System Analysis

Discuss the need for validation of system requirement to ensure accuracy and completeness and
the use of a structured walkthrough.

System Design
Discuss the issues related to the management and coordination of the design phase of the SDLC
Develop a system flowchart
Develop a structure chart using transaction analysis and transform analysis
Write pseudo code for structure modules
Develop a package diagram
Develop a design class diagram
Explain the major components and levels of design
Describe the difference between models produced by structure design and object- oriented
design

Feasibility Study
A feasibility study is a preliminary study undertaken before the real work of a project starts to ascertain the likelihood of the
project's success. It is an analysis of possible solutions to a problem and a recommendation on the best solution to use. It
involves evaluating how the solution will fit into the corporation. It, for example, can decide whether an order processing be
carried out by a new system more efficiently than the previous one.
A feasibility study could be used to test a new working system, which could be used because:

 The current system may no longer suit its purpose,

 Technological advancement may have rendered the current system redundant,
 The business is expanding, allowing it to cope with extra work load,
 Customers are complaining about the speed and quality of work the business provides,
 Competitors are not winning a big enough market share due to an effective integration of a computerized system.

A feasibility study encompasses all of the following:

Economic Feasibility This involves questions such as whether the firm can afford to build the system, whether its benefits
should substantially exceed its costs, and whether the project has higher priority than other projects that might use the
same resources.

Technical Feasibility This involves questions such as whether the technology needed for the system exists, how difficult it
will be to build, and whether the firm has enough experience using that technology.

Schedule Feasibility This involves questions such as how much time is available to build the new system, when it can be
built (i.e. during holidays), interference with normal business operation, etc.

Organizational Feasibility This involves questions such as whether the system has enough support to be implemented
successfully, whether it brings an excessive amount of change, and whether the organization is changing too rapidly to
absorb it.
 
Aims : to identify the scope of the new system, ensure that the project is feasible, develop a
schedule, resource plan, and budget for the remainder of the project.
Activities:
Define the problem
Produce the project schedule
Confirm project feasibility
Staff the project (lantik org buat kerja)
Launch the project

5 types of desire outcomes in the planning phase:

Service- Requests are aimed at the improving service to the customers or the end user of the
organization. This improved service, in turn, results in an increase in customer and end user
satisfaction, which clearly benefits the organization.
Performance-The current system might not perform as well as it must. Report might take too
long to prepare , or response time , which is the amount of time between an end user making a
request and the computer furnishing a response, might be too long . so the new system must be
high performance than the current system
Information- The new system must produce the complete information and available to those
who need it.
Controls- The controls in an existing system might be inadequate, allowing erroneous data to
enter the system. If a system requires input of redundant data or takes too long verifying every
input item , undue burden might be imposed on the end user or even on the customers of the
organization .
Economy- Features in the current system might be more costly then they need to be. The
system might not use computer resources as efficiently as it could, or possibly does not utilize
newly available, more efficient technology. Wasting the time of data entry personnel and,
consequently, wasting money.

Initial evaluation and feasibility study

Initial evaluation : Within most organizations , the demand for system services exceeds the capacity of
the information system department to carry out the requested activities. Thus, the system committee
faces the task of evaluating all request for services, rejecting some , and selecting and establishing
priorities for those request that appear to offer the greatest benefit to the organization. The
committee’s first step in evaluation of a system request is to determine its feasibility.

Feasibility study;
A system request has feasibility if the request can be successfully implemented. The three type must be
considered: technical, operational, and economic.
Technical feasibility- A system request is technically feasible if the organization has or can obtain the
equipment and personnel to develop (or purchase), install, and operate the system. You need to
consider the following questions:
Does the organization have the equipment necessary for the system? If not , can it be acquired?
Does the organization currently have the needed of technical expertise? If not , can it be
acquired ?
Does the equipment that is proposed for system have the required capacity? If not , can it be
expanded?
Will the combination of hardware and software be able to supply adequate performance?
Will the system be able to handle the project growth of the organization over then next five year
?

Homework (25.1.2011)
Explain about operational feasibility and economic feasibility to class.

Operational feasibility

Operational feasibility is a measure of how well a proposed system solves the problems, and
takes advantage of the opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies the
requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase of system development

Note from teacher

Explain about Operational Feasibility
Operational feasibility is dependent on the human resources available for the project and involves
projecting whether the system will operate and be used once it is installed. If users are virtually wed to the
present system, see no problem with it, and generally are not involved in requesting a new system,
resistance to implementing the new system will be strong. Chances for it ever becoming operational are
low. Alternatively, if users themselves have expressed a need for a system that is operational more of the
time, in a more of the time, in more efficient and accessible manner, chances are better that are requested
system will eventually be used. Much of the art of determining operational feasibility rests with the user
interfaces that are chosen.
Determining operational feasibility requires creative imagination on the part of the system analyst as well
as the powers of persuasion to let users know which interfaces are possible and which will satisfy their
needs. The system analyst must also listen carefully to what users really want and what it seems they will
use. Ultimately, however, accessing operational feasibility largely involves educated guesswork.
From teacher: A system request is operationally feasible if it is highly likely that the system will be used
once it has been developed and implemented.
Economic feasibility

Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a new
system. More commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the
benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate system and compare them with costs. If
benefits outweigh costs, then the decision is made to design and implement the system. An
entrepreneur must accurately weigh the cost versus benefits before taking an action.

Cost-based study: It is important to identify cost and benefit factors, which can be categorized as
follows: 1. Development costs; and 2. Operating costs. This is an analysis of the costs to be
incurred in the system and the benefits derivable out of the system.

Time-based study: This is an analysis of the time required to achieve a return on investments.
The future value of a project is also a factor

Note from teacher

A system request is economically feasible if the projected benefits of the proposed system outweigh the
estimated cost involved in developing (or purchasing), installing, and operating it. To determine
economic feasibility, you need to ascertain the following:
 The estimated cost of the people needed to develop the system
 The estimated cost of additional needed equipment
 The estimated cost of developing or purchasing the necessary software (cost can be a combination
of development and purchase costs if the organization purchases a software package and then
makes modifications to it)
 The estimated benefits that will result from the proposed system
 The estimated cost of not developing the system

Case study Project 1(sms school) Project 2 (online attendance

system)
-cost of people 3 2
-cost of additional needed Sms server(rental) Web hosting server
equipment (Rent)www.smkts.net
-Cost of software(developing Special s/w Html/asp/php
Or purchasing the modified)
-estimated benefit from the sytem Attendance’mobile’ Attendance
-cost of not developing the sytem X X

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2.3Analysis phase
Determining of user’s requirements:
The 2 steps of analysis phase is:
1. Determining user’s requirements
2. Structuring of system requirements

The method of determining user’s requirements is : interviewing and listening, giving questionnaires,
making observations, analyzing procedures and documents
Assignment: state the suitable methods of determining user’s requirements according to the giving
situation situations

Situations Methods
-The small organization with 5-10 user Interviewing and listening, analyzing procedures
and documents. Questionnaires
-The big company with 100-500 persons Making observation, choose who to interview,
analyzing procedure and documents. Giving
simple questionnaires
-Individual company(home office) Interview and listening, analyzing proc.&doc

STPM 2010 Q4:State three reason why user’s requirements must be determined during the analysis phase
of system development?
-to make sure all user’s requirements are considered
-to ensure that the system will compliance to user’s equipment
-to ensure the system is developed within budget
-to to identify suitable expertise for developing/manage/used/monitor the system

7/2/2011
Process modeling = is an analysis and design technique that describes processes that transform
inputs into outputs
Logical modeling = Logic modeling involves representing internal structure and functionality of
processes depicted on a DFD.Logic modeling can also be used to show when processes on a DFD
occur
Conceptual data model = a detailed model that captures the overall structure of organizational
data while being independently of any database management system or other implementation
consideration.

A context diagram is a data flow diagram that shows the boundaries of the information syatem.
The context diagram is a top-level view of the information system. To draw a context diagram,
You place one process symbol representing the entire information in the centre of the pages. You then
draw all external entities around and then use data flows to properly connect these external entities to
the central process.

Diagram 0 is data flow diagram that gives more detailed view of an information system than does in the
context diagram. Diagram 0 shows the major processes, data flows, and data stores for the information
system. In additional you repeat the external entities and data flows that appear in the context diagram.
Because diagram 0 is more detailed or expended version of process 0 in context diagram, diagram 0 is
called an exploded version of process 0.

Diagram 1,2,3… is a data flow diagram that gives more detailed view on every processes in the diagram
0. The processes in diagram 1 would be numbered 1.1,1.2,1.3, and so on.

8/2/2011
A relationships a logical association between entities.
The logical relationships between entities in an information system are graphically represented
in an entity-relationship diagram (ERD)
-Each entity is represented as a rectangle and a diamond is represented the relationship connect
the entities. For example ;-

Entity 1 ----- is related ----- entity2

Doctor treats patient

In an entity-relationship diagram, entities are labeled with singular nouns, and relationships are
labeled with verbs. The ERD is interpreted as simple English sentences . Example: a doctor treats
a patient is treated by a doctor.

-an ERD do not depict data or information flows.ERD has no arrowheads.

-three types of relationship, abbreviated as 1:1, exist when there is exactly one of the second
entity for each of the first entity. For example: one driver drives one delivery truck. One
president leads one political party.

Drives
Driver1 1 Deliver
Truck

Figure: one -to- one(1:1)

relationships
1 1
President lead Political
Party
2) a one- to –many relationship abbreviated as 1:M, exist when one occurrences of the first entity can
be related to many occurrences of the second entity, but each occurrences of the second entity can be
associated with only one occurrence of the first entity. For example, the relationship between
Department and Employee is typically one –to- many: one department can have many employees, but
each employee is assign only to one department. Another example is the individual and automobile
relationship. One automobile is owned by exactly one individual. But individual might own twenty
automobile, or one ,or even none. Thus, many can mean any number, including zero.

1 Own m
individual automobil
e

Employe
departme employees
nt

3) a many-to-many relationship, abbreviated M:N, exist when one occurrence of the first entity can be
related to many occurrences of the second entity, and one occurrences of the second entity can be
related to many occurrences of the first entity.

The relationship between STUDENT and CLASS, for example, is many-to-many: one student can take
many classes(subject), and one class can have many students enrolled in it.

Example:

M N
STUDENT Enrolls in class
14/2/2011
clone question stpm 2010 no 10
United sports league is an organization that manages and monitors players, coaches and sponsors.
There are many teams having certain numbers of players. A player is associated with only one team.
Each team has one coach. The league imposes the rule that a coach cannot coach more than one team.
Each team has sponsor such as a local food or cosmetic product manufacturing company. A sponsor can
be associated with multiple teams. Draw an entity relationship(E-R) diagram showing the following :
Entities with their associated attributes (4m)
Relationship between all the entities and their descriptive attributes (3m)
Cardinalities of all the respective relationships (6m)
Primary key attributes for each entity (2m)
SUGGESTED ANSWER:

M
Coach For Plays For
PLAYERS

M Salary PlayerID
Salary PlayerName
StartDate
StartDate ContactNumber
EndDate
COACH EndDate HomeAddress
DateOfBirth

CoachID
1
CoachName
TelephoneNumber TEAM
Address
DateofBirth M
TeamID
TeamName
TeamLogo
SPONSORS
1
SponsorID
Plays For SponsorName
TelephoneNumber
Address
Faxnumber
AmountSponsored
Date
17.2.2011
Individual Mastery Learning
1.What is normalization?
In relational database design(RDBMS), the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy is
called normalization. The goal of database normalization is to decompose relations with
anomalies in order to produce smaller, well-structured relations. Normalization usually involves
dividing large, badly-formed tables into smaller, well-formed tables and defining relationships
between them. The objective is to isolate data so that additions, deletions, and modifications of
a field can be made in just one table and then propagated through the rest of the database via
the defined relationships.
2.first normal form?
1NF normal form used in normalization… free of repeating group
Repeating group?
Any attribute that has multiple values associated with a single instance of some entity
3.Second normal form?
2NF used in normalization when it is in 1NF and functionally depend on the candidate key
Functional dependence?
? ans from kulu
4.Third normal form? Candidate key?
3NF used in database normalization, must be in 2NF. All attribute that are not dependent to
Primary Key must be eliminated.

Give an example to each normal form to support your understanding

NORMALIZATION
Normalization is a process by which you identify and correct inherent problems and
complexities in your record designs.
The normalization process involves three types of normal form: first normal form, second
normal form and third normal form. The first normal form is better than one that is un-
normalized; a record that is in second normal form is better yet; and a record that is in third
normal form is best.

FIRST NORMAL FORM-a record is in first normal form (1NF) if it does not contain a repeating group.
A repeating group is a set of one or more data items that can occurred a variable numbers of times
in a record.
SECOND NORMAL FORM-A record design is in second normal form (2NF) if it is in 1NF and if all fields
that are not part of the primary key are dependent on the entire primary key.
THIRD NORMAL FORM-A record design is in third normal form (3NF) if it is in 2NF and if no non key
fields is dependent on another non key field.( Recall that a non key field is a field that is not a
candidate key for the primary key) .
2.4DESIGN PHASE
-Explain the steps and outcome of design phase: logical design, physical design, and program
structure design.
- outcome : design forms, reports, and system interfaces.
- Design program structure using structure charts.
Example: Design of System Structure Chart
Logical Design of Database
- The logical design for any database system normally involves two steps. The first step is to design
the entity-relationship (E-R) diagram of the system. The second step is to verify whether the
respective relational tables mapped from the E-R are normalized to the third normal form.

Design of Users Interface

Same as the main menu for system

Example:
Implementation phase

Student should be able to explain the steps and outcome of implementation phase:
Coding
Testing
Installation
Evaluation
Documentation
Training
Support

Find the information about the topic:

1.CODING

Is the process whereby the physical design specification created by the analysis team are tuned
into working computer code by the programming team.
Depending on the size and complexity of the system, coding can be an involved, intensive
activity.

2.TESTING

Test scenarios (test plan) and test data

Result program and system testing
The purpose of testing in confirming that the system satisfies requirement and testing must be
planned
Recovering testing – forces the software to fail in order to verify the data recovery is properly
performed
Security testing – verifies that protection mechanism built into system will protect it from
improper penetration
 Stress testing – tries to break the system
Performance testing – determines how the system performs on the range of possible
environment in which it may be used
Alpha testing – user testing of a completed information system using simulated data.
Beta testing – user testing of a completed information system using real data in the real user
environment.

3.INSTALLATION

The organizational process of changing over from the current information system to a new one.

*Direct Installation: Changing over from the old information system to a new one by turning off the old
system when the new one is turned on.

*Parallel installation: running the old information system and the new one at the same time until
management decides the old system can be turned off.

*Single Location Installation: Trying out new information system at one site and using the experience to
decide if how the new system should be deployed throughout the organization

*Phased Installation: Changing from the old information system to new one incrementally, starting with
one or few functional components and the gradually extending the installation to cover the whole new
system

4.Evaluation
-To give feedback for their eventual improvement
-Evaluation technique: cost-benefit analysis
-revised decision
-user involvement
-information system utility
-simulation or Bayesian statistics

Evaluation the system

-“poor”-entire module will be destined to failure
-“fair”-utility will result in a partially successful module
-“good”-module is a success

5.Documentation

1.Program documentation
-Developing the program documentation is an ongoing activity during systems development that begins
with the systems analysis phase and that is completed after the program is successfully

2.System documentation
-describes the features of an information system and explains how these features are implemented. The
systems analyst prepares most of the system documentation

3.Operation documentation
-tells the operations group how & when to run the program for an IS.

4.End-User documentation
-End users need documentation to assist them in both their learning their ongoing use of the IS.

6.Training And 7.Support

Installation and Training – Commitment to schedule

- In house – training
Hardware Support – full line of hardware
- Quality products
- Warranty
Software support –complete software needs
-custom programming
-Warranty
Maintenance-Routine maintenance procedures
- specified response time in emergencies
- equipment loan while repair is being done.
Support services – include routine and preventive maintenance of hardware

Training Objectives – operators must know such basics as turning on the machine, what to do when
common errors occur, basic troubleshooting, and how to end an entry.

Training methods – methods for those who learn best by seeing include demonstrations of equipment
and exposure to training manuals.

MAINTENANCE DEMAND
-obtaining maintenance request requires that a formal process be established whereby users can submit
system change requests.
-Most companies have some sort of document like a System Service Request (SSR) to request new
development, to report problems or to request new system features with an existing system.
-When developing the procedures for obtaining maintenance requests, organizations must also specify
an individual within the organization to collect these requests and manage their dispersal to
maintenance personnel.

CHANGE MAPPING(Transforming Requests into Changes)

-A formal process be established whereby users can submit system changes requests.
-Also called System Service Request(SSR)
-SSR use to request new development, to report problems
-Analysis must be conducted to gain an understanding of the scope of the request once a request is
received
-A change request can be transformed into a formal design change which wan fed into the maintenance
implementation phase.
-this concept and techniques used to initially develop a system are also used to maintain it.

CHANGE DESIGN

-formal controls are designed to ensure the potential changes are adequately described, considered,
and planned before being implemented
-typical change control procedures include
1) standard
2) review of requests by a change control committee
3) extensive planning for design and implementation

CHANGE IMPLEMENTATION

Planning for a change includes the following activities:

---Identify what parts of the system must be changed
---Secure resources (such as personnel) to implement the change
---Schedule design and implementation activities
---Develop test criteria and a testing plan for the changed system.

Objective:
1.Explain the meaning of data and information
DATA
is information or fact; Information in form that can be store and use

INFORMATION
fact or detail that tell you something about situation
data that has been processed in such a way that it can increase the knowledge of the user
facilitates decision making
2.Explain the importance of data as an asset to organizations such as schools and hospitals
give information of student and patients
easy to follow up their situation/monitor the students and patients progress
data are used for organization planning such as next year budgets and expanses
data were used to defend the organization form any legal action against them
to make analysis and comparison to produce good quality of information

3.Explain the types of data operation, eg sorting, validation, and abstraction

STPM 2010 CLONE EXAM PAPER Question no 8(b)
Explain four types of data operations
SUGGESTED ANSWER
Sorting-the data is reordered so that it is easier to find or compare data items.
Searching/Retrieving-an individual set of data item can be selected from many other data items.
Abstraction/Summarizing-representation of data that is summarized and compact.
Validation/Verification-ensuring data integrity.
Aggregation-items can be group, added together, counted and soon to produce a summary
data.
Filtering-smaller set of data item can be selected so that it is easier to find or compare data
items.
Classification-
Calculating/ Analysing -
Authorization-

4. Describe the characteristics of good data and information which can help users in making decisions
STPM 2010 8(A) State four characteristics of useful information.
SUGGESTED ANSWER
Up-to-date
On time
Relevant
Complete
Consistent
Accessible to authorized
Wholesome-value added attributes
Jelas
 Compact/Padat
Bermakna
Usable
Accurate
Reliable

5. Explain the data hierarchy;

Data is organized in layers. In the computer profession data is classified in hierarchy. See figure
below:
DatabaseFile(s)Record(s)FieldsOne or more characters
Characters-a bit is smallest unit of data the computer can process. Each byte represent a single
character: number, letter, punctuation mark, or other symbols
Fields- combination of one/more related characters/bytes is the smallest unit of data a user
accesses. -Field name uniquely identifies each field. -Field size defines the max
number of characters a field can contain. -Data type specific the kind of data a field can
contain and how the field is used .Common data types include:
Text(alphanumeric)
Numeric(numbers only)
Currency
Date
Memo
Yes/No(Boolean)
Hyperlink
Object
Records-Group of related fields. -Key fields/primary key is a field that uniquely identifies
each record in a file. -Data in a key field is unique to a specific record.
Files-A data file is a collection of related records stored on a storage medium such as hard-disk,
CD or DVD
Database- A database includes a group of related data files. With a Database
Management System(DBMS) users access data and set relationship among the data in data files

Explain the organization of sequential files, random files, and indexed files.
Sequential files-Arrange in a sequence order for example: Alphabetical order, descending or
ascending order
Random/Direct files-Files that arrange randomly not in any order.
Indexed files-contains records ordered by a record key. Record key uniquely identifies the record
and determines the sequence in which it is accessed with respect to other records

BASIC CONCEPT OF DATABASE

-Basic terminologies: Explain the meaning of basic terminologies such as:
Database-?
 Database system-?
Database Management System(DBMS)-?
-Database is a collection of data organized in a manner that allows access, retrieval, and use of
that data. A database at a fitness center contains data about members, e.g, personal data,
payment data, trainer data, and training schedules.
-A database is a structured collection of records or data which is stored in a computer so that a
program can consult it to answer queries.
-Database is collection of data organized in manner that allows a user to access, retrieve and use
the data(shelly, cashman & vermat, 2004)

Database
Wong(wikipedia): A database is a system intended to organize, store, and retrieve large
amounts of data
Shi sheng (Google define): Database an organized body of related information

Database system = the DBMS software together with the data itself
Kulshan(a Database System consist Of logically related data stored in single repository.
Hasbullah- A database system is a term that is

Database Management System(DBMS)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

File Processing vs Database

Program
1.

Program
DATA
2.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Discuss the use and importance of database system in various areas such as administration,
business, and daily life.
 Database system can be used to store and manage data for example : National
Registration Department (JPN)-store and manage Malaysian nationality registration
(identity card), no redundant data
 The bank can keep and update customer account data. No counting errors/human error
because using computerize system
 Management can manipulate data and database system because system becomes a
valuable information generator.
 Database system can generate report to the management and user
 Student can use the database system to store their friends and teachers information
such as address and phone number. So they can search and get then specific
information in a short time
 Store manager use the database system to manage their store, they can know the
quantity of their item (quantity in/quantity out), the customer and supplier list and the
available lorry driver at the certain time.
Applications of Databases

 Banking systems that keep information about customers and their account(large databases,
real-time response to some queries, peak periods for transactions)
 Point of sales systems in shops that process the purchase of goods
 Reservation systems for booking airlines flights and other travel, seats at the theatre or cinema,
etc
  Inventory systems ranging from the books in a library to the stock in furniture shop or car
showroom
 Accounting systems that produce bills, statements etc.

Database Management Systems - Prof. Holowczak - Database System Architectures

-Discuss and explain the importance of software, hardware, data, people, and procedure as an
integrated component of a database.
-Software : is the collection of programs used by the computers within the database system. It is like the
soul, the computer without software cannot work. Software and hardware works together.
-Hardware: is all physical devices such as motherboard, processors, monitor, printer and so on. Users
need hardware to use software because the software must be installed in the hardware.
-Data: is the collection facts stored in the database
-People: is all users of the database systems.
-Procedures: is instructions and rules that govern the design and uses of the database systems.

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Discuss and describe the advantages of database as compared with file processing system
 Reduced Data Redundancy – most data items are stored in only one file, which greatly reduces
duplicate data
 Improved Data Integrity – when users modify data in database, they make changes to one file
instead of multiple files
 Shared Data – the data in a database environment belongs to and is shared, usually over a
network, by the entire organization. This data is independent
 Easier Access- the database approach allows non- technical users to access and maintain data,
providing they have necessary privileges
 Reduced Development Time –It often is easier and faster to develop programs that use the
database approach.

The various database models

Databases appeared in the late 1960s, at a time when the need for a flexible information
management system had arisen. There are five models of DBMS, which are distinguished based
on how they represent the data contained:
  The hierarchical model: The data is sorted hierarchically, using a downward tree. This model
uses pointers to navigate between stored data. It was the first DBMS model.

 The network model: like the hierarchical model, this model uses pointers toward stored data.
However, it does not necessarily use a downward tree structure.
 Defined by the CODASYL specification

 The relational model (RDBMS, Relational database management system): The data is stored in
two-dimensional tables (rows and columns). The data is manipulated based on the relational
theory of mathematics.

 The deductive model: Data is represented as a table, but is manipulated using predicate
calculus.
 The object model (ODBMS, object-oriented database management system): the data is stored in
the form of objects, which are structures called classes that display the data within. The fields
are instances of these classes

By the late 1990s, relational databases were the most commonly used (comprising about three-
quarters of all databases).

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the licence, as this note appears clearly.

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Hierarchical Model
 The hierarchical model was developed by IBM in 1968.
 The data is organize in a tree structure where the nodes represent the records and the
branches of the tree represent the fields.
 Since the data is organized in a tree structure, the parent node has the links to its child
nodes.
 If we want to search a record, we have to traverse the tree from the root through all its
parent nodes to reach the specific record. Thus, searching for a record is very time
consuming.
 The hashing function is used to locate the root.
 SYSTEM2000 is an example of hierarchical database.

Network Model
 Record relationship in the network model is implemented by using pointers.
 Record relationship implementation is very complex since pointers are used. It supports
many-to-many relationships and simplified searching of records since a record has
many access paths.
 DBTG Codasyl was the first network database.

Relational Model
 The Relational Model, organizes data in the form of independent tables (consisting of
rows and columns) that are related to each other.
 A table consists of a number of rows (records/tuples) and columns (attributes). Each
record contains values for the attributes.
 The degree of the table denotes the number of columns.
 A domain in the relational model is said to be atomic is it consists of indivisible units.
For example, name is not atomic since it can be divided into first name and last name.
 E. F. Codd laid down 12 rules (known as Codd's 12 rules) that outline the minimum
functionality of a RDBMS. A RDBMS must comply with at least 6 of the rules.
 A Super Key is a of attributes that collectively identify a entity in a entity set. For
example, the bank account number is a super key in the bank accounts table.
 A Candidate Key (also known as Primary Key) is the smallest subset of the super key
for which there does not exist a proper subset that is a super key.
 Out of the multiple candidate keys, only one is selected to be the primary key and the
remaining are alternate keys.
 A foreign key is the primary key of a table that is placed into a related table to represent
one-to-many relationship among these tables.

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Explain the important of effective database administration
-can get data out quickly, reliably and consistently; Data is hard to be stolen, lost or damaged; Saves
more times to managed database; Can get the advantage of database approach as follows:
 Program-data independence
  Planned data redundancy
 Improved data consistency
 Improved data sharing
 Increased application development productivity
 Enforcement of standards
 Improved data quality
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
 Reduced program maintenance
 Improved decision support

Prof. Sin-Min Lee : Importance of DBMS

 It helps make data management more efficient and effective
 Its query language allows quick answers to ad hoc queries
 It provides end users better access to more and better-managed data
 It promotes and integrated view of organization‘s operations – “big picture”
 It reduces the probability of inconsistent data

State the duties of database administrators (DBA) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_administrator

--A database administrator (DBA) is a person responsible for the design, implementation, maintenance
and repair of an organization's database.--The role includes the development and design of database
strategies, monitoring and improving database performance and capacity, and planning for future
expansion requirements.-- They may also plan, co-ordinate and implement security measures to
safeguard the database
 Create and maintains the data dictionary,
 Manages security of the database
 Monitor the performance of database
 Check backup and recovery procedure
 Controlling privilege and permission to database user

7/4/2011 Hoffer Chapter5

To understand normalization, you need to understand several concepts:
1.A key is an attribute (or a combination of attributes ) that helps

SQL
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STPM 2010 NO 9 CLONE QUESTION:
PART OF A RELATIONAL DATABASE SCHEMA FOR SHSH MEGA COMPANY IS AS FOLLOWS:
EMPLOYEE(EmployeeNum, EmployeenName, Department, Skillcode)
SKILL(SkillCode, Description, PayRate)
PROJECT(ProjectNum, ProjectName, Location)

Write the following queries in SQL expressions.

(a) List all employees who work in the IT Department of the company.[3marks]
ANS:
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Department = “IT”;

(b) List the names of the project that have been developed by Shah Mega Company in
Subang Jaya.[3 marks]
ANS:
SELECT ProjectName
FROM PROJECT
WHERE Location = “Subang Jaya”

(c) List the pay rate for the employee E070470.

ANS:
SELECT PayRate
FROM SKILL, EMPLOYEE
WHERE SKILL.SkillCode = EMPLOYEE.SkillCode AND EMPLOYEE.EmployeeNum =
“E070470”;