Ray Optics 1639

Refraction of Light (1) Refractive index of a medium is that characteristic which

decides speed of light in it.
The bending of the ray of light passing from one medium to the
(2) It is a scalar, unit less and dimensionless quantity.
other medium is called refraction.
(3) Absolute refractive index : When light travels from vacuum
to any transparent medium then refractive index of medium w.r.t.
vacuum is called it’s absolute refractive index i.e.

Absolute refractive indices for glass, water and diamond are

respectively
Prin (B) (C)
cipal
Axis Fig. 29.17
2 (4) Relative refractive index : When light travels from medium
(A)
(1) The refraction of light takes place on going from one medium (1) to medium (2) then refractive index of medium (2) w.r.t. medium
to another because the speed of light is different in the two media.
(1) is called it’s relative refractive index i.e.
(2) Greater the difference in the speeds of light in the two media,
greater will be the amount of refraction.
(where v1 and v2 are the speed of light in medium 1 and 2
(3) A medium in which the speed of light is more is known as respectively).
optically rarer medium and a medium is which the speed of light is (5) When we say refractive index we mean absolute refractive
less, is known as optically denser medium. index.
(6) The minimum value of absolute refractive index is 1. For air it
(4) When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser
medium, it bends towards the normal. is very near to 1. ( )

Incident ray
i Rarer medium (7) Cauchy’s equation :

so
Deviation  = (i – r) 
(8) If a light ray travels from medium (1) to medium (2), then

Denser medium Refracted ray

Fig. 29.18
(5) When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer (9) Dependence of Refractive index
medium, it bends away from the normal. (i) Nature of the media of incidence and refraction.
(ii) Colour of light or wavelength of light.
Denser medium
(iii) Temperature of the media : Refractive index decreases with
i the increase in temperature.
Deviation  = (r – i )
Table 29.2 : Indices of refraction for various substances, Measured
r
 with light of vacuum wavelength 0 = 589 nm
Rarer medium
Substance Refractive Substance Refractive
Fig. 29.19 index index

(6) Snell’s law : The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the Solids at 20°C Liquids at 20°C
angle of refraction (r) is a constant called refractive index Diamond (C) 2.419 Benzene 1.501
Fluorite (CaF2) 1.434 Carbon disulfide 1.628
i.e. (a constant). For two media, Snell's law can Flused quartz (SiO2) 1.458 Carbon 1.461
tetrachloride
Glass, crown 1.52 Ethyl alcohol 1.361
be written as
Glass, flint 1.66 Glycerine 1.473
Ice (H2O) (at 0oC) 1.309 Water 1.333
 i.e. constant
Polystyrene 1.49 Gases at 0°C,
Also in vector form : 1 atm
Sodium chloride 1.544 Air 1.000293
Refractive Index Zircon 1.923 Carbon dioxide 1.00045
 1640 Ray Optics

(10) Reversibility of light and refraction through several Distance of image of B (i.e. B') from the interface =
media
Incident
1 Distance of image of A (i.e. A') from the interface
1 ray

i 2

r
3
2
Therefore, length of the image
1

(A) (B) or, the lateral magnification of the object

Fig. 29.20
(v) If a beaker contains various immiscible liquids as shown then
Real and Apparent Depth
Apparent depth of bottom
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due
1 d1
to refraction, object appears to be displaced from it’s real position.
2 d2
(1) When object is in denser medium and observer is in rarer d3
3
medium combination =
Fig. 29.23

 (In case of two liquids if than )

h
h O
d O (2) Object is in rarer medium and observer is in denser
medium
Fig. 29.21 O d
h
O h
(i)

(ii) Real depth > Apparent depth

(iii) Shift . For water

Fig. 29.24
(i)
;
(ii) Real depth < Apparent depth.

For glass (iii)

(iv) Lateral magnification : consider an object of height x placed (iv) Shift for water ; Shift for glass
vertically in a medium 1 such that the lower end (B) is a distance h
from the interface and the upper end (A) at a distance (h – x) from the Refraction Through a Glass Slab
interface. Opti
cal (1) Lateral shift : The refracting surfaces of a glass slab are
Axis parallel to each other. When a light ray passes through a glass slab it is
(h – x) A' 2 1 refracted twice at the two parallel faces and finally emerges out
h B'
parallel to it's incident direction i.e. the ray undergoes no deviation  =
A
0. The angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of incidence (i)
B
i
Fig. 29.22

rr 
t N

M
e
Fig. 29.25
 Ray Optics 1641

(2) Conditions for TIR

(i) The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
The Lateral shift of the ray is the perpendicular distance between (ii) The angle of incidence i must be greater than critical angle C
the incident and the emergent ray, and it is given by (3) Dependence of critical angle
MN = t sec r sin (i – r) (i) Colour of light (or wavelength of light) : Critical angle
(2) Normal shift : If a glass slab is placed in the path of a converging
or diverging beam of light then point of convergence or point of depends upon wavelength as
divergence appears to be shifted as shown
Normal shift (a)

O'
(b) Sin C (for two media)
O
x
 (ii) Nature of the pair of media : Greater the refractive index
t lesser will be the critical angle.
Fig. 29.26 (a) For (glass- air) pair
(3) Optical path : It is defined as distance travelled by light in (b) For (water-air) pair
vacuum in the same time in which it travels a given path length in a
medium. (c) For (diamond-air) pair
(iii) Temperature : With temperature rise refractive index of the
Time taken by light ray to pass through the medium ;
material decreases therefore critical angle increases.
where x = geometrical path and x = optical path Common Examples of TIR
 (1) Looming : An optical illusion in cold countries
Light (2) Mirage : An optical illusion in deserts

Fig. 29.27
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Fig. 29.29
(3) Brilliance of diamond : Due to repeated internal reflections
When a ray of light goes from denser to rarer medium it bends
diamond sparkles.
away from the normal and as the angle of incidence in denser medium
increases, the angle of refraction in rarer medium also increases and at (4) Optical fibre : Optical fibres consist of many long high
a certain angle, angle of refraction becomes 90 o, this angle of quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and
incidence is called critical angle (C). cladding.
(i) The refractive index of the material of the core ( 1) is higher
When Angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle than light ray
comes back in to the same medium after reflection from interface. This than that of the cladding (2).
phenomenon is called Total internal reflection (TIR). (ii) When the light is incident on one end of the fibre at a small
angle, the light passes inside, undergoes repeated total internal
r reflections along the fibre and finally comes out. The angle of
90° incidence is always larger than the critical angle of the core material
C  >C  with respect to its cladding.
i
(iii) Even if the fibre is bent, the light can easily travel through
along the fibre
(iv) A bundle of optical fibres can be used as a 'light pipe' in
O
medical and optical examination. It can also be used for optical signal
Fig. 29.28
transmission. Optical fibres have also been used for transmitting and
receiving electrical signals which are converted to light by suitable
(1) where
transducers.
2
1

Fig. 29.30
 1642 Ray Optics

Refractive index of the medium in which light rays are

entering.
u = Distance of object, v = Distance of image, R = Radius of
(5) Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver) inside curvature
the water can see the whole world through a cone with.
(2) Lateral magnification : The lateral magnification m is the
r
ratio of the image height to the object height

C  >C
h or
C C

1
2
h0 C
Fig. 29.31 P hi

(a) Apex angle u v

Fig. 29.34
Lens
(b) Radius of base ; for water
(1) Lens is a transparent medium bounded by two refracting
surfaces, such that at least one surface is curved. Curved surface can
be spherical, cylindrical etc.
(2) Lenses are of two basic types convex which are thicker in the
(c) Area of base A ; for water middle than at the edges and concave for which the reverse holds.

(6) Porro prism : A right angled isosceles prism, which is used

in periscopes or binoculars. It is used to deviate light rays through
and and also to erect the image.
Biconvex Plano convex Concavo convex
45 o
90o
45o 45o
45o
45o 45o
90o 45o Biconcave Plano concave Convexo concave

B A
(3) As there are two spherical surfaces, there are two centres of
B Fig. 29.35
A curvature C1 and C2 and correspondingly two radii of curvature R1 and
90o R2
(4) The line joining C1 and C2 is called the principal axis of the
45o 45o lens. The centre of the thin lens which is on the principal axis, is called
the optical centre.
Fig. 29.32 (5) A ray passing through optical centre proceeds undeviated
Refraction From Spherical Surface through the lens.
Incident light R1  Positive
1 R2  Negative
2 1 2
O P I P I C2 R2 O C1
O
R1

Fig. 29.33
(A)
(1) Refraction formula : Incident light R1  Negative
R2  Positive
C1 R1 C2
O
Where Refractive index of the medium from which light
R2
rays are coming (from object).

(B)
Fig. 29.36
 Ray Optics 1643

Real
(6) Principal focus : We define two principal focus for the lens. Inverted
We are mainly concerned with the second principal focus (F). Thus Very small in size
wherever we write the focus, it means the second principal focus. Magnification m < – 1
(3) When object is placed at 2F (i.e. u = 2f )
First principal focus : An object point for which image is
formed at infinity.
Image
F1 At 2F
F1 2F
Real F

Inverted 2F F
Equal in size
(A) (B) Magnification m = – 1 Fig. 29.41
Fig. 29.37
Second principal focus : An image point for an object at infinity.
(4) When object is placed between F and 2F (i.e. f < u < 2f )

F2 F2 Image
Beyond 2F
F 2F
Real
Inverted 2F F
(A) (B)
Focal Length, Power and Aperture of Lens
Fig. 29.38 Large in size
(1) Focal length (f) : Distance of second principle focus from Magnification m > – 1
Fig. 29.42
optical centre is called focal length

positive, negative, (5) When object is placed at F (i.e. u = f )

(2) Aperture : Effective diameter of light transmitting area is Image

called aperture. At 
F 2F
(3) Power of lens (P) : Means the ability of a lens to deviate the Real
Inverted 2F F
path of the rays passing through it. If the lens converges the rays
parallel to the principal axis its power is positive and if it diverges the Very large in size
rays it is negative. Magnification m >> – 1
Fig. 29.43

Power of lens ; Unit of power is

(6) When object is placed between F and optical center
Diopter (D) (i.e. u < f )

Image
. Same side as
that of object
Rules of Image Formation by Lens F 2F
Virtual
Convex lens : The image formed by convex lens depends on the F
Erect
position of object.
large in size
(1) When object is placed at infinite (i.e. u = )
Magnification m > 1
Fig. 29.44
Image
At F Concave lens : The image formed by a concave lens is always
Real 2F F F 2F virtual, erect and diminished (like a convex mirror)
Inverted (1) When object is placed at 
Very small in size
Magnification m << – 1 Fig. 29.39 Image
(2) When object is placed between infinite and 2F (i.e. u > 2f)
At F 2F F 2F
Image Virtual
Between F and 2F Erect

F 2F
Fig. 29.45
2F F

Fig. 29.40
 1644 Ray Optics
Point size The ratio of the size of the image to the size of object is called
Magnification m << + 1 magnification.

(2) When object is placed any where on the principal axis

(1) Transverse magnification :
Image
(use sign convention while solving the problem)
Between optical centre and focus
Virtual
(2) Longitudinal magnification : . For very
Erect
Smaller in size F

Magnification m < + 1 small object

Fig. 29.46
(3) Areal magnification : ,
Lens Maker's Formula and Lens Formula
(1) Lens maker's formula : If R1 and R2 are the radii of (Ai = Area of image, Ao = Area of object)
curvature of first and second refracting surfaces of a thin lens of focal (4) Relation between object and image speed : If an object
length f and refractive index  (w.r.t. surrounding medium) then the
moves with constant speed towards a convex lens from
relation between f, , R1 and R2 is known as lens maker’s formula.
infinity to focus, the image will move slower in the beginning and then

faster. Also

Table 29.3 : Focal length of different lenses Newton's Formula

Lens Focal length For  = 1.5 If the distance of object (x1) and image (x2) are not measured from
Biconvex lens optical centre, but from first and second principal foci then Newton's
formula states

F
Plano-convex lens x1 x2

Fig. 29.47
Lens Immersed in a Liquid
If a lens (made of glass) of refractive index g is immersed in a
liquid of refractive index l, then its focal length in liquid, fl is given
Biconcave
by ......(i)

If is the focal length of lens in air, then

Plano-concave
......(ii)

(1) If then and are of same sign and

(2) Lens formula : The expression which shows the relation
between u, v and f is called lens formula. .
That is the nature of lens remains unchanged, but it’s focal length
increases and hence power of lens decreases.
(2) If then . It means lens behaves as a
Magnification plane glass plate and becomes invisible in the medium.
 Ray Optics 1645

Combination of Lens
(3) If then Fig.and29.48 have opposite signs and the
nature of lens changes i.e. a convex lens diverges the light rays and (1) For a system of lenses, the net power, net focal length and
concave lens converges the light rays. magnification are given as follows :

Fig. 29.49
Displacement Method (2) In case when two thin lens are in contact : Combination will
By this method focal length of convex lens is determined. behave as a lens, which have more power or lesser focal length.
Consider an object and a screen placed at a distance D (> 4f)
apart. Let a lens of focal length f be placed between the object and the
screen.  and
x
Object
(3) If two lens of equal focal length but of opposite nature are in
O
I2 contact then combination will behave as a plane glass plate and
I1
D > 4f
Screen (4) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from
Fig. 29.50 each other then equivalent focal length (F).
(1) For two different positions of lens two images
f1 f2
of an object are formed at the screen.

(2) Focal length of the lens

d
where ; and Fig. 29.53

(3) Size of object and

Cutting of Lens (5) Combination of parts of a lens :

(1) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts.
Intensity of image formed by each part will be same as that of
complete lens. Focal length is double the original for each part.
 and
(2) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal
parts. Intensity of image formed by each part will be less compared as
f F =f F=f
that of complete lens.(aperture of each part is times that of
Fig. 29.54
complete lens). Focal length remains same for each part.

2f 2f and
f, P
P/2 P/2
F = f/2
F=
f
 Fig. 29.55
Silvering of Lens
On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror. The
Fig. 29.51

f, P focal length of the silvered lens is

f, P
Fig. 29.52
 1646 Ray Optics

where focal length of lens from which refraction takes Removal : To remove this defect i.e. for Achromatism we use
two or more lenses in contact in place of single lens.
place (twice)
Mathematically condition of Achromatism is :
focal length of mirror from which reflection takes place.

(1) Plano convex is silvered or

(2) Spherical aberration : Inability of a lens to form the point
image of a point object on the axis is called Spherical aberration.
 + In this defect all the rays passing through a lens are not focussed
at a single point and the image of a point object on the axis is blurred.

Marginal rays Marginal rays

F fl fm
Fig. 29.56
Paraxial ray F F F F
so Paraxial rays

Fig. 29.60
 +
Removal : A simple method to reduce spherical aberration is to
use a stop before and infront of the lens. (but this method reduces the
intensity of the image as most of the light is cut off). Also by using
F fl fm plano-convex lens, using two lenses separated by distance d = F – F ',
Fig. 29.57 using crossed lens.
(3) Coma : When the point object is placed away from the
so principle axis and the image is received on a screen perpendicular to
the axis, the shape of the image is like a comet. This defect is called
Coma.
(ii) Double convex lens is silvered
It refers to spreading of a point object in a plane  to principle
axis.

 + Image of P
P

fl fm Axis
F
Fig. 29.58 P
Fig. 29.61
Since so
Removal : It can be reduced by properly designing radii of
curvature of the lens surfaces. It can also be reduced by appropriate
Defects in Lens stops placed at appropriate distances from the lens.
(1) Chromatic aberration : Image of a white object is coloured (4) Curvature : For a point object placed off the axis, the image
and blurred because  (hence f) of lens is different for different is spread both along and perpendicular to the principal axis. The best
colours. This defect is called chromatic aberration.
image is, in general, obtained not on a plane but on a curved surface.
Real Violet This defect is known as Curvature.
White
light Removal : Astigmatism or the curvature may be reduced by
FV FR
using proper stops placed at proper locations along the axis.
(5) Distortion : When extended objects are imaged, different
fV portions of the object are in general at different distances from the
fR axis. The magnification is not the same for all portions of the extended
Fig. 29.59 object. As a result a line object is not imaged into a line but into a
curve.
so

Mathematically chromatic aberration =

 = Dispersive power of lens.
fy = Focal length for mean colour

Object Distorted images

Fig. 29.62
 Ray Optics 1647

(6) Astigmatism : The spreading of image (of a point object (a) Refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of the
placed away from the principal axis) along the principal axis is called prism for equilateral and isosceles prisms.
Astigmatism.
(b) and
Prism
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surfaces,
such that the incident surface (on which light ray is incidenting) and
(c) or (Prism
emergent surface (from which light rays emerges) are plane and non
parallel.
formula).
(1) Refraction through a prism
(3) Condition of no emergence : For no emergence of light, TIR
A
i – Angle of incidence, must takes place at the second surface
A e – Angle of emergence, A
 For TIR at second surface r2 > C
e A – Angle of prism or refracting
i r1 r2
i r1 r2
angle of prism, So A > r1 + C (From A = r1 + r2)
r1 and r2 – Angle of refraction,
  – Angle of deviation As maximum value of TIR
C B
So, for any angle of Fig. 29.66
Fig. 29.63
incidence.
and If light ray incident normally on first surface i.e.  i = 0° it means
r1 = 0°. So in this case condition of no emergence from second
For surface ; For surface AB surface is A > C.

(2) Deviation through a prism : For thin prism   

. Also deviation is different for different colour light
Dispersion Through a Prism
e.g. so .
The splitting of white light into it’s constituent colours is called
so dispersion of light.

(i) Maximum deviation : Condition of maximum deviation is


max
and from Snell’s e
r2
law on emergent surface i = 90o
r1 = C

Fig. 29.67
Fig. 29.64
(1) Angular dispersion ( ) : Angular separation between
extreme colours i.e. . It depends
upon  and A.

Y V Screen
R
Incident
white light R

Y
(ii) Minimum deviation : It is observed if and
V
, deviation produced is minimum. Fig. 29.68

 (2) Dispersive power () :

i e
r r
m

i
Fig. 29.65
 1648 Ray Optics
 It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e.  and it
doesn't depends upon angle of prism A
(3) Combination of prisms : Two prisms (made of crown and
flint material) are combined to get either dispersion only or deviation
(1) Primary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and one TIR. (ii)
only.
Innermost arc is violet and outermost is red. (iii) Subtends an angle of
(i) Dispersion without deviation (chromatic combination)
at the eye of the observer. (iv) More bright
Flint
V (2) Secondary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and two TIR. (ii)
A R
Innermost arc is red and outermost is violet. (iii) It subtends an angle
R of at the eye. (iv) Comparatively less bright.
A
V
Crown Colours of Objects
Fig. 29.69
Colour is defined as the sensation received by the eye (rod cells
of the eye) due to light coming from an object.
(ii) Deviation without dispersion (Achromatic combination)
Flint (1) Colours of opaque object : The colours of opaque bodies are
due to selective reflection. e.g.
A
(i) A rose appears red in white light because it reflects red colour
R and absorbs all remaining colours.
A
V (ii) When yellow light falls on a bunch of flowers, then yellow
Crown and white flowers looks yellow. Other flowers looks black.
Fig. 29.70
(2) Colours of transparent object : The colours of transperent
bodies are due to selective transmission..
Scattering of Light
(i) A red glass appears red because it absorbs all colours, except
Molecules of a medium after absorbing incoming light radiations, red which it transmits.
emits them in all direction. This phenomenon is called Scattering.
(ii) When we look on objects through a green glass or green filter
(1) According to scientist Rayleigh : Intensity of scattered light then green and white objects will appear green while other black.
(3) Colour of the sky : Light of shorter wavelength is scattered
much more than the light of longer wavelength. Since blue colour has
relatively shorter wavelength, it predominates the sky and hence sky
(2) Some phenomenon based on scattering : (i) Sky looks blue
appears bluish.
due to scattering.
(4) Colour of clouds : Large particles like water droplets and
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset sun looks reddish.
dust do not have this selective scattering power. They scatter all
(iii) Danger signals are made of red colour. wavelengths alomost equally. Hence clouds appear to the white.
(3) Elastic scattering : When the wavelength of radiation (5) Colour triangle for spectral colours : Red, Green and blue
remains unchanged, the scattering is called elastic. are primary colours.
(4) Inelastic scattering (Raman’s effect) : Under specific Green (P)
condition, light can also suffer inelastic scattering from molecules in
which it’s wavelength changes.
Rainbow Cyan (S) Yellow (S)
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering white
refraction and TIR in the droplets present in the atmosphere. Observer
should stand with its back towards sun to observe rainbow. Blue (P) Red (P)
Magenta (S)
Fig. 29.72
(i) Complementary colours : Green and Magenta, Blue and
Yellow, Red and Cyan.
(ii) Combination : Green + Red + Blue = White, Blue + Yellow =
White, Red + Cyan = White, Green + Magenta = White
(6) Colour triangle for pigment and dyes : Red, Yellow and
Red
Blue are the primary colours.

Violet

43o 41o 42o 40o

Fig. 29.71
 Ray Optics 1649

Yellow (P)

Green (S) Orange (S) (2) Absorption spectrum : When white light passes through a
Black semi-transparent solid, or liquid or gas, it’s spectrum contains certain
dark lines or bands, such spectrum is called absorption spectrum (of
Blue (P) Red (P) the substance through which light is passed).
Radish violet (S)
(Mauve) (i) Substances in atomic state produces line absorption spectra.
Fig. 29.73 Polyatomic substances such as and
produces band absorption spectrum.
(i) Complementary colours : Yellow and Mauve, Red and Green,
Blue and Orange. (ii) Absorption spectra of sodium vapour have two (yellow lines)
(ii) Combination : Yellow + Red + Blue = Black, Blue + Orange wavelengths and
= Black, Red + Green = Black, Yellow + Mauve = Black
(3) Fraunhoffer’s lines : The central part (photosphere) of the
Spectrum sun is very hot and emits all possible wavelengths of the visible light.
The ordered arrangements of radiations according to wavelengths However, the outer part (chromosphere) consists of vapours of
or frequencies is called Spectrum. Spectrum can be divided in two different elements. When the light emitted from the photosphere
parts Emission spectrum and Absorption spectrum. passes through the chromosphere, certain wavelengths are absorbed.
(1) Emission spectrum : When light emitted by a self luminous Hence, in the spectrum of sunlight a large number of dark lines are
object is dispersed by a prism to get the spectrum, the spectrum is seen called Fraunhoffer lines.
called emission spectra.
Continuous emission spectrum Sun's atmosphere
(i) It consists of continuously varying wavelengths in a definite Cromosphere
wavelength range. Photosphere

(ii) It is produced by solids, liquids and highly compressed gases

heated to high temperature.
Fig. 29.77
(iii) e.g. Light from the sun, filament of incandescent bulb, candle
flame etc. (i) The prominent lines in the yellow part of the visible spectrum
were labelled as D-lines, those in blue part as F-lines and in red part as
C-line.

(ii) From the study of Fraunhoffer’s lines the presence of various

elements in the sun’s atmosphere can be identified e.g. abundance of
Fig. 29.74
hydrogen and helium.
Line emission spectrum
(iii) In the event of a solar eclipse, dark lines become bright. This
(i) It consist of distinct bright lines.
is because of the reason that the presence of an opaque obstacle in
(ii) It is produced by an excited source in atomic state. between sun and earth cuts the light off from the central region (photo-
(iii) e.g. Spectrum of excited helium, mercury vapours, sodium sphere), while light from corner portion (cromosphere) is still being
vapours or atomic hydrogen. received. The bright lines appear exactly at the places where dark lines
were present.

(4) Spectrometer : A spectrometer is used for obtaining pure

spectrum of a source in laboratory and calculation of  of material of
prism and  of a transparent liquid.
Fig. 29.75
Band emission spectrum It consists of three parts : Collimator which provides a parallel
(i) It consist of district bright bands. beam of light; Prism Table for holding the prism and Telescope for
observing the spectrum and making measurements on it.
(ii) It is produced by an excited source in molecular state.
The telescope is first set for parallel rays and then collimator is
(iii) e.g. Spectra of molecular CO, etc. set for parallel rays. When prism is set in minimum deviation position,
the spectrum seen is pure spectrum. Angle of prism (A) and angle of

Fig. 29.76
 1650 Ray Optics

minimum deviation are measured and  of material of prism Defects in Eye

is calculated using prism formula. For  of a transparent liquid, we (1) Myopia (short sightness) : A short-sighted eye can see only
take a hollow prism with thin glass sides. Fill it with the liquid and nearer objects. Distant objects are not seen clearly.
measure and A of liquid prism.  of liquid is calculated using (i) In this defect image is formed before the retina and Far point
prism formula. comes closer.
Retina Concave lens
Retina
(5) Direct vision spectroscope : It is an instrument used to Far point
observe pure spectrum. It produces dispersion without deviation with
the help of n crown prisms and flint prisms alternately
arranged in a tabular structure. d
(A) Defected eye (B) Removal of Defect
For no deviation .
Fig. 29.79
Human Eye (ii) In this defect focal length or radii of curvature of lens reduced
or power of lens increases or distance between eye lens and retina
increases.
(iii) This defect can be removed by using a concave lens of
suitable focal length.
(iv) If defected far point is at a distance d from eye then
Focal length of used lens f = – d = – (defected far point)
(v) A person can see upto distance  x, wants to see distance 

Fig. 29.78 y (y > x) so or power of the lens

(1) Eye lens : Over all behaves as a convex lens of (2) Hypermetropia (long sightness) : A long-sighted eye can see
(2) Retina : Real and inverted image of an object, obtained at retina, distant objects clearly but nearer object are not clearly visible.
brain sense it erect. (i) Image formed behind the retina and near point moves away
(3) Yellow spot : It is the most sensitive part, the image formed Convex lens
Retina
at yellow spot is brightest. Retina

(4) Blind spot : Optic nerves goes to brain through blind spot. It I O
is not sensitive for light. Near
point
(5) Ciliary muscles : Eye lens is fixed between these muscles. (A) Defected eye (B) Removal of Defect
It’s both radius of curvature can be changed by applying pressure on it
through ciliary muscles. Fig. 29.80

(6) Power of accomodation : The ability of eye to see near (ii) In this defect focal length or radii of curvature of lens
objects as well as far objects is called power of accomodation. increases or power of lens decreases or distance between eye lens and
(7) Range of vision : For healthy eye it is 25 cm (near point) to  retina decreases.
(far point). (iii) This defect can be removed by using a convex lens.

A normal eye can see the objects clearly, only if they are at a (iv) If a person cannot see before distance d but wants to see the
distance greater than 25 cm. This distance is called Least distance of
object placed at distance D from eye so and power of
distinct vision and is represented by D.
(8) Persistence of vision : Is 1/10 sec. i.e. if time interval
the lens
between two consecutive light pulses is lesser than 0.1 sec., eye cannot
distinguish them separately.
(3) Presbyopia : In this defect both near and far objects are not
(9) Binocular vision : The seeing with two eyes is called clearly visible. It is an old age disease and it is due to the loosing
binocular vision. power of accommodation. It can be removed by using bifocal lens.
(10) Resolving limit : The minimum angular separation between
two objects, so that they are just resolved is called resolving limit. For (4) Astigmatism : In this defect eye cannot see horizontal and
vertical lines clearly, simultaneously. It is due to imperfect spherical
eye it is . nature of eye lens. This defect can be removed by using cylindrical
lens (Torric lenses).
 Ray Optics 1651

Lens Camera
(1) In lens camera a converging lens of adjustable aperture is
used.
(2) Distance of film from lens is also adjustable.
(3) In photographing an object, the image is first focused on the
film by adjusting the distance between lens and film. It is called
focusing. After focusing, aperture is set to a specific value and then
(2) Compound microscope
film is exposed to light for a given time through shutter.
(4) f-number : The ratio of focal length to the aperture of lens is uo vo ue

called f-number of the camera.

A
2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 22, 32 are the f-numbers marked on aperture.
B
B Q E
f-number  Aperture 
O A

(5) Time of exposure : It is the time for which the shutter opens
and light enters the camera to expose film. ve=D to 

(i) If intensity of light is kept fixed then for proper exposure Fig. 29.82

(i) Consist of two converging lenses called objective and eye

Time of exposure (t) lens.

(ii) and
(ii) If aperture is kept fixed then for proper exposure

Time of exposure (t)

(iii) Intermediate image is real and enlarged.

  (iv) Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted.

(iii) Smaller the f-number larger will be the aperture and lesser (v) Distance of object from objective (o), Distance
will be the time of exposure and faster will be the camera.
of image formed by objective from objective,
(6) Depth of focus : It refers to the range of distance over which
the object may lie so as to form a good quality image. Large f-number Distance of from eye lens, ve = Distance of final image from eye
increase the depth of focus. lens, fo = Focal length of objective, fe = Focal length of eye lens.

Microscope (vi) Final image is formed at D : Magnification

It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects. It’s

and length of the microscope tube (distance
magnifying power is given by

between two lenses) is .

Generally object is placed very near to the principal focus of the

(1) Simple microscope objective hence The eye piece is also of small focal
(i) It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length.
length and the image formed by the objective is also very near to the
(ii) Also called magnifying glass or reading lens. eye piece.
(iii) Magnification’s, when final image is formed at D and  (i.e.
So the length of the tube.
and ) and

(iv) If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then Hence, we can write

and
A (vii) Final image is formed at  : Magnification

Virtual and
enlarged image and length of tube
A

B F B

ve=D to 
Fig. 29.81
 1652 Ray Optics

(4) Length : and

In terms of length
Galilean Telescope
(viii) For large magnification of the compound microscope, both It is also type of terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field of
and should be small. view.
ve=D to 
A
(ix) If the length of the tube of microscope increases, then its P
magnifying power increases.
B
 Q  E A
(x) The magnifying power of the compound microscope may be O  
expressed as ; where mo is the magnification of the B
objective and me is magnifying power of eye piece.
ue
Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type) fo

By astronomical telescope heavenly bodies are seen. Fig. 29.85

(1) Objective is a converging lens while eye lens is diverging
A fo ue
lens.

B
(2) Magnification : and
B
O Q E

A (3) Length : and

P Reflecting Telescope
ve=D to 

Fig. 29.83 Reflecting telescopes are based upon the same principle except
that the formation of images takes place by reflection instead of by
(1) and . refraction.

(2) Intermediate image is real, inverted and small. T1

(3) Final image is virtual, inverted and small.
Light
45o from 
(4) Magnification : and M

T2
(5) Length : and
Objective Eye piece
Terrestrial Telescope
It is used to see far off object on the earth.

ve = D to  If fo is focal length of theFig.

concave
29.86 spherical mirror used as
P
A objective and fe, the focal length of the eye-piece, the magnifying
A''
B Q B' power of the reflecting telescope is given by
O B''
A' Erecting lens Further, if D is diameter of the objective and d, the diameter of
fo 2f 2f Ue
the pupil of the eye, then brightness ratio () is given by
Fig. 29.84
(1) It consists of three converging lens : objective, eye lens and
Resolving Limit and Resolving Power
erecting lens.
(1) Microscope : In reference to a microscope, the minimum
(2) It’s final image is virtual, erect and smaller.
distance between two lines at which they are just distinct is called
Resolving limit (RL) and it’s reciprocal is called Resolving power
(3) Magnification : and (RP)


O
Objective

Fig. 29.87
 Ray Optics 1653

Light source Flux (lumen) Efficiency

(lumen/watt)
40 W tungsten bulb 465 12
60 W tungsten bulb 835 14
and
500 W tungsten bulb 9950 20
30 W fluorescent tube 1500 50

(4) Luminous Intensity (L) : In a given direction it is defined as

 = Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,
luminous flux per unit solid angle i.e.
 = Refractive index of the medium between object and
objective,
 = Half angle of the cone of light from the point object,
= Numerical aperture.
The luminous intensity of a point source is given by :
(2) Telescope : Smallest angular separations (d) between two
distant objects, whose images are separated in the telescope is called 
resolving limit. So resolving limit
(5) Illuminance or intensity of illumination (I) : The luminous

flux incident per unit area of a surface is called illuminance.

and resolving power

where a = aperture of objective.

. It's S.I. unit is or Lux (lx) and it's C.G.S. unit is Phot.
Binocular
If two telescopes are mounted parallel to each other so that an
object can be seen by both the eyes simultaneously, the arrangement is
called 'binocular'. In a binocular, the length of each tube is reduced by
using a set of totally reflecting prisms which provide intense, erect (i) Intensity of illumination at a distance r from a point source
image free from lateral inversion. Through a binocular we get two
is .
images of the same object from different angles at same time. Their
superposition gives the perception of depth along with length and
breadth, i.e., binocular vision gives proper three-dimensional (3D) (ii) Intensity of illumination at a distance r from a line source
image.
is
fo

(iii) In case of a parallel beam of light .

(iv) The illuminance represents the luminous flux incident on unit

area of the surface, while luminance represents the luminous flux
reflected from a unit area of the surface.
fe
(6) Relation Between Luminous Intensity (L) and Illuminance
Photometry Fig. 29.88
(I) : If S is a unidirectional point source of light of luminous intensity
The branch of optics that deals with the study and measurement L and there is a surface at a distance r from source, on which light is
of the light energy is called photometry. falling normally.
(1) Radiant flux (R) : The total energy radiated by a source per (i) Illuminance of surface is
second is called radiant flux. It’s S.I. unit is Watt (W). r
S
(2) Luminous flux () : The total light energy emitted by a given by : 
source per second is called luminous flux. It represents the total
brightness producing capacity of the source. It’s S.I. unit is Lumen (ii) For a given source L = Fig. 29.89
(lm).
(3) Luminous efficiency () : The Ratio of luminous flux and constant so ; This is called. Inverse square law of

radiant flux is called luminous efficiency i.e. . illuminance.

(7) Lambert’s Cosine Law of Illuminance : In the above
Table 29.4 : Luminous flux and efficiency
discussion if surface is so oriented that light from the source falls, on it
 1654 Ray Optics
obliquely and the central ray of light makes an angle with the emergent ray is anti-parallel to incident ray, if it suffers one
normal to the surface, then reflection from each. Whatever be the angle to incidence.

(i) Illuminance of the surface

  We observe number of images in a thick plane mirror, out of

them only second is brightest.
S r
Incident light (100%)

10%
Fig. 29.90
80% Brightest image
(ii) For a given light source and point of illumination (i.e. L and r =
constant) this is 9%
called Lambert’s cosine law of

0.9%  To find the location of an object from an inclined plane mirror,

illuminance.
you have to see the perpendicular distance of the object from the
mirror.
(iii) For a given source
I and plane of illuminance (i.e. L and h =
constant) S
O I
M M

so h Wrong
r
Correct 
O OM = MI
OM = MI

P0 P  Images formed by mirrors do not show chromatic aberration.

or i.e. or  In concave mirror, minimum distance between a real object
Fig. 29.91
and it's real image is zero. (i.e. when u = v = 2f)
(8) Photometer and Principle of Photometry : A photometer is  If a spherical mirror produces an image ‘m’ times the size of
a device used to compare the illuminance of two sources. the object (m = magnification) then u, v and f are given by the
followings
L1 L2

 Focal length of a mirror is independent of material of mirror

r1 r2 and medium in which it is placed and wavelength of incident light
Fig. 29.92  Divergence or Convergence power of a mirror does not change
Two sources of luminous intensity , and are placed at with the change in medium.
distances and from the screen so that their flux are  If an object is moving at a speed vo towards a spherical mirror
perpendicular to the screen. The distance and are adjusted along it’s axis then speed of image away from mirror is

till . So ; This is called

 When object is moved from focus to infinity at constant speed,
principle of photometry. the image will move faster in the beginning till object moves from f
to 2f, and slower later on, towards the mirror.
 As every part of mirror forms a complete image, if a part of
the mirror is obstructed, full image will be formed but intensity will
be reduced.

O
 After reflection velocity,
C wavelength P
and frequency of light
remains same but intensity decreases.F
 If light ray incident normally
I
on a surface, after reflection it
retraces the path.
 In case of refraction of light frequency (and hence colour) and
phase do not change (while wavelength and velocity will change).
C C  In the refraction intensity of incident light decreases as it goes
from one medium to another medium.
 If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at 90 o, the  A transparent solid is invisible in a liquid of same refractive
 Ray Optics 1655

index (Because of No refraction). and the mean refractive index of this part is nearly equal to the
 When a glass slab is kept over various coloured letters and refractive index for the D line (yellow) of sodium. Hence for the
seen from the top, the violet colour letters appears closer (Because dispersive power, the following formula is internationally accepted

so and from if  increases then h'

decreases i.e. Letter appears to be closer)  Sometimes a part of prism is given and we keep on thinking
 Minimum distance between an object and it’s real image whether how should we proceed ? To solve such problems first
formed by a convex lens is 4f. complete the prism then solve as the problems of prism are solved
 Component lenses of an achromatic doublet
A cemented by
canada blasam because it is transparent and has a refractive index
almost equal to the refractive index of the glass. 50o
 Parabolic mirrors are free from spherical aberration.
 If a sphere of radius R made of material of refractive index

is placed in a medium of refractive index , then if the
60o o
70 60o 70o
B C  When we look distant objects, the eye is relaxed and it's focal
object is placed at a distance from the pole, the length is largest.
 Minimum separation (d) between objects, so they can just
real image formed is equidistant from the sphere
resolved by a telescope is :
1 1
Where r = distance of objects from telescope.
O P1 P2 I  As magnifying power astronomical telescope is negative, the
2 image seen in astronomical telescope is truly inverted, i.e., left is
turned right with upside down simultaneously. However, as most of
x 2x x the astronomical objects are symmetrical this inversion does not
affect the observations.
 The lens doublets used in telescope are achromatic for blue
and red colours, while these used in camera are achromatic for
 If objective and eye lens of a telescope are interchanged, it will
violet and green colours. The reason for this is that our eye is most not behave as a microscope but object appears very small.
sensitive between blue and red colours, while the photographic  In a telescope, if field and eye lenses are interchanged
plates are most sensitive between violet and green colours. magnification will change from (fo / fe) to (fe / fo), i.e., it will change
 Composite lens : If a lens is made of several materials then from m to (1/m), i.e., will become (1/m2) times of its initial value.
Number of images formed = Number of materials used  As magnification produced by telescope for normal setting is
1 (fo / fe), so to have large magnification, fo must be as large as
Here no. of images = 5 practically possible and fe small. This is why in a telescope,
2 objective is of large focal length while eye piece of small.
3
 In a telescope, aperture of the field lens is made as large as
4 practically possible to increase its resolving power as resolving
5 power of a telescope  (D/)*. Large aperture of objective also
helps in improving the brightness of image by gathering more light
 For the condition of grazing emergence through a prism. from distant object. However, it increases aberrations particularly
Minimum angle of incidence spherical.
.  For a telescope with increase in length of the tube,
magnification decreases.
 If a substance emits spectral lines at high temperature then it
absorbs the same lines at low temperature. This is Kirchoff’s law.  In case of a telescope if object and final image are at infinity
 When a ray of white light passes through a glass prism red
then :
light is deviated less than blue light.
d
 For a hollow prism D
A  0 but  = 0

fo fe

 If we are given four convex lenses having focal lengths

 If an opaque coloured object or crystal is crushed to fine . For making a good telescope and microscope.
powder it will appear white (in sun light) as it will lose it's property We choose the following lenses respectively.
of selective reflection.
Telescope Microscope
 Our eye is most sensitive to that part of the spectrum which
lies between the F line (sky green) and the C-line (red) of hydrogen,
 1656 Ray Optics

 If a parrot is sitting on the objective of a large telescope and (c) (d)

we look towards (or take a photograph)of distant astronomical 6. A light bulb is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an
object (say moon) through it, the parrot will not be seen but the angle of The number of images formed are
intensity of the image will be slightly reduced as the parrot will act
[NCERT 1980; CPMT 1996, 97;
as obstruction to light and will reduce the aperture of the objective.
SCRA 1994; AIIMS 1997; RPMT 1999; AIEEE 2002;
 The luminous flux of a source of (1/685) watt emitting Orissa JEE 2003; MP PMT 2004; MP PET 2004]
monochromatic light of wavelength 5500 Å is called 1 lumen.
(a) 6 (b) 2
 While solving the problems of photometry keep in mind.
(c) 5 (d) 4
RL (As  = R = 4L)
7. It is desired to photograph the image of an object placed at a
 distance of from the plane mirror. The camera which is
at a distance of from the mirror should be focussed
for a distance of [NCERT 1971]

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

8. A thick plane mirror shows a number of images of the filament

Plane Mirror of an electric bulb. Of these, the brightest image is the
[RPMT 2003]
1. Two vertical plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of (a) First (b) Second
with each other. A ray of light travelling horizontally is
(c) Fourth (d) Last
reflected first from one mirror and then from the other. The
resultant deviation is 9. A man is tall and his eyes are below the
(a) (b) top of his head. In order to see his entire height right from toe
to head, he uses a plane mirror kept at a distance of from
(c) (d)
him. The minimum length of the plane mirror required is
2. A plane mirror reflects a pencil of light to form a real image.
Then the pencil of light incident on the mirror is [MP PMT 1993; DPMT 2001]
[MP PMT 1997; DCE 2001, 03] (a) (b)
(a) Parallel (b) Convergent
(c) (d)
(c) Divergent (d) None of the above
3. What should be the angle between two plane mirrors so that 10. A person is in a room whose ceiling and two adjacent walls are
whatever be the angle of incidence, the incident ray and the mirrors. How many images are formed [AFMC 2002]
reflected ray from the two mirrors be parallel to each other
(a) 5 (b) 6
[KCET 1994; SCRA 1994]
(c) 7 (d) 8
(a) (b)
11. When a plane mirror is placed horizontally on a level ground at
(c) (d)
a distance of from the foot of a tower, the top of the
4. A plane mirror reflecting a ray of incident light is rotated
tower and its image in the mirror subtend an angle of at
through an angle about an axis through the point of
the eye. The height of the tower will be [CPMT 1984]
incidence in the plane of the mirror perpendicular to the plane
of incidence, then [NCERT 1978; CPMT 1991] (a) (b)
(a) The reflected ray does not rotate (c) (d)
(b) The reflected ray rotates through an angle
12. A ray of light incidents on a plane mirror at an angle of
(c) The reflected ray rotates through an angle
The deviation produced in the ray is
(d) The incident ray is fixed
(a) (b)
5. A plane mirror is approaching you at a speed of
You can see your image in it. At what speed (c) (d)
will your image approach you [CPMT 1974]

(a) (b)