnMgCu0.5 with constant
extrusion exit temperature.
Punch velocity vp

Punch stroke s
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 379 Chap. 3-2 - 93

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Example: Limit curves for the profile extrusion of AlZnMgCu
 The following criteria are specified:
 surface damage
max. available pressure ~ 1950 MN/m² v>v>v
punch velocity 3 mm/s
punch velocity 7 mm/s
 recrystallization punch velocity 14 mm/s
 subgrain size

 Goal e.g.: recovered but not

recrystallized microstructure in profile.

True strain
 Statements of the figure:
 The higher the punch velocity, the
lower the maximally allowed
strain (see curves for direct
extrusion).
 Since press force and
deformation work are lower in
indirect profile extrusion, higher
strains can be achieved.
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 422
Billet entry temperature Chap. 3-2 - 94

3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.2.1 Overview
3.2.2.2 Principles of the process
3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion
3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes for profile extrusion
3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 95
Tools of extrusion and tube extrusion press
 Tool set for direct profile extrusion of solid profiles and hollow profiles (tubes) using a
moving mandrel:
 Mandrel moves with the same
velocity as the exiting extrusion
profile vmandrel > vpunch

vpunch

vmandrel

1 Sealing wedge; 2 Die base; 3 Die; 4 Casing; 5 Intermediate lining; 6 Inner lining; 4-6 Container;
7 Container holder; 8 Die holder; 9 Pressure plate; 10 Tool carrier; 11 Dummy block; 12 Punch;
13 Mandrel; 14 Mandrel holder
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 389 Chap. 3-2 - 96

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Arrangement of the shaping openings of a die
Simultaneous extrusion of multiple profiles:

a horizontally and vertically symmetric arrangement

b exiting unidirectional (better possibility of guidance at exit)
c webs show to the inside
d asymmetric profiles, multiple extrusion
(center of area should be in the middle)
e round “relief” profiles are also extruded (control profile exit)
f v-shaped planking profile is flattened after exit

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 394 Chap. 3-2 - 97

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Typical die shapes for different materials

a Aluminum AlMgSi0.5, AlMn

b Other Al alloys
c Mg alloys
d Pb alloys
e Brass
f Copper
g Zn alloys
h C-steel
i Ti alloys
k high temperature materials

Aluminum: flat dies

Alloys which are difficult to form: round/conical inlet

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 395 Chap. 3-2 - 98

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Types of dies
 Depending on the extrusion
material and profile geometry,
different types of dies can be
used: a
c

a Flat die
b Prechamber extrusion die
c Die with milled slots b
d Bridge die
e Cross mandrel die e
f Porthole die
g one-piece hollow die d

g
f

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 397 Chap. 3-2 - 99

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Setup of a porthole die
 Porthole dies can be used for nearly all types of profiles. Also more complex geometries
with multiple cavities can be produced.
1
2

3
4
5

1 Backing ring; 2 Die base; 3 Die; 4 Mandrel; 5 Die holder; 6 Rotating head of tool;
7 Pressure plate; 8 Extruded profile
Chap. 3-2 - 100

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Extrusion dies
 The design and manufacturing of extrusion dies requires
experience and high-precision tool making.

 Due to high mechanical (and thermal) loads and a

sophisticated construction of the dies, the elastic deformation
of the die during extrusion might be important for the product
quality.

Chap. 3-2 - 101

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Containers
 Containers often consist of multiple elements that are shrink or press fitted together.
 Thus a radial pre-stressing is generated and the stress state of the container is shifted in
the direction of “compression”. As a result, higher internal pressures can be tolerated.

Chap. 3-2 - 102

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Example: Extract of shape classes for extruded profiles made of steel
and nonferrous metals

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 403 Chap. 3-2 - 103

3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.2.1 Overview
3.2.2.2 Principles of the process
3.2.2.3 Basics of profile extrusion
3.2.2.4 Tools and shape classes for profile extrusion
3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 104

Material for profile extrusion

Good extrudability Poor extrudability

Aluminum alloys

Copper and brass

Steel
Complexity of the extrusion profiles

Chap. 3-2 - 105

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Overview: materials for profile extrusion

Lowgeringes
temperature Niedrige
Low Mittlere
Medium Hohe
High
Temperaturniveau
level Umformtemperaturen
forming temperature Umformtemperaturen
forming temperature Umformtemperaturen
forming temperature
ca. RT bis 300°C
to 300 °C ca.
ca. 300
300 bis 600°C
to 600 °C bis1000
ca. 600 to 1000°C
°C ca.
ca. 1000
1000 bis 1800°C
to 1800 °C

Material group of Lightweight metals Cu and Cu alloys: Steels:

Stähle:
Cu und Cu-Legierungen:
low melting metals (Al, Mg):
Werkstoffgruppe der Leichtmetalle (Al, Mg) Easily
and alloys:
Easily deformable: leichtdeformable:
pressbar:
niedrigschmelzenden Easily Cu, leicht
CuCd,pressbar:
CuAg, CuCr, non alloyedStähle
unlegierte steels
leichtdeformable:
pressbar: Cu, CuCd, CuAg, CuCr, CuZr,
CuZr, CuAl up tobis
5%
Metalle und Al,Al,AlMgSi0.5, AlMg1,
AlMgSi0,5, AlMg1, MgMg CuAl bis 5% Al, CuSn 2%Al,
Sn
Legierungen: CuSn upa
to 2% Sn, a- brass
Messinge
Medium deformable:
mittelmäßig pressbar:
low alloyed
niedrig legiertesteels,
Stähle
Pb and alloys mittelmäßig pressbar:
Medium deformable: austenitische CrNi- Stähle
austenitic CrNi-steels
AlMgSi1, AlZnMg1,
AlZnMg1, AlMg2-3 mittelmäßig pressbar:
Medium deformable:
Sn Pb
and alloys
+ Leg. AlMgSi1, AlMg2-3
a-Messinge,
brass, a- Sondermessinge
Sn + Leg. a aspecial brass,
Soft solders schwer
Hardly pressbar:
deformable:
Weichlote schwer pressbar:
Hardly deformable: CuAl > 5% Al, CuSn
CuAl > 5% Al CuSn4-84-8, hochwarmfeste Stähle
Bi
Bi AlCuMg, AlCuMgPb CuNi1-2Si, CuNi, CuNiZn high temperature steels,
AlCuMg, AlCuMgPb, CuNi1-2Si, CuNi, CuNiZn hochlegierte Stähle
AlMg > 3% Mg, AlZnMgCu high alloyed steels
AlMg > 3% Mg, AlZnMgCu schwer pressbar:
Hardly deformable:
CuAl 8% Al,
ACuAl 8% Al, CuAl multi mat-
CuAl-Mehrstoffbronzen,
CuSn8,
erial bronze, CuNiFe CuNiFe
CuSn8,
sphärolitisches
Spherulitic
Gusseisen
cast iron

Materials of der
the Lotlegierungen:
Solder alloys: Ti Ti
and+ Leg.
alloys Ni und Ni- Legierungen
Ni and Ni alloys
Werkstoffe CuP
adjacent main CuP, Zr + Leg.
Zr and alloys
nebenstehenden Ag-Lote
groups whichdiecan Ag-solders Hf, Be, U
Hf, Co Co
undand
Co-Legierungen
Co alloys
Hauptgruppen, auch
durch also be cold
Kaltstrangpressen
extruded:
verarbeitet werden:
High melting
Hochschmelzende
Al-Legierungen
Zink
Zinc Edelmetalle
Noble metals Metalle:
metals:
Al alloys
Cr, Mo, W, V, Nb, Ta

Chap. 3-2 - 106

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Example data: materials for profile extrusion I

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 427 Chap. 3-2 - 107

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Example data: materials for profile extrusion II

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 427 Chap. 3-2 - 108

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Classification of flow types in solid direct profile extrusion (2a = 180°)
Reasons for different
flow types are:
Flow type
 Inhomogeneous
distribution of the
plastic properties over
the cross section and Material
homogeneous
inhomo-
length of the billet by type geneous
means of:
 textures in billet Mg, a and
Material Pb, Al with Cu, Al, Al
theoretic  brass
 different local example lubricant alloys
temperatures

Friction no low high high

Examples:
A – e.g. solid indirect
Shell
profile extrusion Ingress
formation
Defect no no defect
C – edges harder on surface (last third of
(2nd half of
because more a than  extrusion)
extrusion)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 410 Chap. 3-2 - 109

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Defects in profile extrusion
Defects in profile extrusion are: inner cracks, shell formation, surface cracks (in length and
in transverse direction), pores, grooves, inhomogeneous
microstructure etc.
Examples:

Shell formation at AlMgSi0.5 “Fir tree defect” at CuSn15:

caused by impurities that flowed circumferential cracks caused by hot
into the surface area of the brittleness at too high strain rates or
product. forming temperatures due to
exceeding the solidus temperature.
Chap. 3-2 - 110

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Sources of defects in profile extrusion

Sources of defects
in profile
extrusion

defects depending defects related to

defects related to tool related
on the flow the process
the raw material defects
behavior parameters

e.g. e.g. e.g.

Shell defect  hot brittleness  inclusions  dimensional,
 flitter  holes shape and
Funnel formation  flakes  pores tolerance defects
 zinc spots  segregation  weld seams
Ingress defect stripes  longitudinal stripes
 surface defects  scratches
Chap. 3-2 - 111

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Defects caused by the flow behavior

Shell defect Funnel formation Ingress defect

Chap. 3-2 - 112

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Examples of defects in profile extrusion

Hot brittleness

Shell defect Extrusion cavities Ingress defect

Chap. 3-2 - 113

3.2.2.5 Materials for profile extrusion

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 114

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 115

Definition of drawing
 Drawing through:
Forming under tensile and compressive stresses while drawing a material through a
drawing tool with decreasing cross section. Products: wire, tubes, bars,…

 Tensile and compressive forming,

because
 longitudinal stress: tension
 radial stress: compression

 Slide drawing:
Drawing through fixed dies (drawing die, drawing ring, working space of drawing die
is called cavity). For tubes, inner tools can be used (fixed or floating mandrel/plug,
rod).

 Roll drawing:
Drawing through a drawing opening formed by two or more rolls (special process).
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 254 Chap. 3-2 - 116

3.2.3.1 Overview
Principle of wire drawing
 Drive diagram for wire drawing (simplified)

Driven drawing disk

Unwinding drum (drawing drum)
Drawing die

Straightener

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 226 Chap. 3-2 - 117

3.2.3.1 Overview
Examples of wire products

Chap. 3-2 - 118

3.2.3.1 Overview
Process steps in wire drawing
Wire rod storage (Austenitizing, cooling and
tempering, final air cooling 
 Primary material: fine-lamellar perlite structure)

 pre-rolled extruded or cast Patenting

material machine

 Classification of drawing Pickling

line
machines:
Rough or
 rough drawing middle drawing

 middle drawing Continuous

patenting and
 fine drawing Annealing pickling line

 super-fine drawing Fine drawing

Straightening
 Post and intermediate Annealing
treatment: Zinc Bronze
 pickling / degreasing Post drawing
Fine drawing
 straightening Span wire Finally galvanized
Cold upsetting steel
rope wire, span
 heat-treating Oil hardening wire
Tire
Sieve wire wire
spring steel
 coating rope wire
mattress wire
Galvanized drawn
rope and spring
spring wire wire
Source: Manfred Merkel, Karl-Heinz Thomas, Taschenbuch der Werkstoffe wire shot wire Chap. 3-2 - 119

3.2.3.1 Overview
Slide drawing processes

Solid

Hollow

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 291 Chap. 3-2 - 120

3.2.3.1 Overview
Roll drawing processes
Drawing rolls
 Roll drawing is a drawing process in
which the material is drawn through an
opening formed by multiple rolls.

a) Roll drawing of solid bodies

b) Roll drawing of hollow bodies Drawing rolls Drawing rolls

c) Roll drawing over fixed mandrel

Mandrel/ plug
d) Roll drawing over floating mandrel

e) Roll drawing over moving rod

Drawing rolls Drawing rolls

Mandrel/ Moving rod

plug

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 292 Chap. 3-2 - 121

3.2.3.1 Overview
Overview of production processes in drawing (DIN 8584-2)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 257 Chap. 3-2 - 122

3.2.3.1 Overview
Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 123

Strain in axisymmetric drawing
 For the determination of external strain, two different relations are used:

2
1. Engineering strain related to 𝐴0 − 𝐴1 𝑑0 2 − 𝑑1 2 𝑑1
the cross sectional area A: 𝜀𝐴 = = = 1 −
𝐴0 𝑑0 2 𝑑0

𝑙1
2. True strain j: 𝜑 = ln
𝑙0
𝐴0 𝑑0
𝐴0 ⋅ 𝑙0 = 𝐴1 ⋅ 𝑙1 ; 𝜑𝐴 = ln = 2 ln
with volume constancy: 𝐴1 𝑑1

The relationship between these 1

𝜑𝐴 = ln
two definitions is: 1 − 𝜀𝐴

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 217 Chap. 3-2 - 124

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Equivalent strain and local strains
2𝛼ො 2 𝑟
von Mises: 𝜑𝑒𝑞,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜑𝑧 + 2 ⋅ 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑧 + ⋅ 𝛼ො
3 3 3 𝑟1
2
Tresca: 𝜑𝑒𝑞,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜑𝑧 + 𝛼ො Forming zone: Shear at entry
3
ideal forming is homogeneous and exit = f(r)
𝛼:
ො angle in radians ⇒ 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑒𝑞 = 𝜑𝑧

𝑟 𝜑𝑧 ≡ 𝜑𝑙 = 2 𝑟
𝛼ො
2 ln 𝑑0 /𝑑1 3 𝑟1

𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝜑𝑒𝑞

𝜑𝑒𝑞

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 211/216 Chap. 3-2 - 125

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Strain state in axisymmetric slide drawing using FEM

1
𝜀𝑧 ≈ − 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟 ≈ 𝜀𝜗
2
Strain 𝜀

𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝜗 𝜀𝑟𝑧
(axial) (radial) (tangential) (shear)

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 126

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Stresses, drawing force and power according to elementary theory
 Stresses:
 longitudinal stress
at the exit: 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐹/𝐴1
 Tresca ⇒ 𝜎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑘𝑓
 axialsymmetric 𝜎𝜗
𝑭𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄,𝒔 𝜎𝑟
solid body ⇒ 𝜎𝑟 ≈ 𝜎𝜗 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝜗

Tension Compression

 Drawing 𝜇 2 𝛼ො in radians
force: 𝐹𝑧 = 𝐴1 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑 ⋅ 1 + +
𝛼ො 3 𝜑

ideal part friction part shear part

 Power: 𝑃 =𝐹⋅𝑣 (v = drawing velocity)

(Typical values vmax: cold drawn steel ≈ 6 m/s, steel wire ≈ 25 m/s, non-Fe wire ≈ 50 m/s)
Source: Kopp; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 330 Chap. 3-2 - 127

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Optimal opening angle 2α
 Opposing influences of the drawing
die inclination angle α on the friction
and shear part:
Fsh
from 𝜕𝐹
=0
𝜕𝛼ො

3
follows 𝛼ො𝑜𝑝𝑡 = ⋅ 𝜇 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙
2
Fsh

for minimum drawing force.

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 230 Chap. 3-2 - 128

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Plastic zone of normalized sample bars
 In this case, the plastic zone has its largest elongation at the die while it is relatively short
in the center of the forming zone of the bar.
 This clearly contradicts the assumptions of homogeneous deformation in the elementary
theory.

d0 = 44 mm;
d1 = 40.4 mm;
2a = 12°; Slip line field for plane
material: steel drawing according to Hill
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 295 Chap. 3-2 - 129

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Stress state in plane drawing according to the slip line theory
bar

bar

 = 0.051; 2a = 12°;  = 0  z is maximal at the center

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 296 Chap. 3-2 - 130

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Stress state in axisymmetric slide drawing using FEM

Stress 𝜎
in MPa

𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝜗 𝜎𝑟𝑧
(axial) (radial) (tangential) (shear)

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 131

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Equivalent measures in axisymmetric slide drawing using FEM

Equivalent strain Equivalent stress Temp. ϑ in °C

𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜎𝑒𝑞,𝑣𝑀 in MPa

z z z

r r r

𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜎𝑒𝑞 𝜗

Source: IBF Chap. 3-2 - 132

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Strain coefficient in drawing
 Process limit: The drawing force 𝐹 must be transferred over the part of the drawing
material that leaves the die without introducing damage (surface cracks, incipient
cracks) or plastic deformation.
 requirement:

𝜇 2 𝛼ො
𝐹 = 𝐴1 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 ⋅ 1 + + < 𝐴1 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓1
𝛼ො 3 𝜑𝑙

𝜎𝜗
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠 𝜎𝑟
 Definition strain coefficient: 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝜗
𝐹 𝑘𝑓𝑚 𝜇 2 𝛼ො
𝑎= = ⋅ 𝜑𝑙 ⋅ 1 + +
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑓1 𝛼ො 3 𝜑𝑙 Tension Compression

 Since 𝑧 is not constant in the cross section 𝐴1, the requirement a  0.75 follows for a
safe process.

Source: Kopp, p. 231; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 330 Chap. 3-2 - 133

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Thermal conditions in slide drawing
 Forming temperature is usually room temperature.
 Temperature increases due to:
 deformation heat 𝜑𝑒𝑞 (average)
Δ𝑇 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅
 friction in the die 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑐𝑃
 Since shear increases towards the edge and friction occurs at the surface, the
temperature profile shown below results at the exit.

W sh W fric

Temperature in the drawing material after drawing

Source: Kopp, p. 229; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 299 Chap. 3-2 - 134

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Temperature distribution in bar drawing
drawing ring

Temp. ϑ in °C

r
Experimental result
z

Calculated result (FEM) Example calculation IBF (FEM)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 303; IBF Chap. 3-2 - 135

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Longitudinal residual stresses in cold drawing of a round bar (St 52)
 The inhomogeneous deformation and the temperature distribution lead to residual
stresses in the wire.
 The residual stresses resulting from the deformation depend on the true strain.

Decrease of
cross section Decrease of
cross section
Stresses N/mm2

Core Edge Stresses N/mm2

Core Edge
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 343 Chap. 3-2 - 136

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Effects and influence of residual stresses
 (Tensile) residual stresses in the surface have influence on
 dimensional accuracy (distortion in case of asymmetric machining)
 durability in cyclic stressing by stress corrosion cracking

 Reduction of residual stresses can be done by:

 stress relief annealing
 stretch leveling (l  0.2 %)
 roller straightening
 drawing with low strain

Chap. 3-2 - 137

3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 138

Profiles that can be produced by drawing
 Profiles that can be drawn from round  Profiles that must be pre-formed by
or rectangular material rolling

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 318 Chap. 3-2 - 139

3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles

Approach for determining the drawing allowance in profile drawing
 Based on the final cross section, the drawing steps are developed backwards up to the
starting form.
 Allowances have to be determined
in a way that
 all zones of the cross section
are elongated homogeneously
 and the allowed change in
cross section is not exceeded.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 320 Chap. 3-2 - 140

3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles

Examples of drawing steps (stages)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 320/321 Chap. 3-2 - 141

3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 142

Tube drawing with fixed mandrel (plug)

𝜎𝜗
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑚
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑠

𝜎𝜗

Mandrel
Tensile Compression

in radians
Drawing force 2𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑚 𝛼ො
according to Siebel: 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴1 ⋅ 1+ + ⋅ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 +
sin 2𝛼 tan 𝛼 2

Ideal Shear
Friction Friction
part
shoulder mandrel
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 307 Chap. 3-2 - 143

3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes

Tube drawing with floating mandrel (plug)
 Goal:
stable process without drawing in
of the mandrel and without
oscillating.

t0

t1
 Measures:
choose angles a and  in an
appropriate way (equilibrium
conditions of the mandrel)

 Procedure:
experience or relatively complex
calculation (e.g. according to
Pillkahn)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 336 Chap. 3-2 - 144

3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes

Ironing
Fp
1 Ironing ring
2 Cross section with risk for
bottom fracture
3 Work piece
4 Punch
Ffric,p
FB Bottom force
Ffric,r
Ffric,r Ring friction force
Ffric,p Punch friction force
Fp Punch force
a Die angle of ironing die

Simple ironing

𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑟 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑝 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ

2𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑝 𝛼ො
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴1 ⋅ 1+ − 𝜑 +
sin 2𝛼 tan 𝛼 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 310/317 Chap. 3-2 - 145

3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes

Machines for ironing

Feed

Ironing
ring

Stripper
stroke Ram
Stripper

Crown tool

Punch

Evacuation

Product: e.g. beverage can

Cycle: up to 200 strokes/min

1 Brush feed; 2 three ironing rings;
3 Stripper; 4 Can elevator for evacuation

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 358 Chap. 3-2 - 146

3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes

Production of the beverage can body
1 2

Ironing

Source: Hydro Aluminium Chap. 3-2 - 147

3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 148

Schematic representation of roll drawing
 Special process to produce profiles with the following goals:
 reduction of friction
 increasing the achievable strain
 reduction of the drawing force

1 Initial cross section

2 Roll set with oval pass
3 Roll set with round pass
4 Drawing direction
5 Final cross section
6 Stretch-tension between tools

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 311 Chap. 3-2 - 149

3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles

Examples of section steels (profiles) made of round wire by roll drawing

Shape Dimensions
Special profiles Special profiles

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 319 Chap. 3-2 - 150

3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles

Tools for roll drawing I
 Three roll roll-setup:

1. Roll set 2. Roll pair

 Three roll roll-setup  Pass design of a three roll set roll drawing
system Fuhr acc. to DGM setup
1869414 system Conimet acc. to DOS 1602247

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 341 Chap. 3-2 - 151

3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles

Tools for roll drawing II
 Arrangement of two roll sets in a row  Principle of roll pass design for the
(turned by 90°): production of round material

R1 Initial radius
R2 Final radius
h = R2-0,004``
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 342 Chap. 3-2 - 152

3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 153

Machine for wire drawing (schematic, simplified)
 Drive diagram for wire drawing (simplified)

Driven drawing disk

Unwinding drum (drawing drum)
Drawing die

Straightener

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 226 Chap. 3-2 - 154

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Drawing dies for wire drawing
 Drawing dies for wire drawing are
standardized:
 DIN 1547 (hard metal drawing rings)
 DIN 1546 (diamond drawing rings)

They consist of:

cylindrical
guidance:
 drawing ring holder
entry cone
 Drawing ring with the areas
 entry opening
drawing cone
 drawing cone
 cylindrical guidance
 exit opening

Chap. 3-2 - 155

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Tool materials for wire drawing
Hard metal Natural diamond Polycrist. diamond

Youngs modulus in kN/mm² 630 960 840

Compressive strength* 1 1.9 1.7

Bending strength* 1 - 0.6

Hardness* 1 1.5 – 4 2.5

Die opening, diameter in mm > 0.3 0.01 … 2 0.1 … 8

Tool life when drawing

Copper 1 30 … 75 200 … 300

Al-alloys 1 50 150

Molybdenum 1 15 60
Drawing of unalloyed steels (C-steels) is
Wire material No restrictions
limited
*Relative values related to hard metal
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 337 Chap. 3-2 - 156

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Example: typical dimensions for wire drawing of Cu materials

Diamond coated drawing dies

 Rough drawing 20 – 1.5 mm

 Middle drawing 1.5 – 0.4 mm
 Fine drawing 0.4 – 0.15 mm
 Very fine drawing 0.15 – 0.05 mm
 Superfine drawing 0.05 – 0.01 mm

Chap. 3-2 - 157

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Drawing dies for tube drawing
Tube drawing die Cross section Drawing mandrels

Chap. 3-2 - 158

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Lubrication
 Tasks of lubrication in wire drawing are:
 reduction of friction
 protection of the drawing die
 cooling of the drawing die (wet drawing)
 preventing adhesion of the drawing material to the drawing die

The distinction is:

 Dry drawing with drawing soap
 sodium stearate
 calcium carbonate with
calcium stearate etc.

 Wet drawing with

 emulsions
 drawing oils
 drawing greases
Chap. 3-2 - 159

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Single step drawing machine

Drawing disk
Lubricant container
with drawing die

Chap. 3-2 - 160

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Some multiple step drawing machines for wire drawing
 In multiple step drawing processes, it has to be considered that the wire velocity
increases from step to step.

without wire collection

Drawing disk with wire collection

Lubricant container
with drawing die

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 349 Chap. 3-2 - 161

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Examples
 Crawler drawing machine  Multiple step drawing machine for copper
 continuous drawing  drawing through a sequence of drawing
 straight drawing of work pieces dies
of arbitrary length  wire production

Chap. 3-2 - 162

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Setup of a roll drawing machine
 The basic design of machines for roll drawing is similar to single step drawing machines.
 The material is stored on a coil.
 The material is drawn through the tool by means of a drawing drum or drawing disk.

1st pass 2nd pass Contactless Dancer

measuring of roll
diameter
Straightener Cleaning

Decoiler

Coiler

Cooling Calibration Double disk

drawing

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 359 Chap. 3-2 - 163

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Drawing benches for bars and tubes
 Chain drawing bench with hooking and fixed drawing sled (electrically driven)

 Hydraulically driven drawing bench

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 352 Chap. 3-2 - 164

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Two-sled system for continuous drawing on a drawing bench

Drawing sleds

Drawing
nozzle

Bench 1 Bench 2
Straightener Pinch roll unit

Drive pulley Main gear

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 354 Chap. 3-2 - 165

3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging

3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.2.1 Extrusion
3.2.2 Profile extrusion
3.2.3 Drawing
3.2.3.1 Overview
3.2.3.2 Drawing of solid round material
3.2.3.3 Drawing of profiles
3.2.3.4 Drawing of tubes
3.2.3.5 Roll drawing of profiles
3.2.3.6 Tools and machines for drawing
3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

3.3 Rolling

Chap. 3-2 - 166

Drawing defects: internal cracks (drawing cone)
 Drawing cone / chevron

 caused by
overstraining
(overdrawing) of the
material

Distribution of the axial tensile stress over

the cross section at the end of the forming zone
Source: DGM Chap. 3-2 - 167

3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

Drawing defects: shells and die marks
 Shells

 cause:
due to defects in the surface of the cast ingot, “double skin” may
occur in drawing.

 Die marks

 cause:
by welding/ adhesion of the material undergoing drawing after a
breakdown of the lubrication film in the drawing die
Source: DGM Chap. 3-2 - 168

3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

Drawing defects: lateral cracks, longitudinal cracks
 Lateral cracks

 cause:
if the temperature in drawing is too high, the material
separates along the grain boundaries

 Longitudinal
cracks

 cause:
oxides and parts of the furnace lining are carried along in
casting. In drawing, they are stretched and lead to longitudinal
cracks and fracture.
Source: DGM Chap. 3-2 - 169

3.2.3.7 Typical defects in wire drawing

Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 3-2 - 170

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 1
Rolled products and their production
Process chains of rolled products:
Steel Lightweight metals Heavy metals

Furnace Direct reduction CSP plant (Compact strip production) Continuous casting

scrap
Al electrolysis Smelting

Casting Casting
Electric arc
Converter Thin slabs Coils Slabs Ingots Billets Profiles
furnace

Coils Slabs Slabs Hollow bars

Hot strip rolling mill Heavy profile rolling mill

Billet rolling mill Fine steel rolling mill

Cold strip rolling mill Three roll planetary rolling mill

Plate rolling mill Medium steel rolling mill

Wire rolling mill

Strip handling

Plates Coils, sheets Coils Sheets Wire Fine steel Medium steel Heavy profiles Solid bars Tubes

Chap. 3.3 - 2

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Flat finished products for sheet metal forming

Continuous casting Hot Cold Sheet

Surface
Steel plant Thin slab casting rolling rolling Cutting metal
treatment
Strip casting etc. mill mill forming

Hot rolled flat Cold rolled flat

finished products finished products

Wide flat steel Strip Cold rolled strip

Cold
rolled Cold wide strip Cold strip
Hot wide strip Strip steel sheet Width Width
Width  600 mm Width < 600 mm
 600 mm < 600 mm

Sheets from hot strip: Sheets from cold strip:

Plates: 3 to 80 mm thick Sheets: 0.5 to 3 mm thick
Sheets: to 3 mm thick Extra lattens: to 0.5 mm
Chap. 3.3 - 3

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Typical dimensions of hot rolled flat products
Plate: Thickness [mm] Width [m] Length [m]

Steel: 4 - 150 2.5 - 5 2.5 - 20

Al alloys: 8 - 10 1-3 4-8
Heavy metal: 10 - 25 0.5 - 0.8 1.5 - 5

Hot strip:
Steel: 1.5 - 20 0.05 - 2
Al alloys: 2-6 1.5 - 2
Heavy metal: 10 - 20 0.5 - 2

Chap. 3.3 - 4

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Typical dimensions of cold rolled flat products
Cold strip: Thickness Width Length
[mm] [m] [m]
Steel: 0.02 – 5 1.5 – 2.5 to 1000
Aluminum
0.006 – 5 1–2 to 5000
alloys:
Heavy metal: 0.02 – 5 0.5 – 1 to 1000

Chap. 3.3 - 5

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Plant technology: plate rolling mill
Furnace Scale Upsetting Rolling mill Cooling line
washer

Upsetting press at Salzgitter (Source: SMS) Plate at Baoplate (Source: SMS)

Chap. 3.3 - 6

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Plant technology: plate rolling mill

Source: Plate at Baoplate (picture: SMS) Chap. 3.3 - 7

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Plant technology: hot wide strip mill

Source: SMS Chap. 3.3 - 8

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Plant technology: auxiliary equipment for the rolling mill

Roll finishing

Cooling line Hot coiler

Descaling

Source: SMS Chap. 3.3 - 9

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Plant technology: 5 stand cold rolling tandem mill

Source: SMS Chap. 3.3 - 10

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Principle of the tandem cold rolling mill

Chap. 3.3 - 11

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Coupled pickling and tandem cold rolling mill

Chap. 3.3 - 12

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Types of mill stands (examples)

Duo Quarto

Driven
rolls

20 rolls stand Sexto

according to Sendzimir

Chap. 3.3 - 13

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Longitudinal, transverse and cross rolling
 Classification of the rolling processes according to kinematics:

Longitudinal rolling Transverse rolling Cross rolling

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 180 Chap. 3.3 - 14

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Classification of the rolling processes
 Rolling processes which belong to the compressive forming processes can be
classified according to DIN 8583-2 as follows:
Rolling

Longitudinal Transverse Cross

Flat Profile Flat Profile Flat Profile

Hollow

Hollow

Hollow

Hollow

Hollow

Hollow
Solid

Solid

Solid

Solid

Solid

Solid
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 179 Chap. 3.3 - 15

3.3.1 Rolling – overview

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 16
Flat longitudinal rolling
Upper / top roll

Fr
Strip, slab,
rolling w
stock,
0 etc.  For w/h > 10, a plane state of strain is
S0 S1
assumed, i.e. no spread.
w1  Elementary calculation using the strip
model.

Terms:
A0: Entering cross section A1: Exiting cross section
h0: Strip thickness at entry h1: Strip thickness at exit
w0: Strip width at entry w1: Strip width at exit
S0: Strip tension at entry S1: Strip tension at exit
Ac: Area of contact surface (= projection of contact surface between roll and
work piece on the horizontal plane)
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 164 Chap. 3.3 - 17

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Rolling parameters
For each individual mill stand:
 Rolling force Fr Upper / top roll
 Moment (torque) M
Fr
 Power P = M .ω Strip, slab,
rolling w
stock,
0 etc.
 Temperature T S0 S1
 Strip tension S0, S1
 Velocity v0, v1 w1

 Thickness h0, h1

For the rolling mill:

 Pass schedule: i.e. all above mentioned parameters considering the coupling between
the mill stands (velocity, strip tension, temperature)

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 164 Chap. 3.3 - 18

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Geometric conditions in flat longitudinal rolling
Average strip thickness:
ℎ𝑚 = 0.5 ⋅ ℎ0 − ℎ1
ℎ 𝛼 = ℎ1 + 2𝑟 1 − cos 𝛼

vr 𝑥2
ℎ 𝑥 = ℎ1 + 2𝑟 1 − 1 − 2
𝑟
Entry
Exit Approximations:
lc
𝑥2
ℎ 𝛼 ≈ ℎ1 + 𝑟𝛼 2 ; ℎ 𝑥 ≈ ℎ1 +
𝑟
Exit Thickness reduction: Δℎ = ℎ0 − ℎ1
Entry Δℎ = 2𝑟 1 − cos 𝛼0 ≈ 𝑟𝛼0 2
Contact length:

Δℎ2
𝑙𝑐 = 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ − ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ
4

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 165 (Error < 1.5 % for 𝛼0 ≤ 20°) Chap. 3.3 - 19

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Kinematics: velocity field
Assumption: plane strip stays plane

Continuity equation:
𝑣0 ⋅ ℎ0 ⋅ 𝑤0 = 𝑣 𝑥 ⋅ ℎ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑤 𝑥
= 𝑣1 ⋅ ℎ1 ⋅ 𝑤1
for 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑣0 ⋅ ℎ0 = 𝑣 𝑥 ⋅ ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑣1 ⋅ ℎ1

with ℎ 𝑥 from slide 3-3-19, it follows:

𝑣1 ℎ0 ℎ1
𝑣𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑣0 ⋅ 2 = 𝑣1 2 = 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
ℎ1 + ℎ1 + 1+
𝑟 𝑟 ℎ1 ⋅ 𝑟
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 176 Chap. 3.3 - 20

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Kinematics: neutral point
 For the rolling angle 0 it is in general:
0 << 20°
 As a result, it follows for the x component
of the circumferential velocity of the roll:
vrx ≈ vr ≈ const.
 Equilibrium of forces without strip tension
gives: v0 < vr and v1 > vr
lcd
Neutral point  There is a “neutral point”
vr vrx  In case of high friction: “sticking zone”
vrx lc

xn vrx
vr vrx
BSZ FSZ

Entry Exit

FSZ
xn Sticking
BSZ zone
BSZ – backward slip zone
FSZ – forward slip zone Entry Exit
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 176-177 Chap. 3.3 - 21

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Kinematics: strain rate
1
−𝜑ሶ 𝑧 = 𝜑ሶ 𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥,𝑚
ሶ = න 𝜀𝑥ሶ 𝑥 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉= Volume in the deformation zone

Equation for the strain rate according to Tresca (approximation):

𝜑𝑧 𝜑𝑧 𝜑𝑧 ln ℎ1 Τℎ0
𝜑ሶ ℎ = 𝜑ሶ 𝑧 = = ≈ ⋅𝑣 = ⋅ 𝑣1
𝑡 𝑙𝑐 /𝑣𝑥,𝑚 𝑙𝑐 1 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ

Typical range:
Hot rolling of a slab:
h0 = 250 mm, h1 = 190 mm, r = 400 mm, v1 = 2.5 m/s ⇒ 𝜑ሶ ℎ ≈ 4.4 𝑠 −1

Cold rolling of a strip:

h0 = 1 mm, h1 = 0.7 mm, v1 = 25 m/s, d = 60 mm ⇒ 𝜑ሶ ℎ ≈ 2972 𝑠 −1
or d = 400 mm ⇒ 𝜑ሶ ℎ ≈ 1151 𝑠 −1
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 180 Chap. 3.3 - 22

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Bite condition during rolling
A) Fulfilled
Required: 𝐹𝑓𝑤 > 𝐹𝑏𝑤
FN
𝐹𝑓𝑤 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ⋅ cos 𝛼
Fbw
= 𝜇 ⋅ 𝐹𝑁 ⋅ cos 𝛼
Ffric Ffw
Fbw = backward
𝐹𝑏𝑤 = 𝐹𝑁 ⋅ sin 𝛼
Ffw = forward
⇒ 𝜇 ⋅ 𝐹𝑁 ⋅ cos 𝛼 > 𝐹𝑁 ⋅ sin 𝛼
𝜇 ≥ tan 𝛼
B) Not fulfilled
FN
Fbw
with: tan 𝛼 ≈ 𝑙𝑐 /𝑟
Ffw 𝑙𝑐 = Δℎ ⋅ 𝑟
Ffric
Δℎ
𝜇≥ ֞ Δℎ ≤ 𝜇2 ⋅ 𝑟
𝑟
Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 23

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Pass-through and bite condition during rolling

Possibilities to overcome bite problems when Δℎ > 𝜇2 ⋅ 𝑟

 Increasing  (roughening the roll surface)
 Pushing the rolling stock in the roll gap
 Sharpening the rolling stock

Pass-through condition:
 Analogous to the bite condition, however, with the following assumption:
in a completely filled roll gap, normal and friction force act in the center of the roll
gap at  = 0 /2
1 Δℎ
𝜇≥ ; Δℎ ≤ 4 ⋅ 𝜇2 ⋅ 𝑟
2 𝑟

 Pass-through condition is fulfilled more easily than the bite condition.

 The required torque and power must be available.

Chap. 3.3 - 24

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Static conditions: stress state
𝜎𝑧 𝑘𝑓 Procedure:
 Equilibrium of forces in x direction in
combination with geometric simplifications
and approximations leads to σx(x)
Coupling with the yield criterion leads to σz(x)
τfric = μ σN


xn

BSZ FSZ

 Schematic depiction of the stress

distribution in the roll gap is shown right.
Entry Exit
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 184-188 Chap. 3.3 - 25

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Contact area Ac
Ac: Projected contact surface between roll and strip 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑤𝑐 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐

lc Ac

lc: Contact length wc: Contact width (at w/h>10 it is w0w1)

Δℎ2 𝑤0 + 𝑤1
𝑙𝑐 = 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ − ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ 𝑤𝑐 = 𝑤𝑚 =
4 2

Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 26

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Rolling force
Contact area:
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑤 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐 ≈ 𝑤 ⋅ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ

w Rolling force:

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ⋅ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ⋅ 𝑤 ⋅ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ
lc Ac
Elementary theory (Siebel):
1 𝑙𝑐
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ≈ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 1 + 𝜇 ⋅ − 𝜎𝑠𝑚
2 ℎ𝑚
kres

ℎ𝑚 = ℎ0 + ℎ1 /2

σsm σsm 𝑘𝑓𝑚 = average flow stress

lc
𝜇 = friction coefficient
Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 27

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Significant influences on the rolling force without strip tension

1 𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐 ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐 ⋅ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 1 + 𝜇
2 ℎ𝑚

Ideal part Friction part

 Roll diameter 𝑟 ↑⇒𝐹 ↑

since 𝑙𝑐 ↑
 Thickness reduction Dh Δℎ ↑ ⇒ 𝐹 ↑
 Strip width w0 𝑤 ↑⇒𝐹 ↑
 Material 𝑘𝑓 ↑ ⇒ 𝐹 ↑
 Friction 𝜇 ↑⇒𝐹 ↑
 Temperature 𝜗 ↑ ⇒ 𝑘𝑓 ↓ ⇒ 𝐹 ↓
 Warning: The increase in roll diameter via elastic flattening has possibly to be
considered by iterative calculation of lc
Chap. 3.3 - 28

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Influence of roll diameter
Why are work rolls and backup rolls used?
 Reduction of the rolling force by using thinner work rolls (smaller diameter):

1 𝑙𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐 ⋅ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 1 + 𝜇
2 ℎ𝑚

 Thinner work rolls  reduction of contact length

 reduction of rolling force
 Thinner work rolls  more bending (deflection)
 necessity of using backup rolls

Chap. 3.3 - 29

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Influence of strip tension
Strip tension Strip tension Strip tension without strip tension
at entry at exit at both sides with strip tension

sm
sm
σs1 σs1

σs0 σs0

Entry Exit
xn

z
.
.
roll
strip Yield criterion according to von Mises
(modified Tresca for plane strain):
xxn
Entry n Exit 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓
Neutral point
note: 𝜎𝑥 ≡ 𝜎𝑓𝑙 = resistance to flow
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 188-190 Chap. 3.3 - 30

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Advantages of strip tension during flat rolling

Advantages of strip tension:

 Lower rolling forces
 Lower roll wear
 Lower deflection of the rolls
 Better strip guiding
 Better strip flatness

Chap. 3.3 - 31

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Rolling moment / power
Moment: Experiment: hot rolling of steel without strip tension

𝑀 =𝐹⋅𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐

m = a/lc
Plate roughing
a = lever arm of the force F around the
stand
center of the roll Plate finishing stand
m = lever arm coefficient Strip mills

Power:
Slabbing mills
r/h1

𝑃 = 2 ⋅ 𝑀 ⋅ 𝜔 = 2 ⋅ 𝑀 ⋅ 2𝜋 ⋅ 𝑛
for 2 rolls  = angular velocity
n = rotational speed
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 199 Chap. 3.3 - 32

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Influence of strip tension on the rolling moment
 Depending on the direction of the strip tension, they have a high impact on the rolling
moment.
1
𝑀∗ = 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑆0 − 𝑆1 ⋅ 𝑟
2
𝑀∗ = moment including strip tension
a = lever arm

S0 S1

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 198 Chap. 3.3 - 33

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Spread in flat longitudinal rolling
 Depending on the dimensions, different kinds of spread can be observed.

Rolling  Spread is increased by increasing:

direction  h/w
 lc /w
 d roll diameter
 h thickness reduction
  friction
w0/h0

 kf flow stress
Bulging
 Spread is reduced by inreasing:
Necking
  temperature
 v rolling speed
0.6
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

lc /h0

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 171 Chap. 3.3 - 34

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Empirical equations for spread

Equation acc. to

Geuze 𝑤1 = 𝑤0 + 𝐶 ∙ ∆ℎ; 𝐶 = 0.35 for steel

The calculated final
width w1 represents
Tafel and Sedlaczek 𝑤1 = 𝑤0 + 0.17∆ℎ 𝑟/ℎ0
an average value of
𝑤1 = 𝑤0 + 𝐶 ∙ ∆ℎ ∙ 𝑙𝑐 /ℎ0 ; 𝐶 = 0.35 for steel the width over the
Siebel
rolling stock
∆ℎ thickness.
Bachtinow and
𝑤1 = 𝑤0 + 0.58 ∙ ∆ℎ ∙ 𝑙𝑐 − /ℎ0
Schternow 2𝜇
Approx. It is:
𝑐
𝑤1 = 𝑤0 ∙ ℎ0 Τℎ1 𝑤1𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑤2𝑚𝑖𝑛
Hill 𝑤1 ≈
𝑐 = 0.5exp(−𝑤0 Τ2𝑙𝑐 ) 2
𝑤1 = 𝑤0 ∙ ℎ0 Τℎ1 𝑐
Wusatowski ℎ0 Τ2𝑟 0.56
𝑐 = 10−1.27(𝑤0Τℎ0)
𝑤1 = 𝑤0 ∙ ℎ0 Τℎ1 𝑐
Sander 𝑤0 Τℎ0 0.39 𝑤0 Τ𝑙𝑐 0.12 𝑤0 Τ𝑟 0.59
𝑐 = 10−0.76
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 170 Chap. 3.3 - 35

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Elastic deformation I – roll flattening
Center of According to HITCHCOCK, the
deformed roll
deformed roll radius is:
𝐹
𝑟′ = 𝑟 1 + 𝐶𝐻 ⋅
𝑤 ⋅ Δℎ
Roll 𝑙𝑐′ = 𝑟 ′ Δℎ
center
Rigid roll 16 1 − 𝑣 2
Flattened (assumed) with 𝐶𝐻 = ⋅
roll 𝜋 𝐸
Entry
Entry`
Exit

lc Exit`
Work rolls

Strip
l`c cross section

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 172-173 Chap. 3.3 - 36

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Consideration of roll flattening in the force calculation

r = unloaded roll radius

Calculation of rolling force

1 𝑙𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐 ⋅ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 1 + 𝜇 𝑙𝑐 ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ Δℎ
2 ℎ𝑚

Calculation of flattened roll radius 𝑟 ′ and 𝑙𝑐′

2
𝐹 16 1 − 𝑣
𝑟 ′ = 𝑟 1 + 𝐶𝐻 ⋅ and 𝑙𝑐′ = 𝑟 ′ Δℎ and 𝐶𝐻 = ⋅
𝑤 ⋅ Δℎ 𝜋 𝐸

Chap. 3.3 - 37

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Elastic deformation II – roll deflection
Applied forces

Roll necks
Roll barrel
 The complex interaction between
roll deflection, roll flattening and
Bending line
pressure distribution within the
contact area of roll / rolling stock
requires numerical calculation
methods.
Pressure distribution Resulting
(varying over 𝑙𝑐 ) rolling force

 Roll deflection and roll flattening must be taken into account

when adjusting the roll gap.
 The resulting profile defects lead to flatness defects.
 Compensation by using backup rolls and other measures.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 174 Chap. 3.3 - 38

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Strip flatness and strip profile

h
Dh
2
Ideal geoemtry
ideale Planheit Technically possible
walztechnisch möglichestrip profile
Planheit

Roll deflection Crowned rolls

Chap. 3.3 - 39

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Flatness defects
 Flatness defects occur due to:
 deflection of the work rolls
 roll flattening 𝜀ℎ varies over width
 thickness profile of the entering strip

 Different thickness reduction over the width leads to different elongations

 formation of buckles
Center buckles Flat strip Edge buckles

Chap. 3.3 - 40

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Measures to avoid flatness defects
Countermeasures to avoid flatness defects:

 “Static”: e.g.
 crowned work rolls (either convex or concave)
 backup rolls (quarto stand)

 Variable, i.e. suitable for control:

 local expansion of the roll (hydraulic)
 local thermal influencing of the roll contour (cooling or heating)
 roll deflection (work rolls and/or intermediate rolls)
 axial roll adjustment (intermediate rolls + backup rolls (six-high stand))
 shape grinding in combination with axial roll adjustment (CVC)

Chap. 3.3 - 41

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Backup rolls to reduce roll deflection

Small radius of the

work rolls
 F small
M small

but:
High deflection

Solution:
using backup rolls

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 190 Chap. 3.3 - 42

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Measures to produce flat strips

Work roll bending CVC system Six roll system

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 196 Chap. 3.3 - 43

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Principle of continuous variable crown (CVC) system

Equal
strip thickness Neutral crown

Thinner in Positive crown

the center

Thicker in Negative crown

the center

Source: Thyssen Chap. 3.3 - 44

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Elastic behavior of mill stands

Elastic deflection of the rolling mill

(mill stand spring)  mill stand
characteristic curve:
Rolling force F

𝛥𝐹 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝛥𝑔
𝑐: mill stand modulus
W

Rolling stock characteristic curve:

1 𝑙𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑚 ⋅ 𝑙𝑐 ⋅ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ⋅ 1 + 𝜇
2 ℎ𝑚
= 𝐹 ℎ0 , ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑓 , …
g0 g1
Roll gap g
Strip thickness h

 working point W:
g0 g1 ℎ1 = 𝑔0 + 𝐹1 Τ𝑐

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 203/205 Chap. 3.3 - 45

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Effects of disturbances
kf1 < kf2 h 0,1 < h 0,2 g 0,1 < g 0,2

g0 g g0 g g0 g

Dh1 Dh1 Dh1

 Variation of rolling force,  Variation of entering  Variation of roll

e.g. due to strip thickness adjustment
 kf (temperature variation)
 due to strip tension changes
 different friction condition
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 203/205 Chap. 3.3 - 46

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Types of mill stands
Duo Quarto Sexto (six-high stand)

Source: SMS Chap. 3.3 - 47

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Schematic representation of different mill stand designs
 Using the three-high stand, the rolling stock can be rolled in both directions without
changing the rotational direction of the rolls.
 Using backup rolls, the diameters of the work rolls can be reduced.
 With planetary mill stands, pass reductions of up to 95 % can be realized in one rolling
pass.

Work rolls (planetary rolls)

Pinch rolls Backup rolls

Work
piece

Three-high Quarto stand 20 rolls mill Planetary mill stand

stand (sendzimir mill)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 195 Chap. 3.3 - 48

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Example: Production of cold rolled strip

 Cold rolled strip is made from hot strips with sheet thicknesses of 2.0 to 6.0 mm.
 At first, the strips are pickled to remove the scale layer.
 The rolling to the required thickness is performed using a reversing stand or a tandem mill.

Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3 Stand 4 Stand 5

Schematic depiction of a cold rolling tandem mill

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 197 Chap. 3.3 - 49

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Shortening the hot strip production process

l = 700 m
A = 100,000 m2

l = 150 m
A = 7,500 m2

Source: Bender, W., et al., Resource efficiency in steel industry in Germany -status 2008 Part I: Potentials in steel production. Stahl und Eisen, 2008 Chap. 3.3 - 50

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Lab-scale twin-roll strip caster at IBF
Melting furnace:
max. 180 kg

Strip caster:
Strip thickness h=0.6...3.5 mm
Roll diameter: Ø 580 mm, w 150 mm

Inline rolling mill:

Fmax=600 kN

Cooling line 1
Coiler Cooling rate 100...800 K/s
1:13 min

Cooling line 2:
Cooling rate 50...500 K/s

Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 51

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Industrial strip caster ThyssenKrupp Nirosta
BGA ThyssenKrupp Nirosta

Grades: stainless steel

Ladle capacity: 90 t
Roll radius: 1.5 m
Strip thickness: 1.8 - 4.5 mm
Strip width: 1.1 - 1.45 m
Strip velocity: 60 - 100 m/min
Casting rate: 120 t/h
Facility length: 150 m
Floor space: 7500 m²

The reduction of energy input per

ton hot strip is about 85 %
compared to conventional
Strip caster - Krefeld continuous casting and rolling.
Source: ThyssenKrupp Chap. 3.3 - 52

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Flexible rolling – principle of the process

18 s

Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 53

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Weight and raw material saving by using non-uniform thickness sheet

Example: Component from the chassis of a middle class car

Conventionally
rolled

100 %
Raw material -30%
70 % 2.5 kg
-28% Component weight
Flexibly rolled 1.8 kg

Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 54

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Deep drawn structural parts made of tailor rolled blanks
Cross beam
Tunnel strengthening Sheet thickness 2 mm / 1.2 mm / 2 mm
Sealing cross
beam Querträger

Cross beam

Container tube
Longitudinal beam

Motor bracket

Crossbeam

Connecting
beam Rear longitudinal beam
Door sill

Front Längsträger
Seat cross beam Sheet thickness 1.6 / 2.6 hinten
/ 1.4 mm
longitudinal beam
Chap. 3.3 - 55

3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 56
Production of sections by longitudinal rolling (groove rolling)
 Almost any cross sections (without undercuts)
 Materials: steel and nonferrous metals (Cu,..) (Al mostly profile extrusion)
 Products:
 rails, beams, sheet piles
 bar steel with various cross sections
 profiles: I, L, T, Z, U shaped profile

Source: Schuler Chap. 3.3 - 57

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Possibilities in groove rolling
Initial material (mm / m / t) Finished profile (mm)
Cast ingots
250 x 250 / 4.4 – 6.0 / 2.1 – 2.9 H beam 100 – 200
Bracket 130 and 150
U steel 150 and 200

250 x 300 / 7.4 – 12.0 / 4.2 – 6.9 Rail 37 – 70 S

250 x 340 / 12.0 / 7.8 Round bar steel 140 - 255

320 x 430 / 3.8 – 9.8 / 3.9 – 10.4 Round bar steel 80 - 130
Bracket 250
U steel 250 and 300

Special profiles

320 x 270 / 4.5 – 9.3 / 3.0 – 6.1 U steel 380

Sheet pile wall Larssen II – IV

160 x 580 / 12.0 / 8.5 Sheet pile wall Larssen V

planned: 250 x 1050 / 6.0 / 12.0 Wide flat steel 1000 x 14

480 x 420 x 120 / 5.5 – 12.0 / 5.1 – 11.1 H beam 250 – 800, max. 400 x 400

Chap. 3.3 - 58

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Pass sequence for the production of a U steel
 In hot rolling of steel profiles, it is in general not possible to achieve the final profile directly
from the square cross section.
 Intermediate steps have to be applied.

 Exemplarily, the
individual rolling
steps for the
production of a U
steel section in nine
passes is depicted.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 198 Chap. 3.3 - 59

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Roll pass design – definition
 Roll pass design is the definiton of the necessary forming steps during rolling in
order to achieve the finished product.
 The definition of the
intermediate steps (pass
design) is based on
experience. There exist very
few rules.
 For simple pass designs, a
calculation can be done using
flat rolling passes with
equivalent cross-sectional
areas:
 method of maximum width
 method of identical w/h
ratio
 method of maximum
height

Source: Neumann, H. (editor): Kalibrieren von Walzen. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie Leipzig, 1975 Chap. 3.3 - 60

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Classification of pass designs

 Regular pass design  Simple irregular  Complicated irregular

pass design pass design

Homogeneous Dh Inhomogeneous Dh Inhomogeneous Dh

min. 1 symmetry max. 1 symmetry
Source: Neumann, H. (editor): Kalibrieren von Walzen. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie Leipzig, 1975 Chap. 3.3 - 61

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Classification of pass designs
Geometry:

Square Diamond Round Box

Mode of operation:
Edging pass Roughing pass (stretching)
Knife pass order: square-round-square
(upsetting)

Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 62

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Typical pass designs for simple products
Simple irregular pass designs: roughing pass sequences

square – diamond – square

square – round – square

round – oval – round

Products:
 Steel bars
 Wire
Source: IBF Chap. 3.3 - 63

3.3.3 Rolling of profiles

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 64
Processes for the production of tubes

 Bending and welding

 Profile extrusion

 Centrifugal casting

 Rolling of tubes

Chap. 3.3 - 65

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Current processes for the production of seamless tubes
Heating Piercing Stretching Finish rolling

Drawing
press
Pit
furnace Mannesmann Pilger mill
Piercing cross-
press rolling mill

Rotating Forging
hearth process
furnace Sizing or
Push stretch-
bench reducing
mill
Cross- Assel
Walking rolling mill mill
beam
furnace Plug mill Smoothing
mill

Bar mill

Source: Spur, Kümmerling, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 182 Chap. 3.3 - 66

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Piercing by cross-rolling – principle
 Initial material: round bars (not rolled)

 Alternating radial tensile and compression stresses lead to loosening (porosity nucleation)
in the core
Roll
Work piece
Roll
Mandrel bar
Bar
Compressive stress

Mandrel
T
Tensile stress T

σC = Compressive stresses
C σT = Tensile stresses
Compressive stress σ C = 3 σT

Roll

Source: Spur, Kümmerling, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 182; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 202 Chap. 3.3 - 67

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Piercing by cross-rolling – process variants
 Initial material: round bars (not rolled)

 Alternating radial tensile and compression stresses lead to loosening (porosity nucleation)
in the core

 Process variants with different roll geometries:

Roll Work piece Roll Work piece

Work piece Roll
Mandrel bar Mandrel bar
Mandrel bar
Mandrel
Mandrel
Mandrel

Barrel-type rolls Cone-shaped rolls Disk-shaped rolls

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 202 Chap. 3.3 - 68

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Piercing by cross-rolling – barrel-type roll piercing

Start of rolling

Piercing mandrel

Round bar Cross-rolling

Hollow bar

End of rolling
Chap. 3.3 - 69

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Stretching – pilgrim step process
Start of rolling
 Cyclic process with forward and backward
Hollow bar
movement of work piece and mandrel Tube

 Application: mainly large diameters

Pilger roll Pilger mandrel
(~ 175 to 660 mm)
Rolling

Barrel diameter

Smoothing
Barrel diameter

Moving forward

Source: Spur, Kümmerling, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 184; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 200 Chap. 3.3 - 70

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Stretching – rolling with fixed mandrel
 Fixed mandrel Start of rolling

 Separate pair of rolls for return

 Typical diameter: Rolling

177.8 mm (7“) to 406 mm (16“)

 Typical length 14 m (rare 18 m)

End of rolling

Moving back

Source: Spur, Kümmerling, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 185; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 202 Chap. 3.3 - 71

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Reducing to a tube
 Rolling of tubes with moving mandrel  Rolling of tubes without inner tool

Diameter < 150 mm

Roll
Rolls
Work piece

Mandrel Work piece

 Drive via mandrel  Stretch-reducing with strip tension

 lmax  18 m (otherwise increase of wall thickness)
 Drive via rolls  Up to 10 % reduction in cross section
 lmax  35 m per mill stand  up to 30 stands

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 201 Chap. 3.3 - 72

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Continuous tube rolling mill

Piercing

Heating

Stretching
Inserting mandrel

Removing mandrel

Reducing

Heating

Chap. 3.3 - 73

3.3.4 Rolling of tubes

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 74
Stretch rolling of preforms for closed die forging
 Stretch rolling (reducer rolling) = Process for longitudinal profile rolling of intermediate
shapes
 preforms for closed die forging
 goal: mass distribution

Upper reducer roll

Roll segment

Roll
Work piece
Lower roll
Work piece Stretch rolling process

Automatic ram

Initial shape Flywheel

Drive
rolls
Reducer roll

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 212 Chap. 3.3 - 75

3.3.5 Stretch rolling

Pass sequence for the intermediate shape of a shift fork

Mass distribution
Cross section q

of preform  Example of a mass distribution

that can be achieved by stretch rolling

Length

Initial shape

1st pass

2nd pass

3rd pass

4th pass
(see section 3.1.5)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 212 Chap. 3.3 - 76

3.3.5 Stretch rolling

Transverse rolling of preforms
 Transverse rolling = Process for transverse profile rolling of intermediate shapes
 Goal: rotationally symmetric preforms with axial mass distribution

Shearing knife Flat tools

Roll segment Rotating roll

Work piece

Work piece
Rolls

Round bar/
work piece

Fixed tool
part
Roll segment

 With convex curved  With a fixed concave  With translational flat

roll segments that are and a rotating convex tools moving against
rotating in the same direction curved tool part each other
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 214 Chap. 3.3 - 77

3.3.5 Stretch rolling

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 78
Process principle in transverse rolling with flat tools
 The gear profile on the work piece is generated by rolling between two flat tools
which are similar to a toothed rack and move in opposite directions.

Exit zone Pass zone Entry zone

Source: Gerd Fischer GmbH (right) Chap. 3.3 - 79

3.3.6 Rolling of gears

Rolling of gears – process types

 Transverse rolling  Longitudinal rolling

Tool Tool
(reference (involute profile)
profile)

 Cold rolling needs a few seconds production time and is hence

up to 30 times faster than machining processes

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 216 Chap. 3.3 - 80

3.3.6 Rolling of gears

Longitudinal profile rolling

 Cold rolling process

 Gearing on hollow and

solid bodies

 Partial forming,
i.e. small plastic zone%

1 Work piece
2 Tool (profiled roll)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 217 Chap. 3.3 - 81

3.3.6 Rolling of gears

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 82
Thread rolling

1 Fixed tool
2 Adjustable tool
3 Work piece
4 Work piece support

 Thread rolling with flat tools  Thread rolling with round tools by the plunge-cut
method

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 225 Chap. 3.3 - 83

3.3.7 Rolling of threads

Continuous thread rolling
 In the continuous process, long threads can be rolled.

Axially parallel rolls; Tilted rolls; profile Tilted rolls; profile

profile with helix angle without helix angle with helix angle
1 = 0, 2 > wp 1 = wp, 2 = 0 1 + 2 = wp

1 = tilting angle of axes; 2 = helix angle of rolls; wp = helix angle of work piece
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 226 Chap. 3.3 - 84

3.3.7 Rolling of threads

Hardness distribution after thread rolling

 Plastic strain near to the

surface leads to:

 work hardening in the area

of the thread profile

 increase in load capacity by

6 to 12 % compared to
threads produced by
machining

Thread M8, material:chrome-vanadium-steel,

tempered, core hardness 340 HV0.1
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 222 Chap. 3.3 - 85

3.3.7 Rolling of threads

Thread rolling tools
 Thread rolling tools can be mounted on turning machines.
 For small threads (d < 3 mm), two rolls are used. In case of larger diameters, three rolls
are commonly used.

Axial thread rolling tool Radial thread rolling tool

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 227; CJWinter – LMT Fette Chap. 3.3 - 86

3.3.7 Rolling of threads

Outline
3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing

3.3 Rolling
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Flat longitudinal rolling
3.3.3 Rolling of profiles
3.3.4 Rolling of tubes
3.3.5 Stretch rolling
3.3.6 Rolling of gears
3.3.7 Rolling of threads
3.3.8 Flow forming

Chap. 3.3 - 87
Flow forming – process characteristics and example products
 Flow forming is used to produce mainly axisymmetric hollow components with:
 cylindrical
 conical or differently shaped surface lines.

 In contrast to “spinning” (see sheet metal forming), the change in wall thickness of the
initial part is intended in flow forming.

Chap. 3.3 - 88

3.3.8 Flow forming

Classification of flow forming processes according to DIN 8583

Flow forming

Product Hollow part with conical or

Hollow part with cylindrical surface line
shape differently formed surface line

Tool Rotating cylindrical mandrel Respectively shaped mandrel

Process Synchronous run Reverse run

Circular Formed Formed Formed

Initial shape Tube Circular blank
blank component component component

Chap. 3.3 - 89

3.3.8 Flow forming

Forward flow forming

24 sec

Source: Leico Chap. 3.3 - 90

3.3.8 Flow forming

Flow forming products

Chap. 3.3 - 91

3.3.8 Flow forming

Wheel manufacturing

27 sec

Source: Leico Chap. 3.3 - 92

3.3.8 Flow forming

Shear forming with (almost) conical lateral surface
 Process characteristics:
 Shear forming is flow forming of axisymmetric parts
 Work piece contour is produced in one rolling step
(in spinning: multiple steps)
 Wall thickness is reduced intentionally
 The final wall thickness is calculated based on the volume constancy as follows:

𝑡1 = 𝑡0 ⋅ sin 𝛼

t0 Initial wall thickness

t1 Final wall thickness
D0 Diameter of the initial part (circular blank)
t D1 Diameter of the final part
 Shear forming angle

Source: Runge Chap. 3.3 - 93

3.3.8 Flow forming

Roller tool shapes for parts with conical or other surface lines

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.2: Massivumformung, p. 247 Chap. 3.3 - 94

3.3.8 Flow forming

Examples for parts produced by shear forming

Shear forming of stainless steel bowls Various parts made of copper

and steel

Source: Runge Chap. 3.3 - 95

3.3.8 Flow forming

Cylinder flow forming
 Process characteristics:
 production of rotationally symmetric
precision hollow parts
 material saving due to nonmachining
production and cold work hardening
 short production time
 simple tool design
 high tool life

Parts produced by cylinder flow

forming and their preform (left)

Source: Runge Chap. 3.3 - 96

3.3.8 Flow forming

Cylinder flow forming in synchronous and reverse run
 Process characteristics:
 initial shape: thick-walled cylinder
 product: thin-walled cylinder, optionally with inner contour and wall thickness changes
Material movement Counter punch
Rotating mandrel

Direct process
(synchronous run)

Roller tool

Limit stop Tool movement

Rotating mandrel
Indirect process
(reverse run)

Roller
Tool movement tool Material movement
Source: Groche Chap. 3.3 - 97

3.3.8 Flow forming

Cylinder flow forming machine

Product characteristics :
Diameter min. 22 mm
max. 622 mm
Wall thickness min. 0.15 mm
max. 15.25 mm
Dynamic Machine Works Inc.
Length max. 7000 mm
Chap. 3.3 - 98

3.3.8 Flow forming

Tubular and bushing-like parts with inner profile
 Tubular parts with inner profiles, e.g.:
 notches
 cams
 inner gearings
 Accuracy as for smooth tubes
 None or only little final machining required

Chap. 3.3 - 99

3.3.8 Flow forming

Tube tapering and closing of thick-walled tubes

Example: Production of high pressure gas bottles made from steel

 Large wall thickness necessary for cutting the thread for the valve
 By tilting tapering rolls, final thicknesses of up to 3-4 times of the initial wall
thickness can be achieved
 The tool movement is realized CNC controlled

Source: Runge Chap. 3.3 - 100

3.3.8 Flow forming

Tube tapering (necking-in)

19 sec

Source: Leico Chap. 3.3 - 101

3.3.8 Flow forming

Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 3.3 - 102

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 1
Classification of sheet metal forming processes

Compressive Tensile- Tensile Shear

forming
compressive
forming forming Bending
forming
Deep drawing Stretch forming Die bending
t0
Punch
Punch Sheet
Blank holder Die
Sheet
Sheet Punch t1 < t0
Die Punch
t1 Sheet holder U - die Sheet

Die

Collar forming
Sheet
V - die
Punch
Blank holder
Sheet
Elongating Round bending
Die

Sheet holder
Spinning Sheet handling
Mandrel Sheet Sheet
Sheet

Bending core
Sheet
Sheet holder

Roller tool

Source: Schuler Chap. 4 - 2

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Material properties of sheets
 The mechanical properties of sheet materials are determined using
tensile tests (see section 4.2.1): A0
 Strength: F F
 Ultimate tensile strength Rm

Engineering stress: σ= F/A0

 Yield stress Rp0.2 (ReH, ReL) l0
 Ductility: Rm
 Ultimate elongation A Rp0.2
 Reduction in area (necking) Z
 Anisotropy:
 Normal anisotropy (average) 𝑟, 𝑟ҧ
 Planar anisotropy ∆𝑟

 Flow curve is often approximated by

the Hollomon-equation:

𝑘𝑓 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝜑𝑛
0.2% Engineering strain:
(𝑛 refers to the uniform elongation) ε = (l-l0/l0)
εue
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 3

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Anisotropy of sheets
 Sheets are often anisotropic as they are produced by a directional production
processes (rolling of strip).

 The anisotropic behavior of sheets is often desired.

 The anisotropy of sheets is caused by the microstructure:

 orientation of the crystallographic directions
 shape, direction and position of inclusions and precipitations
 shape and direction of the grains

 These causes often presuppose each other.

Chap. 4 - 4

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Normal anisotropy
Definition: normal anisotropy (also R-value or Lankford coefficient)

𝑤1 w
𝜑𝑤 ln
𝑤0
𝑟= =
𝜑𝑡 𝑡
ln 1
𝑡0

| r | = 1: isotropic plastic behavior t

| r | > 1: desired anisotropic plastic behavior
“More material flows from the width into the length direction of the sheet than from
the thickness direction”, i.e.: there is a larger resistance of the sheet against a
reduction in sheet thickness
 High normal anisotropy is optimal for deep drawing of sheets.
| r | < 1: undesired anisotropic plastic behavior
“More material flows from the thickness into the length direction of the sheet than
from the width direction”, i.e.: there is a larger resistance of the sheet against a
reduction of the width Chap. 4 - 5

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Average normal anisotropy
 The normal anisotropy depends on the position of the
sample with respect to the rolling direction (RD).

Normal anisotropy r
RD

r0° r0°
r90° 𝒓ത
r45°

r45° r45°
r90°
 Definition:
average normal anisotropy 𝒓ത
1
𝑟ҧ = 𝑟0° + 2 ⋅ 𝑟45° + 𝑟90°
4

 Good deep drawing behavior for 𝑟ҧ > 1.25

Source: Spur, Liewald, Wagner, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 452; IBF Chap. 4 - 6

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Planar anisotropy
 Definition: planar anisotropy 𝚫𝒓
1 0.5·(r0°+ r90°)

Normal anisotropy r
Δ𝑟 = ⋅ 𝑟0° − 2 ⋅ 𝑟45° + 𝑟90° = 2 ∙ (𝑟ҧ − 𝑟45° ) r0°
2 r90°
Dr
The planar anisotropy is a measure for the
earing in deep drawing caused by the r45°
directional dependency of r.

Dr > 0 it is:
 For
 at the “top of the ear” the r- value is
Earing height

high, i.e. the changes in sheet

thickness (= increase) are small.
 “radial length” higher.
 at the “bottom of the ear” the r- value
is low, i.e. the changes in sheet
thickness (= increase) are high
planar anisotropy  “radial length” smaller.
Source: Kopp, p. 106; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 17ff; Groche Chap. 4 - 7

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Example: deep drawing of a cup – FEM simulation

Punch
Blank holder

Sheet
Die

 isotropic sheet  sheet with planar anisotropy

Plastic
strain
high

low

 formation of earings
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 8

4.1 Overview and basic principles

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets
4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns
4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 9
Determination of formability of sheet materials
 Experiments for the quantitative determination of material parameters
 determination of flow curve
 determination of anisotropic parameters
 disadvantage:
These experiments are usually restricted to uniaxial (or special) stress conditions.

 Qualitative determination of the formability

 imitation of simple forming processes of sheet metal forming
 including similar process conditions as in the production processes (e.g. friction)
 qualitative classification of the formability of sheet materials
 disadvantage:
Despite of including similar process conditions, a transfer of the results to different
forming processes is difficult.
 Consequently, a large variety of technological testing methods exist.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 6 Chap. 4 - 10

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Quantitative determination of material parameters at sheets
 Flat tensile test
 Flat compression test
 Layer compression test
 Hydraulic bulge test
 Plane torsion test

 Further tests:
 flat tensile test with limited Deformation
lateral contraction zone

 different bending tests

(uncertain evaluation)

Flat tensile test with limited

lateral contraction

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 11 Chap. 4 - 11

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Flat tensile test
 The most common test is the flat tensile test: Exemplary specimen dimensions
 determination of the flow curve A0
smooth smooth
 determination of anisotropic parameters
(see section 4.1)
 Only valid up to the uniform elongation, i.e.
for low strains (usually φ < 0.2)
 Take care with extrapolations of the flow
curve using approximation functions:  Standard: DIN EN ISO 6892-1
Interpolation Extrapolation
Flow stress in N/mm²

400

300
𝑎 = 397.4
𝑘𝑓 = 𝑎𝜑 𝑛
200 𝑛 = 0.26
Experiment
100
𝑘𝑓0 = 59.7 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
0 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓0 + 𝑎1 𝜑 𝑛1 𝑎 = 397.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 𝑛 = 0.26
Strain
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 7f Chap. 4 - 12

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Flat compression test
 Determination of compression flow Specimen Upper tool
curve
for sheets
 high strains (up to φ ≈ 2)
 plane strain condition
 Sheets must have a minimum thickness.
 Accurate guidance of the tools necessary
to avoid lateral offset.
 Fracture might occur at the longitudinal
edges due to notch effect, although the Lower tool
formability is not fully exhausted.

 Calculation of flow curve:

Triaxial stress state requires equivalent
stress :
1 𝐹 ℎ1 c = correction
𝑘𝑓 = ⋅ ; 𝜑 = 𝑐 ⋅ ln
𝑐 𝑇𝑤 ⋅ 𝑤 ℎ0 factor here: 1.15
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 11 Chap. 4 - 13

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Cylindrical compression test with layered specimens
 Goal: Flow curve; measured parameters are: dl = layer thickness
 compression force F F
 stroke s
 Relative movement of the sheet layers must be avoided.
 Possibilities to stabilize the specimens:
 gluing the layers dl h0
 wrapping the whole specimen with tape
 applying a mechanical stabilization of the specimen
(e.g. using a mandrel)
Upper die
Punch

Work  Calculation of the flow curve:

piece
Work piece Guiding
mandrel
4 ⋅ 𝐹 ⋅ ℎ1 ℎ1
Container
𝑘𝑓 = ; 𝜑 = ln
Lower 𝜋 ⋅ ℎ 0 ⋅ 𝑑0 2 ℎ0
die

Inner guidance Outer guidance

Chap. 4 - 14

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Example of a layer compression test
 Case A: successful experiment Case A: “ideal”
compression test

 Case B: failed experiment

 specimen shows inhomogeneous
strain distribution over the single
layers
 local strains in this example
range from 0.2 <  < 2.2
 no reliable evaluation of these
failed experiments possible
Case B:

Polished section of layer compression specimen

Chap. 4 - 15

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Hydraulic bulge test
 Goal: Determination of flow curve at similar loading
conditions as in real sheet metal forming processes t1 r

 A circular blank is clamped and exposed to

t0
hydraulic pressure on one side
 Three parameters are necessary to determine the p
flow curve:
 p: fluid pressure
 t1: sheet thickness
 r: radius of curvature

𝑝 𝑟
today partially optical measurement
𝑘𝑓 = ⋅ +1
 Maximum achievable strain =0.7 2 𝑡1
(larger than in flat tensile test)
 The determined flow stress is higher than the flow
stress determined in the tensile test
 Reason: anisotropy at biaxial tensile stress

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 12 Chap. 4 - 16

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Plane torsion test
Torsion test with shear bridges
 Goal: Flow curve up to high strains
 A circular blank is clamped in the blank
center and at the edges using clamping
jaws. The clamping jaws are twisted
towards each other.
inner
 High strains possible ( > 0.7) clamping jaw
outer
 Disadvantages: clamping jaw
 tight clamping at inner clamping
jaw is difficult to realize Tresca
 formation of folds
 evaluation requires equivalent v. Mises
stress criterion Extrapolated

Equivalent stress
 Depiction right: Plane torsion test

Comparision of the flow curves

determined in flat tensile test and Flat tensile test Material: Al 98.7 w
torsion test. Flow stress was calculated Sheet thickness: 1.0 mm
according to von Mises and Tresca.
Equivalent strain
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 12f; Brosius & Tekkaya, 2011 Chap. 4 - 17

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Qualitative technology oriented test methods
 Stretch forming tests:  Deep drawing tests:
 bulge test according to Erichsen  cup drawing test acc. to Swift
 hydraulic bulge test  cup drawing test acc. to Fukui
 expansion test  cup drawing test acc. to
 stretch forming test according to Beisswänger
Güth  cup drawing test acc. to
Schmidt-Kapfenberg
 wedge draw test acc. to Sachs

 Next to these tests, there exists a variety of other test methods which consider
specific aspects of different sheet metal forming processes. Also, stretch forming
and deep drawing processes are combined.

Chap. 4 - 18

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Erichsen bulge test to evaluate the formability of sheet and strip
 Measured parameter: penetration
depth of the punch up to visible
necking (Erichsen depth parameter)
Punch
 Sample is tightly clamped
Blank
 Penetration depth is depending on holder
t0
strain hardening
Sample
 No correlation between maximum t < t0
drawing ratio and penetration depth Die
 Friction between punch and sheet
influences the test results:
 with lower friction, necking or crack Tool for the Erichsen bulge test
occurs closer to the pole of the
punch
 Results of the Erichsen bulge test can  Standard: DIN EN ISO 20482
be transferred well to real stretch (sheet thickness range: 0.1 to 3 mm)
forming cases
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 20 Chap. 4 - 19

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Cup drawing test according to Swift
 Measure for the capability of deep drawing is
Punch
the maximum drawing ratio bmax Blank
(see section 4.4.1) holder

 High experimental effort, since series of

experiments is necessary Die
Sheet
 High dependence on friction conditions
Drawn
 After the deep drawing test, a value for the cup
trend of earing can be measured in case of
anisotropic samples: Drawing ratio 𝛽 = 𝑑0 /𝑑1

ഥ𝑚𝑎𝑥 −ℎ
ℎ ഥ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑍= 1 ഥ ഥ𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
⋅ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 +ℎ

ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎh𝑚𝑖𝑛

max
min

h
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 23f Chap. 4 - 20

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Technological bending test (folding test)
 Goal: Conclusions on formability in bending
 Bending up to a certain angle or until the formability is exhausted
 Bending angle is measured at unloaded specimen (springback)
 Further bending necessary if bending angle is supposed to be 180°
 Standard: DIN EN ISO 7438

Bending device with bending Bending device with bending Further bending of specimen
punch and supporting rolls punch and die up to 180°

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 29f Chap. 4 - 21

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Bending fatigue test
 Goal: Conclusions on bendability of sheets or strips with a thickness below 3 mm
 Parameter:
Number of bendings until a crack becomes visible as a measure for the bendability of the
sheet
 Test for extra lattens and tin sheets, e.g. for cans
 Evaluation of the formability across multiple forming processes
 Standard: DIN EN ISO 7799

Two bendings in the bending fatigue test

The values indicate the number of back
and forth bendings.

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 31 Chap. 4 - 22

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets
4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns
4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 23
Deformation analysis using optical methods
 Sheets have a large surface to volume ratio, i.e.:
 Evaluating the change of surface patterns allows
for quantitative conclusions on the deformation

Egg cup Tensile test specimen

Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 24

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Evaluation of surface patterns
 Two types of pattern can be used: Circular pattern
 Deterministic patterns:
 square elements/ circular elements
 manual or automatic evaluation
 Stochastic patterns:
 only automatic evaluation
Circular pattern
with squares
 For the evaluation of all patterns, it has
to be considered:
 when only initial and final state are
compared, the direction of the Line pattern
principle strain must not change
during the experiment (otherwise
stepwise evaluation required)
Stochastic pattern

Source: DIN EN ISO 12004-1/2 Chap. 4 - 25

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Demands on the surface pattern
 Surface pattern has to display the Circular pattern
material flow clearly

 Requirements:
 high contrast of pattern to sheet
surface
 good adhesion on sheet surface Circular pattern
with squares
 high abrasion resistance
 no damage of sheet surface (no
change of forming conditions)
 adequate size of the pattern
Line pattern

Stochastic pattern

Source: Schatz, Erweiterte Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der Methode der Visioplastizität in der Blechumformung (Dissertation), 2011, pp. 9-10; DIN EN ISO 12004-1/2 Chap. 4 - 26

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Application of the surface pattern

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Electrochemical + Low technical effort  Results are user-dependent
etching + High wear resistance  Only for electrically conducting
surfaces
Screen printing + Easy applicable  Low wear resistance
+ No material damage  Chipping off in case of large
+ Applicable for nonconductive surface extensions
surfaces
Laser + Flexibly adjustable pattern size  Heating of the material
(Nd:YAG or CO2) + Applicable for nonconductive  High machine costs
surfaces  No mobile application
+ High wear resistance  Size of the surface where the
pattern is applied is limited
Scratching + Low technical effort  High damage of the surface
+ Applicable for nonconductive possible
surfaces  Wear of the scratching tool

Source: Schatz, Erweiterte Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der Methode der Visioplastizität in der Blechumformung (Dissertation), 2011, p. 10 Chap. 4 - 27

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Choosing the dimensions
 Dimension and arrangement of the pattern elements have to be chosen in such a
way that they cover a maximum possible area, i.e. the entire component.
 The size of the pattern elements is limited by the requirement of homogeneous
strain in the element.

Homogeneously deformed circle Inhomogeneously deformed circle

before deformation after deformation before deformation after deformation

Recommended diameters for the circular elements:

 Large irregular sheet metal parts: 6 – 15 mm inner diameter of element
 Small surfaces: 2 – 5 mm inner diameter of element

Chap. 4 - 28

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Basics of evaluation (circular elements) / state of strain

𝑑0 𝑑1 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝜑1 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜑2 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜑3 = −(𝜑1 + 𝜑2 )
𝑑0 𝑑0
𝑑2

Deep drawing Uniaxial tension “plane strain” Coaxial stretch forming

𝜑1 = −𝜑2 𝜑1 = −2𝜑2 𝜑2 = 0 𝜑1 = 𝜑2
𝜑3 = 0 𝜑2 = 𝜑3 𝜑1 = −𝜑3 𝜑3 = −2𝜑1

(plane state of strain) (tensile test) (plane state of strain)

Chap. 4 - 29

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Example: analysis of a deep drawn cup (Ø 50mm) using ARGUS

Cup bottom

Radius of drawing ring Punch edge radius

Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 30

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Example: strains of a deep drawn cup
0.5 φ1 in log
φ1 0.35
0.4 φ2
φ3 B
0.3
φeq
0.2
Strains in log

0.1
A 0.00
0

-0.1 a d e
Punch edge Bottom
b B
d e
-0.2
c Part wall
-0.3 a b
A
c Die edge
-0.4 Flange
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Stretched cut length in mm
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 31

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Example: strains of a deep drawn part I
0.6
φeq
0.4

0.2
φ1
0
Strains in log

b c
-0.2

-0.4 A
b c φ3

-0.6 φ2
a d
A
-0.8 Section A-A
a d
-1
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Stretched cut length in mm
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 32

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Example: strains of a deep drawn part II
1.2

0.8

0.4
φeq
Strains in log

φ1
0 φ3
b c
φ2
-0.4
b c

-0.8 B a d d

a Section B-B
B
-1.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Stretched cut length in mm
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 33

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Determination of forming limit diagrams (FLD)
 To determine the forming limit, sheets are formed up to material failure (necking or crack)
using suitable test methods.
 The forming limit is determined from the pattern elements which are closest to the
location of failure but are not in contact with the failure.
 By varying the experimental parameters (specimen or tool geometry) preferably different
forming conditions (1,2) are realized.

1

"plane strain"
𝜑2 = 0
Crack
Riß

0 2

Chap. 4 - 34

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Forming limit diagram
 The determined forming limits are entered into the FLD and form the forming limit curve.
The forming limit curve describes the area in which failure (necking, crack) occurs.
 In the production of a component, the distance between observed deformation and
forming limit curve is a measure for the safety against necking or cracks.
 Determination of safety area (dashed line in figure)

1
Failure
VERSAGEN

GUT
Good
Good
GUT

en
ieh
ein  1=

kz
Ti  1

ec
ef =-

ach -2

strain”

tr
zie  2

strain"

Good

sS
GUT
he

sig  2

ge
n

er

 hsi
2=0
“plane

 hac
Zu

2
"plane

c
1=
g

ei
gl

2
0
Chap. 4 - 35

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Forming limit diagram – Exemplary strain distribution of a cross die

Major strain

Experiment
Simulation

Minor strain
Chap. 4 - 36

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Experiments for the determination of FLD
 Determining the FLD requires that the material failure occurs under different loading
conditions.
 This is achieved by applying different types of tests or by varying the geometry of tool and
specimen.
 The following test methods can be used to determine a forming limit diagram:
 hydraulic bulge test (𝜑1 , 𝜑2 > 0)
 tensile test with notched specimens (𝜑1 > 0, 𝜑2 < 0)
 bulge test with different punch geometries (𝜑1 , 𝜑2 > 0)
 bulge test with strip-like blanks and hemispherical punch (whole FLD)
 bulge test with blanks with different cutouts on both sides and cylindrical punch –
Marciniak test (whole FLD)
 bulge test with blanks with different cutouts on both sides and hemispherical
punch – Nakajima test (whole FLD)
 nowadays, mostly used test method for the determination of FLD

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 47-57 Chap. 4 - 37

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Nakajima test I
Test setup
 The specimen geometry is varied: different
circular cutouts at both sides of blank Specimen D
Lubrication
 This causes different biaxial strain states
(positive and negative minor strains)
 The sample has to crack close to the Punch
center of the punch for a valid test. This
can be adjusted by appropriate lubrication.
 Standard: DIN EN ISO 12004-1/2
d
Specimen geometry – before test after test
Sample with square pattern

Source: BMW

Source: IBF; DIN EN ISO 12004-1/2 Chap. 4 - 38

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Nakajima test II – example FLD
Specimen
geometry
(width)

1 2 3 4 5 6
Tested
specimen

𝝋𝟏

plane strain
1

𝜑2 = 0
2 6
5
3 4

𝝋𝟐
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 39

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Influences on the FLD
Influence of pattern element size Influence of rolling direction
Material: DC03 Material: DC03

Strain
Strain

Strain
Strain
Diameter 1: 2.7 mm 1: Sample perpendicular to rolling direction
2: 4.5 mm 2: Sample parallel to rolling direction
3: 7.1 mm
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 59 Chap. 4 - 40

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Influence of deformation history (strain path)
 The strain path influences the formability:
1: Deep drawing
Blue: FLD with 1/2≈const. 2: Uniaxial tension
3: Stretch forming
Red: first uniaxial tension, then stretch form.
Green: first stretch form. then uniaxial tension

Deformation
1st step 2nd step
path

Strain
Deep drawing Stretch forming

Biaxial stretch
Uniaxial tension forming

Biaxial stretch
forming Uniaxial tension

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 62

Strain Chap. 4 - 41

4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming

4.2.1 Determination of formability of sheets
4.2.2 Deformation analysis with surface patterns
4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 42
Tribology in sheet metal forming
 Influence of the friction
on the forming process Tool Lubricant

 Influence of the Mechanical properties Thermal resistance

surface condition Geometric characteristics Pressure resistance
Material Shear resistance
 Lubricants Viscosity
 Tool wear
FRICTION

Sheet material Forming processes

Mechanical properties Normal contact stresses
Geometric characteristics Sliding speed
Material Surface increase
Surface texture Temperature

Source: Groche Chap. 4 - 43

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Tribology in sheet metal forming
 Characteristics of tribological conditions in sheet metal forming are:
 low relative velocity between tool and work piece
 in general, no hydrodynamic lubrication conditions
 low surface pressure (particularly in deep drawing processes)
 utilization of liquid or paste-like lubricants
 large contact area between tool and work piece
 Predominant lubrication condition (friction condition) in sheet metal forming:

Mixed lubrication /
mixed friction (see section 2.3.1)

Boundary
Lubricant layers

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 78f Chap. 4 - 44

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Required friction conditions
Deep drawing Stamping
(combination of deep drawing and
FB FP stretch forming) FB
Blank holder
Punch

Drawing die

1: Drawing die and blank holder 3: Punch edge radius

2: Drawing die curvature 4: Punch bottom

 Low friction in area 1 and 2  Low friction in area 3 and 4

 low drawing force  uniform deformation / hardening
 High friction in area 3  High friction in area 1 and 2
 here: transfer of the force  controlling the material flow
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 80f Chap. 4 - 45

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Friction in deep drawing
 In deep drawing of irregular sheet metal parts, there are locally different loads and
hence different friction conditions.

Wedge draw test Bending test

FB Strip pulling test
Draw bead test FB
FB

Blank holder

Drawing die

Deep drawn part

Source: Groche; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 82ff Chap. 4 - 46

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Simple model of mixed friction I

Tool
FB

Lubricant
p p p
Sheet surface

Boundary lubrication

1. Setting and applying normal stresses:

 contact at few locations
 high stresses at low normal forces
 flattening
 formation of boundary lubrication and hydrostatic pressure (p)

Chap. 4 - 47

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Simple model of mixed friction II

2. Increasing of normal stresses/

FB
relative movement at boundary
lubrication t
 further flattening
 tearing of the boundary lubrication p p p
 cold shut (adhesion)

cold shut

3. Increasing the normal stresses/ FB

relative movement at boundary
lubrication
 shearing off of the cold shut
t
 material transfer and/or formation p p p
of abrasion particles

abrasion particle
Chap. 4 - 48

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Examples of wear

Abrasive wear Examples of cold

shut (adhesion)

Source: Groche Chap. 4 - 49

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Dependency of friction on roughness profile
 Reduction of friction forces requires small parts of surfaces with boundary
lubrication conditions
 Requirement:
Compared to the sheet surface, the tool surface is smooth

Then it is valid:
The part of the surface where boundary lubrication exists is not determined by the
height of the roughness but by the roughness profile.

Various roughness profiles with identical roughness heights:

High surface part with Low surface part with

boundary lubrication boundary lubrication

Chap. 4 - 50

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Roll texturing I
 Using rolls with a defined surface texture, a sheet surface can be produced in the rolling
process that has minimum surface parts with boundary lubrication.
For the texturing of rolls, various methods are available:
Stochastic Deterministic
texturing methods texturing methods
SBT EDT Pretex LT EBT
shot blast electrical dis- preussag laser electron beam
texturing charge texturing texturing texturing texturing
Blasting material Discharge channel Chrome Laser beam inert gas Electron beam
electrolyte Anode

Deformed surface Molten material solidified Molten Molten Molten

Solidified
Deposited Cathode melt material melt
material material
Blasting Electrical discharge chrome balls

Roll surface

Chap. 4 - 51

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Roll texturing II
Example: Example:
Roll texturing using the EDT Texturing the sheet with a roll
method texturized via the LT method
Nozzle for dielectric (schematic)
Weld
Detail z puddle
Jaw chuck Roll
Electrode Bulge
Feed unit Circular chamber
for lubricant

Sheet
Roll z

Roll surface (LT) Sheet surface

Left:
EDT

Right:
SBT
Source: Groche Chap. 4 - 52

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Tasks of the lubricant
 The main functions of the lubricant
in sheet metal forming are:
 minimizing the friction
but: to control the material flow,
often a high friction is required.
 minimizing the wear
Lubrication for sheet
metal forming

Aspects in the
selection of a lubricant

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 100 Chap. 4 - 53

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Example for lubricants for different materials
 Steel sheet
 greasing oils as basic lubrication  main task: corrosion protection
 basic lubrication usually sufficient as lubricant
 classification of basic lubrication: light: 0.5 to 1.0 µm heavy: 2.0 to 2.5 µm
 Galvanized steel sheet
 basic lubrication
 for difficult forming processes
 paste-like, particle-free and high-viscous lubricants
 Stainless steel sheets
 use of films or paint as surface protection

 Copper and brass sheets

 lubricants often contain sulfur which can cause “black spots” on the sheet surface
 application below critical temperature
 addition of inhibitors in case of water-soluble lubricants
 Aluminum sheets
 surface consists of oxide layer (Al2O3)
 avoiding solid state friction because of high tendency of cold shut
 high-viscous lubricants or films
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 106 Chap. 4 - 54

4.2.3 Tribology in sheet metal forming

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming

4.3 Bending

4.4 Deep drawing

4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 55
Classification of bending processes
Bending

With straight tool motion With rotating tool motion

Bending Rotary
Draw Free Die Roll Round
Curling by Folding straighten-
bending bending bending buckling bending bending
ing
Bending without lateral

Roller straightening
Bend straightening

Draw roll forming

Free rounding

Die hemming
Die rounding

Roll bending

Roll forming
Die beading

Corrugating

Winding
Winding
force

Source: DIN 8586 (Spur, Chatti, Maevus, Hermes, Tekkaya, Kleiner, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 573) Chap. 4 - 56

4.3 Bending
Examples of bending processes with straight tool motion

Free bending Free rounding

Die bending Die rounding

Draw bending Curling

Die bending of a sheet at the

Bending by buckling beginning and end of the process

Source: DIN 8586 (Spur, Chatti, Maevus, Hermes, Tekkaya, Kleiner, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 574f) Chap. 4 - 57

4.3 Bending
Examples of bending processes with rotating tool motion

Roll bending

Folding

Roller straightening

Round bending

Corrugating Roll forming Last forming step in roll forming using

a pair of bending rolls

Source: DIN 8586 (Spur, Chatti, Maevus, Hermes, Tekkaya, Kleiner, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 574f); Schuler (right) Chap. 4 - 58

4.3 Bending
Terms in bending
Terms at bending part: Terms at bending arc:
AB : Bending arc
CC‘ : Bending axis
𝛼 : Bending angle t0
𝛽 : Crown angle

Bending legs Bending plane

Bending axis
ri : innerer bending radius
ro : outer bending radius
MB :Bending moment
rm : mean bending radius
t0 : sheet thickness l0 :length of neutral fiber
w : sheet width
a1,a2 : length of bending legs
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 245 Chap. 4 - 59

4.3 Bending
Elementary bending theory
Simplifying assumptions in bending:
 pure bending moment  bending line is a circular arc
 large sheet width  plane strain condition
 plane cross sections remain plane and perpendicular to the sheet surface
 neglecting the stresses in width and thickness direction
 only stresses in x direction (tangential)
 homogeneous, isotropic sheet material and similar material behavior for tension and
compression
 constant sheet thickness during the bending process
y

x 𝜎𝑥 0 0 𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜎𝑥 0 0
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝜎𝑦 0 ՜ 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 0 0
z 0 0 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧 = 0 0 0 0
Coordinate system is
principle axis system
Stress 𝜎𝑥 can be directly related to the strains 𝜀𝑥 from
the stress-strain curve of the material (tensile test).
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 248 Chap. 4 - 60

4.3 Bending
Strains and stresses
l0 Δ𝑙 𝑟𝑚 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝛼 − 𝑙0
𝜀𝑥 = =
st00
y 𝑙0 𝑙0
at the neutral fiber 𝑦 = 0 it is: Δ𝑙 = 0
𝑙0 𝑦
֜ 𝑟𝑚 ⋅ 𝛼 − 𝑙0 = 0 ⇔ 𝛼 = ֜ 𝜀𝑥 =
𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑚
at the sheet surfaces it is:
a in radians a rm
t0 𝑡0 𝑡0
𝑦=± ֜ 𝜀𝑥𝑠 ≡ 𝜀𝑥 ± =±
2 2 2 ⋅ 𝑟𝑚

Elastic Plastic
t0/2

Plastic

t0
t0/2

Plastic

ideal plastic material strain hardening material

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 249 Chap. 4 - 61

4.3 Bending
Definition of free bending
 Free bending of a sheet which rests on the die at two points and a punch acting at the
sheet center (figure left)
 Free bending of a sheet which is clamped at one side and the punch acts at the free
side (figure right)

 Free bending is given if:

 smallest inner sheet radius > punch radius rP (figure left)
 smallest inner sheet radius > clamping jaw radius rC (figure right)

FP
FP

rP
Free bending at the Free bending
beginning of a die at partially clamped
bending process sheet

rC

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 267 Chap. 4 - 62

4.3 Bending
Bending in V die
Open die: Half-open die: Closed die:
 𝛼𝑃 > 𝛼𝐷  𝛼𝑃 = 𝛼𝐷  𝛼𝑃 = 𝛼𝐷
 𝑟𝑃 > 𝑟𝐷 − 𝑡0  𝑟𝑃 > 𝑟𝐷 − 𝑡0  𝑟𝑃 = 𝑟𝐷 − 𝑡0

rP

αP
αD rD

Divided in two process steps:

 Free bending
Beginning: Setting the punch  ending: α = 𝛼𝐷
(for small 𝑤Τ𝑟𝑃 ratios: inner radius > 𝑟𝑃
 lifting of the punch)
 Subsequent pressure  in contrast to free bending, in die bending the geometry of the
bending part is determined by the die geometry.
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 271-273 Chap. 4 - 63

4.3 Bending
Die bending tools
Die bending tools consist of:
 Bending die: also possible as die track with multiple die impressions
 Bending punch: - not guided
- guided at the pillars of the tool base frame
- guided at the punch
Additionally:
 Ejector or stripper and limit stops (guide rails, pins)

Materials for die bending tools:

 C steels or low alloyed steels
 for large tools: cast iron, wear parts from die inserts made of tempered and hardened steel,
hard metals

Production steps of a
sheet profile via die
bending at a die track with
multiple die impressions

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 277/279 Chap. 4 - 64

4.3 Bending
Die bending presses
 Usually hydraulic C-frame presses in double stand design
 Die bending presses are used if:
 the work piece exceeds a certain width (profile length)
 the lot size is so small that the production of a tool for a common press is not
economic
 Tool changing systems:
 flexibly manual quick-release systems  small lot sizes
 automatic changing systems  multiple bending operations at one part

CNC press brake

with a press force
of 1300 kN

Bending die in use

(bending in V die)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 278f; pictures: Trumpf Chap. 4 - 65

4.3 Bending
Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending

4.4 Deep drawing

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals
4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

4.5 Stretch forming

4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 66
Classification of deep drawing processes

Deep drawing

with tools with working media with activated energy

dynamic
with rigid with flexible transmitting
hydraulic
tools tool static force
forming

with with with with with with with with

elastic rubber granular liquid gaseous granular liquid gaseous
punch pad media media media media media media

Source: DIN 8584 Chap. 4 - 67

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Nomenclature

FD
𝐹𝐷: Drawing force
𝐹𝐵: Blank holder force
𝑡0: Sheet thickness
FB FB 𝑑𝑃: Punch diameter
𝑑𝐷: Die diameter
dP 𝑟𝑅: Drawing ring radius
t0 dD 𝑟𝑃: Punch radius
𝑢𝐷 : Drawing clearance

x2

1: Drawing punch
uD=(dR-dP)/2 2: Blank holder (elastic)
Blank holder (rigid)
3: Drawing ring or die
Deep drawing in first draw with 4: Counter punch or ejector (when
blank holder and counter punch drawing with residual flange)

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 314 Chap. 4 - 68

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Stress conditions in deep drawing
 Stresses at the flange (F) and wall
(W) in deep drawing of a cup with Squares Circular
blank holder folded up blank

Flange

d

σtF
ϑF
zF
rF
b
Characteristic

σtFϑF
rF triangle
σzW
zZ

 In free drawing: Circumference in


σϑW ϑW
σ tZ
Wall wall gets smaller
tZ

 In deep drawing: Reduction of

circumference is prevented by
σzW
zZ
punch  𝜎𝜗𝑊 = tensile stresses
Chap. 4 - 69

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

 Explanation for the increase of sheet thickness at the flange
 In deep drawing, there is excess material at the flange  see “characteristic triangle” in
left figure

 In case of sufficiently large gaps between blank holder and die or die and punch, this may
lead to a thickness increase in the process.

d1
Squares Punch
Stempel
Circular
Platine
folded up blank
(Ronde) Blank
Nieder-
halter
holder

b d0 Matrize
Die
harakteristische
Characteristic
Dreiecke
triangle

Chap. 4 - 70

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Forces in deep drawing

𝐹𝐵 1
𝐹𝐷 : Drawing force
𝐹
2 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝐹
= 𝜇𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝐵 : Blank holder force
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝐹 : Friction force in flange
𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑1 𝐹𝑖𝑑,𝐹 : Ideal force in flange
𝐹𝑖𝑑,𝐹
𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑1: Bending force (initial bending)
1
𝐹 = 𝜇𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑2: Bending force (bending back)
2 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝐹 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑅
𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑅 : Friction force at drawing ring
𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑2 𝜑1 , 𝜑2 , 𝜑3 : Strains of one point in forming

𝐹𝐷

𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑,𝐹 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝐹 + 𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑1 + 𝐹𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑2 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑅

Assumptions:
 uniform friction coefficient
 no sheet thinning in flange area / contact in the flange area remains
 forces in wall area, punch radius and punch bottom are neglected
Chap. 4 - 71

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Deep drawing force
A solution for the drawing force in deep drawing of a cup is given by:

𝑟2 2 ⋅ 𝜇 ⋅ 𝐹𝐵 𝑘𝑓𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑡0
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑𝑚 ⋅ 𝑡0 ⋅ 1.15 ⋅ 𝑘𝑓𝑚1 ⋅ ln + ⋅ 𝑒 𝜇𝜔 +
𝑟1 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑡0 ⋅ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 2 ⋅ 𝑟𝑅

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐹𝑃,𝑚𝑎𝑥 Punch

ℎ∗ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ
Formation Deep drawing process
of the cup
bottom
Chap. 4 - 72

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Maximum drawing ratio (first draw)

Blank holder force FBFN

Cracks
 The drawing ratio b is defined as ratio of the

Niederhalterkraft
circular blank and the punch diameter.
 The maximum drawing ratio b0,max is a measure
for the drawability of sheets. Good part

 It is reached if for the maximum blank diameter 𝑑0

no bottom cracks occur and the formation of 𝛽=
𝑑1
wrinkles is just suppressed by the blank holder Wrinkles
force.
Drawing ratio b b0,max
d1
Punch
FP
Blank FB FB Bottom cracks Wrinkles (1st order)
holder

d0 Die

Chap. 4 - 73

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

First draw / further draw
d0
Achievable drawing ratios:
Drawing ratio
d1 first draw:  𝛽1 ≈ 2.0
𝑑0
𝛽1 =  𝛽2 ≈ 1.6
𝑑1
 𝛽𝑡𝑜𝑡 < 6.5
Drawing ratio
d2 second draw:
𝑑1
𝛽2 =
𝑑2
Total drawing ratio after n draws:

Drawing ratio
𝑛
nth draw: 𝑑0
𝑑𝑛−1 𝛽𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝛽1 ⋅ 𝛽2 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝛽𝑛 = ෑ 𝛽𝑖 =
𝛽𝑛 = 𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝑛 𝑖=1

Chap. 4 - 74

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Drawing ratios, drawing in steps
 Limited formability of the material (b0,max)  several drawing steps necessary
 Without intermediate annealing
 Summation of cold work hardening
 Reduction of the allowed strain
 𝑡0 > 0.011 · 𝑑𝑛 · 𝛽𝑛  no blank holder necessary in subsequent drawing step
 𝑡0 < 0.011 · 𝑑𝑛 · 𝛽𝑛  blank holder necessary (σN=0.6 to 1.2 N/mm²)

Examples for drawing steps at FB FP

different t0/d0 ratios for deep drawing steel:
Blank d1
𝑡0 /𝑑0 0.0008 to 0.0015 0.010 to 0.015 holder d2
𝛽1 1.59 to 1.67 2.00 to 2.08
𝛽2 1.22 to 1.25 1.33 to 1.37
𝛽3 1.19 to 1.22 1.28 to 1.32 rR rP
𝛽4 1.16 to 1.18 1.25 to 1.28
30 s
𝛽5 1.14 to 1.15 1.22 to 1.25 uD

Chap. 4 - 75

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Characteristic properties of sheet qualities (steel)
Rp Rm A80
Material 𝒓ത 𝚫𝒓 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] %
Non alloyed St 14 (DC04) < 210 270 -
> 38 1.8 0.6 2.1 2.25
steel 1.0338 350
Microalloyed ZStE 340 340 - 410 -
> 20 1.1 0.1 1.3 2.0
steel 1.0548 440 530
P steel ZStE 300 P 300 - 420 -
> 26 1.1 0.1 1.3 2.1
1.0448 360 500
BH steel ZStE 300 BH 300 - 400 -
> 26 1.1 0.1 1.4 2.1
1.0444 360 480
Dual phase 230 - 500 -
DP 500 > 30 1.0 0.1 1.1 1.8
steel 250 520
Ferritic 450 - > 18
X6Cr17 >270 1.0 -0.18 1.2 2.10
Cr steel 600
Austenitic X5CrNi18-10 550 -
>220 > 35 1.0 0.3 2.08
Cr steel 750
All values at room temperature. Maximum normal anisotropy rmax is 90° to the rolling direction.
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 329-331 Chap. 4 - 76

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Characteristic properties of sheet qualities (nonferrous metals)
Rp0.2 Rm Aue A50
Material 𝒓 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] % %
Aluminum Al99.5 / 1050 40 80 26 38 0.85 2.1
Aluminum AlMg3
100 220 19 24 0.75 2.1
alloys 5754
Rp Rm A80
Material 𝒓ത 𝚫𝒓 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] %
SF-Cu F20 200 -
Copper < 100 > 40
2.0090.10 250
Copper CuZn30 F28 270 -
<160 > 45 1.1 0.1 2.25
alloys 2.0265.10 350
Rp Rm Aue
Material 𝒓ത 𝚫𝒓 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] %
Ti 99.7 2.0 - 0.5 -
Titanium 380 470 12 2.3
3.7035.10 4.5 2.1
Titanium alloys TiAl6V4 1010 1050 8 1.5 1.8
All values at room temperature
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 329-331 Chap. 4 - 77

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Deep drawing of conical, parabolic or spherical components I
 Problem: free area between punch and flange (free forming zone)
 Formation of wrinkles in the free forming zone
 Reduction of tangential stress in free forming zone FB FD FB
by increasing the radial stress or normal stress:
 Increasing blank holder force or friction
 Increasing blank diameter
 Use of draw beads

Draw
bead

Danger:
Formation of wrinkles
(2nd order) possible after increasing
tensile stress

Hemispherical drawing tool

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 353 Chap. 4 - 78

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Deep drawing of conical, parabolic or spherical components II
 To avoid wrinkles in the free forming zone, deep conical work pieces are drawn with
multiple cylindrical drawing steps and a final conical draw.

1. draw

6. draw

2. draw

3. draw

4. draw

5. draw

 Disadvantage:
Local thinning at the contact areas with the punch radii.
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 355 Chap. 4 - 79

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Deep drawing with and without blank holder
Deep drawing with blank holder Deep drawing without blank holder

Blank Punch
holder
Sheet

Die

Chap. 4 - 80

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Deep drawing without blank holder

 Deep drawing of thin sheets without blank

holder  formation of wrinkles in flange area
 Deep drawing without blank holder is possible
for: 𝑑0
< 25 𝑡𝑜 40
𝑡0
 Advantages:
 Simple tool and single-acting press is
sufficient
 No blank holder friction and lower bending
stresses  larger drawing ratios possible
Deep drawing without blank holder:
die with tractrix entry

 The shape of the die influences the maximum drawing ratio:

Circular entry Conical entry Tractrix entry

Increasing maximum drawing ratio
Chap. 4 - 81

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Example: dishing

Round heated plate Forming Furnace

Heating Final part

Source: Dillinger Hütte Chap. 4 - 82

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Defects in deep drawing
Causes for defects Exemplary defects and their causes:
 Bad pre-material Defect Reason Remedy
 Incorrect tool design
Frayed wall edge Drawing clearance
 Incorrect process parameters
too large, drawing
edge rounding too Change of
General defects large, blank holder mentioned
 Shape and dimensional deviation force too low parameters
 Defects in the work piece and at  wrinkles are
its surface drawn into cup
 Usage properties insufficient Bulged wall and Replacement
earing of punch and
Defects in work piece and Drawing clearance drawing ring
surface too large  reducing
 Bottom crack, cracks drawing
clearance
 Formation of wrinkles
 Earing at the wall edge Flow marks Material sensitive
 Frayed wall edge to aging with Avoid aging,
pronounced yield increase
 Flow marks
stress and low strains
 Bulging of the wall and earing
strains
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 373-375 Chap. 4 - 83

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Bottom cracks
Shape of bottom crack Reason Remedy
After drawing a short wall length,
the bottom tears off Drawing ratio too large Smaller drawing ratio

Drawing is almost successful, Blank holder force too small,

wrinkles are drawn into the drawing clearance too small, Adjusting mentioned
drawing clearance and then drawing edge radius too parameters
ironed (increase of drawing force) large

Bottom crack in
deep drawing
with blank holder

Bottom crack
in deep drawing
without blank holder

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 373-375 Chap. 4 - 84

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Wrinkles
 Formation of 1st order wrinkles at the flange
 Reason: tangential compressive stresses in flanges
 Remedy: Increasing the blank holder force, increasing the friction in the flange, ...

 Formation of 2nd order wrinkles at the wall of conical, spherical and parabolic
drawing parts:
 Reason: tangential compressive stresses in the free forming zone
 Remedy: Increasing the blank holder force, increasing the friction, increasing the
blank diameter, use of draw beads

1st order wrinkles: 1st order wrinkles: 2nd order wrinkles:

Deep drawing with blank Deep drawing without Deep drawing of a conical
holder blank holder work piece

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 373-375; Hoffmann, Handbuch Umformen (2012), p. 454 Chap. 4 - 85

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending

4.4 Deep drawing

4.4.1 Overview and fundamentals
4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

4.5 Stretch forming

4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 86
Overview
Among the deep drawing processes, following special processes exist which are industrially
relevant:

Deep drawing

with tools with working media with activated energy

with rigid with flexible transmitting dynamic

tools tool static force hydraulic forming

with with with with with with with with

elastic rubber granular liquid gaseous granular liquid gaseous
punch pad media media media media media media

Source: DIN 8584 Chap. 4 - 87

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Hydromechanical deep drawing I
Punch
Blank holder
Principle of hydromechanical
Work piece
deep drawing (hydromec process)
Sealing

Fluid medium

Fluid media
container

Advantages:
 parts with inclined wall can be produced in one
draw
 better dimensional and shape accuracy
 increased drawing ratio (bmax  2.7)
 reduced residual stresses
 surface protective production
 reduction of friction at the entry radius
 increase of friction between sheet and punch
Source: Schuler; Groche; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 451ff Chap. 4 - 88

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Hydromechanical deep drawing II
1 2
Ram
 Controlled fluid pressure Blank holder
depending on the punch stroke ram
Punch
 Higher press forces necessary Blank holder
(working medium pressure!) Fluid medium

 Working medium: Overflow Fluid medium

container
oil-water emulsion

3 4
Pressures of working media:
 Aluminum:
100 - 200 bar
Splash ring
 Deep drawing steel:
Sealing
200 - 400 bar
 Stainless steel/ copper: Die
300 - 600 bar Shrink ring
Press table
Source: AP&T AB; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 451ff
Pressure controller Chap. 4 - 89

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Hydromechanically deep drawn products

Source: AP&T AB; SMG Chap. 4 - 90

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Hydromechanical deep drawing with preforming
Punch Principle:
Die  Previous bulging against the main forming direction
by applying working medium pressure (20 to 30 bar)
Blank before the actual deep drawing process
Fluid medium  strain hardening of entire sheet surface
Blank holder  increased buckling strength

Advantages:
 Reducing the weight of
component groups (no
reinforcements necessary)
 Reduction of tool costs
 only one half of the die
required
 sheet thickness variation
possible
 material variation possible
 low tool wear Car hood
Chap. 4 - 91

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Deep drawing with flexible tools
Material of the flexible tool part:
 polyurethane
 elastomers

Advantages:
 low tool costs
 short tool changing times
 small series (up to 1000 parts) and Deep drawing with elastic punch
manifold shape variations

Disadvantages:
 High punch force necessary
 major part of the punch force is used for
the elastic deformation of the flexible tool
 low tool life
 lower productivity (parts per time) compared
to conventional deep drawing
Deep drawing with rubber pad
Chap. 4 - 92

4.4.2 Special deep drawing processes

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing

4.5 Stretch forming

4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines
4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 93
Stretch forming: principle

Principle:
The sheet is fixed between two or
multiple and axially rotatable clamping
FCl
F Sp FCl
F Sp jaws. A punch forms the sheet to the
required geometry.

Advantages:
 strain hardening
FPSt
 high geometrical accuracy

Forming under uniaxial or multiaxial

tensile load: Application areas:
 aerospace
 Increasing of the sheet surface by large-area
 shipbuilding
decreasing the sheet thickness parts
 (automotive engineering)

Source: Groche; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 562ff Chap. 4 - 94

4.5 Stretch forming

Stretch forming: application
Clamping jaw
t1
t0

Work piece
t1 < t 0
Punch

Stretch forming

Source: EADS/Airbus (left + center); Sonaca (right) Chap. 4 - 95

4.5 Stretch forming

Simple stretch forming: stresses
Process sequence in simple stretch forming with two-sided clamping:
Work piece Clamping jaws

FCl FP FCl FP
Punch
FCl FCl

Stresses in simple purely elastic bending elastic-plastic bending

with with
stretch forming: superposed tensile tress superposed tensile stress
without without

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 544/ 563 Chap. 4 - 96

4.5 Stretch forming

 Stretch forming: strains
 Average strains larger than the uniform elongation should be avoided: 𝜀𝑚 ≤ 𝐴𝑢𝑒 and 𝜑 ≤ 𝑛
 Uniform elongations vary between 5 and 35 % depending on the material
 compared to deep drawing, only relatively flat parts can be produced

 overhanging elements should be

Forming limit diagram
avoided  in these areas higher 1 Bereich der
Area of strain states in
strains can occur Formänderungszustände
Grenzform- stretch forming processes
in Streckziehprozessen
 no compressive stresses  no änderungs-
kurve
wrinkling caused by compressive
stresses

ein  1=
 If higher strains are required:

ach -2

en
sig  2
 different material with larger 𝐴𝑢𝑒

 ieh
strain”
er

 c kz
“planestrain"
Zu

2
 instead of two-sided clamping,

1=
re
Ti  1

St
ef =-
zie  2

2=0
clamping at all edges  higher
he

"plane
strains possible before necking n
(see FLD)
2
0
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 542/ 566 Chap. 4 - 97

4.5 Stretch forming

Materials / uniform elongation / ultimate elongation
Materials: Uniform Ultimate
 low alloyed steel sheets Material elongation elongation
in % in %
 high alloyed steel sheets
Deep drawing sheet 25 - 35 50 - 60
 aluminum alloys Austenitic steel sheet 50 - 60 70 - 80
 magnesium alloys Aluminum1) < 50 < 70
 titanium and titanium alloys Al alloys1) < 35 < 40
Brass1) < 50 < 70
Thickness range: Pure titanium 10 - 20 40 - 50
 0.8 - 6 mm Titanium alloys 5-8 15 - 25
Magnesium/
5 - 10
Mg alloys

all parameters at room temperature

1) depending on the processing condition

Source: Groche; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 545 Chap. 4 - 98

4.5 Stretch forming

Simple stretch forming: multilateral clamping

Simple stretch forming with

four-sided clamping

 Stretch forming of “cup-like” components

 Applying a biaxial tensile stress state in the sheet plane
 higher strains are possible

Chap. 4 - 99

4.5 Stretch forming

Tangential stretch forming

FCl FCl

FP
FCl FCl
1 2 3

1 pre-stretching of the sheet (ε = 2 – 4 %)

2 forming sheet along the tool
 stretch forming force acts always Stresses in tangential stretch forming
tangentially to the contour of the tool
 no relative movement between tool
and sheet
 defined movement of the clamping
jaws necessary
3 light final stretching after complete forming
along tool  minimizing spring back

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 544/ 564 Chap. 4 - 100

4.5 Stretch forming

Stretch forming – four-sided

13 s

Flexible sheet metal processing center for tangential stretch

forming with four-sided clamping
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 101

4.5 Stretch forming

Stretch forming – two-sided

31 s
Stretch forming of car body part with two-sided clamping
Source: IBF Chap. 4 - 102

4.5 Stretch forming

Stretch forming – manufactured car body

Car body of a Shelby Daytona Coupé produced by stretch

forming and incremental sheet forming (ISF)
Source: IBF; cobracounty.com Chap. 4 - 103

4.5 Stretch forming

Failure modes

Crack near the  Only at less deformable materials

clamping jaws (low 𝑘𝑓 and n)
 Notch stress caused due to clamping
 crack at the end of the stretch forming process
 work piece might still be usable
Failure in vertex  At the end of the stretch forming process
area: necking  formability is exhausted

Brittle fracture  The material cannot adapt to the tool shape v

due to its brittle behavior/ bad formability

Stretcher strains  Pronounced yield stress

 Sliding of dislocations in preferred slip systems

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 566-567 Chap. 4 - 104

4.5 Stretch forming

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming

4.6 Stamping

4.7 Tools and machines

4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 105
Stamping – forming of car body parts
Deep drawing Stretch forming
fixed
clamping

Punch
Blank holder Blank holder
Stamping

Gathering
Die bead

Source: Groche Chap. 4 - 106

4.6 Stamping
Stamping – hot sheet metal forming of b-pillar I

55 s
Production of a passenger car b-pillar out of heated sheet
Source: Volkswagen AG
metal with martensitic phase transition in the die Chap. 4 - 107

4.6 Stamping
Stamping – hot sheet metal forming of b-pillar II

30 s
Simulation of a hot forming process with two
Source: ThyssenKrupp AG
temperature zones Chap. 4 - 108

4.6 Stamping
Tools for mass production
Upper
tool

Lower
tool

Tool for car body

side panel

Source: Groche, Läpple Chap. 4 - 109

4.6 Stamping
Tool materials
Main components: die, punch, blank holder
 Cast iron Selection depends on:
 Cast steel  Size of the part
 Zinc alloys  Lot size
 Carbon steels
 Sheet material
 Unalloyed and alloyed
tool steels e.g. for small parts and large lot sizes:
 Hard metal wear resistant and expensive tool steel
 Aluminum-bronze alloys
e.g. for prototypes:
 Plastics in special cases cast iron frame with work piece molds made of
 Hard wood in special cases synthetic resin and drawing die edges from steel

Drawing die edges (e.g. drawing rings):

 Hard chrome plated or coated
 for large lot sizes: hard metal tools  Reduction of abrasive and adhesive wear
(coated or uncoated)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 358 Chap. 4 - 110

4.7 Tools and machines

Tools for prototypes
 Mass production tools are too expensive for prototypes
Tool material Range of parts Lot sizes
Plastics - without additives Bodyshell parts Very small
Plastics – reinforced Bodyshell parts, structural parts max. 1000
Aluminum alloys Bodyshell parts, structural parts max. 1000
Zamac (Zn + Al + Mg + Cu) no restrictions Depending on loading and
Cast iron/ cast steel Structural parts, undercarriage parts sheet material: suitable for
mass production
Steel (panel construction) Structural parts, undercarriage parts

Prototype tool made of aluminum

alloy on a wooden frame for the
production of a car roof panel

Source: Schuler, p. 138f Chap. 4 - 111

4.6 Stamping
Drawing bars and gathering beads I
Problem: high tangential pressure wrinkling
Countermeasures:
 Reduction of drawing ratio  multiple drawing steps are necessary
 not economic for large and irregular parts (e.g. car body parts)
 Increasing the radial stress:
 Increasing blank holder pressure  effect on whole part
 Increasing the radial stress locally by drawing bars or gathering beads
 local counteracting of wrinkling

Blank holder Punch Blank holder Punch

Die Gathering bead Die Drawing bar

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 402; Schuler Chap. 4 - 112

4.6 Stamping
Drawing bars and gathering beads II
 Gathering beads are located at the drawing die edge
 They are used for round or oval drawing parts with conical, parabolic or differently shaped
surface lines
Examples of
gathering
beads acc. to
VDI guideline
3377:

 Drawing bars are located in distance to the drawing die edge, usually in the upper tool part
 In total, the material flow is deflected three times

Examples of
drawing bars
acc. to VDI
guideline
3377:

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 403-404 Chap. 4 - 113

4.6 Stamping
Arrangement of drawing bars and drawbeads

Blank shape

Drawing frame

Car body panel

1: straight drawing bar
2: curved drawing bar
3: double arrangement of
drawing bars

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 405f Chap. 4 - 114

4.6 Stamping
Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping

4.7 Tools and machines

4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 115
Tool for single acting press

Press ram vt
Upper tool part

Punch
Blank holder guide FB
Cushion cylinders
Press table

Lower part of press with drawing cushion:

Blank holder: on cushion cylinders
Cushion
Punch: press table cylinders
Die: press ram
Drawing
cushion or
𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝐹𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 + 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓 cushion
plate
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 356f Chap. 4 - 116

4.7 Tools and machines

Tool for double acting press

Press ram
Press blank holder

Punch
Blank holder guide

Lower tool part

Press table

Blank holder: press blank holder

Punch: press ram 𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝐹𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 + 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓
Die: press table

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 357 Chap. 4 - 117

4.7 Tools and machines

Tool for triple acting press

Press ram
Press blank holder
Punch (die)
Blank holder guide
Punch
Press table
Cushion cylinders

Blank holder: press blank holder (upper and lower)

Punch: press table
Die: press ram

𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝐹𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 + 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 358 Chap. 4 - 118

4.7 Tools and machines

Single acting vs. double acting press
Single acting press Double acting press
Advantages: Advantage:
 Relatively cheap  gentle closing of the blank holder
 No rotation of the parts for further
processing necessary Disadvantages:
Disadvantage:  additional blank holder drive necessary
 Impact shock when closing:  Rotation of the parts for further
 damaging the sheet surface processing necessary
 local destruction of lubrication
(increase of friction)

Chap. 4 - 119

4.7 Tools and machines

Transfer presses for small parts
Stop Ram Ejector
Transfer die for a press with
active counter draw device

Draw Table plate

device

First Second Edge Edge

draw draw trimming flanging

Tool room of a transfer press

producing oil filter housings
Source: Schuler, p. 231/ 234 Chap. 4 - 120

4.7 Tools and machines

Transfer presses for large parts / press lines
 Mass production of medium size and large sheet metal parts is usually carried out on press
lines or transfer presses for large parts:

Hydraulic press line

with robot interfacing
Transfer press for large parts

Scheme: Transfer press system for large parts (four stand press)
Source: Schuler, p. 222ff Chap. 4 - 121

4.7 Tools and machines

Outline
4 Sheet metal forming

4.1 Overview and basic principles

4.2 Examination methods in sheet metal forming
4.3 Bending
4.4 Deep drawing
4.5 Stretch forming
4.6 Stamping
4.7 Tools and machines

4.8 Spinning

Chap. 4 - 122
Sheet metal spinning

19 sec

Source: Leico Chap. 4 - 123

4.8 Spinning
Classification: spinning and flow forming

Tensile compressive forming Compressive forming (rolling)

Spinning Flow forming
Characteristic: Characteristic: defined change in sheet thickness
no change in sheet thickness
Shear forming Cylinder flow forming
Characteristic: Characteristic:
Blank as preform Cup (deep drawn) as
preform

Direct Indirect
process process
Source: Dreikandt (Spur, Liewald, Bolay, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 537) Chap. 4 - 124

4.8 Spinning
Spinning: principle and characteristics

Mandrel Work piece Principle:

Blank
 Clamping of the blank between
Pressure disk
mandrel and pressure disk
 Mandrel, blank and pressure disk
are rotated
 The deformation is done by the

Roller tool
roller tool, which forms the work
piece in multiple steps along the
contour of the mandrel

Characteristics:
 No change in sheet thickness
 Complicated, rotationally symmetric
hollow bodies can be produced
 No complex tool technology required

Tool path of the roller tool to obtain

the required contour (roller tool path)
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 500ff Chap. 4 - 125

4.8 Spinning
Spinning: process variants
Spinning of hollow bodies Expanding by spinning Tube tapering with split
mandrel

Edge Producing of outer flanges Tube tapering

flanging by spinning

Producing Thread spinning Necking by spinning

inner flanges
by
spinning

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 506 Chap. 4 - 126

4.8 Spinning
Further processing in identical clamping
Besides spinning, numerous processes can be performed in the same clamping, e.g.:
 burnishing  seaming
 calibrating  beading
 flanging  parting-off or cutting in
Cutting and flanging
in one clamping
Flanging of Beading using an Edge reinforcement
wheel covers eccentric inner roll with a movable roll

Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 507 Chap. 4 - 127

4.8 Spinning
Failure modes
Counter punch
Wrinkling due to tangential
compressive stresses
 using counter punch Main
spindle
Roller tool

Radial cracks due to

tangential compressive
stresses
 previous wrinkling

Radial cracks due to

tangential tensile stresses Tangential cracks due to
at the end of the spinning radial tensile stresses
process  change roller tool path

Source: Spur, Liewald, Bolay, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, p. 537f; Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 504f Chap. 4 - 128

4.8 Spinning
Shear forming
 The procedure in shear forming is similar to spinning
 Additionally, the sheet thickness is reduced on purpose
t0

Mandrel t Counter punch

Initial shape
(circular blank)

Final shape,
final work piece Roller tool
Source: Groche Chap. 4 - 129

4.8 Spinning
Combination of spinning and flow forming

Roller tool path

Blank
 Often, the processes spinning
and flow forming are
combined.

Mandrel

Spinning Flow forming Spinning

Source: Finckenstein (Spur Vol.2/3, p.1250f) Chap. 4 - 130

4.8 Spinning
Spinning machines
 Manual spinning machines
Roller tool is manually controlled,
optionally with hydraulic support if larger
forces are required
 Spinning machine with post-forming
control
Roller tool is guided on a path which
course is defined by a template Manual spinning with hydraulic support
 Spinning machines with playback
control
Recording the manually controlled path of
the roller tool which is then used for the
further production
 CNC spinning machines
The path of the roller tool is programmed
and controlled with a computer
Turret (roller tools) at a CNC spinning
machine
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Vol.3: Blechbearbeitung, p. 510f; Spur Vol.2/3, p.1258f; pictures: Merkblatt Stahl 351 (top), Leitfeld (bottom) Chap. 4 - 131

4.8 Spinning
Outline
1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of metal forming

3 Bulk metal forming

3.1 Forging
3.2 Extrusion and drawing
3.3 Rolling

4 Sheet metal forming

Chap. 4 - 132