Module – 2 Angle Modulation 15EC45

2.1 Introduction

Angle modulation is the process in which the angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the
instantaneous values of modulating signal while, the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained
constant.
Important feature of angle modulation: it can provide better discrimination against noise and
interference than AM. However, this improvement in performance is achieved at the expense of
increased transmission bandwidth and at the cost of increased system complexity in both the transmitter
and receiver. There are two common forms of angle modulation, namely, phase modulation and

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frequency modulation
Basic Definitions:
Let denote θi(t) the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier at time t; it is assumed to be a
function of the instantaneous values of message signal. We express the resulting

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angle-modulated wave as
s(t) = Ac cos [θi(t)] …………………(2.1.1)
where Ac is the carrier amplitude. A complete oscillation occurs whenever the angle changes by radians.
If it increases monotonically with time, then the average frequency in hertz, over a small interval from t
to (t + Δt) is given by
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…………………(2.1.2)
The instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated signal s(t) is
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…………………(2.1.3)
The angular velocity of signal s(t) as a rotating phasor of length Ac and angle θi(t) is dθi(t)/dt, it is
measured in radians per second.

In case of an unmodulated carrier, the angle is …………………(2.1.4)

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and the corresponding phasor rotates with a constant angular velocity equal to 2πfc radians per second.
The constant defines the angle of the unmodulated carrier at t = 0.
The two commonly used methods, phase modulation and frequency modulation, in which the angle may
be varied in some manner with the message signal, is as follows.
Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous angle θi(t) is
varied linearly with the message signal as shown by
θi (t) = 2π fc t + kp m (t) …………………(2.1.5)
2πfct represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier;
kp represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in radians /volt.

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For convenience, assume that in Eq. (2.1.5) the angle of the unmodulated carrier is zero at t = 0. The
phase-modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the time domain by

…………………(2.1.6)
Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency
fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t),
…………………(2.1.7)
fc : The frequency of the unmodulated carrier
kf : The frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hertz per volt)

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Integrating Eq. (2.1.7) with respect to t and multiplying the result by 2π, we get

…………………(2.1.8)
By assuming that the angle of the unmodulated carrier wave is zero at t = 0. The frequency-modulated
signal is therefore described in the time domain by

RA …………………(2.1.9)
A
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Advantages of FM over AM
1. Less radiated power.
2. Low distortion due to improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man-made interference.
3. Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
4. Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.
Disadvantages of FM

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1. Much more Bandwidth (as much as 20 times the AM BW).

2. More complicated receiver and transmitter.

2.1.1 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves

Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted Power
RF power does not depend upon the frequency or the phase of the waveform. Hence, amplitude of PM
and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal to the carrier amplitude Ac for all time t.

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Property 2: Nonlinearity of Angle Modulation
PM and FM waves violate the principle of superposition. Consider PM (proof also holds for FM) wave.
Suppose, s1(t) = Ac cos [2πfct + kpm1(t)] and s2(t) = Ac cos [2πfct + kpm2(t)]
Let m3(t) = m1(t) + m2(t)
s3(t) = Ac cos [2πfct + kp(m1(t) + m2(t)]
s3(t) ≠ s1(t) + s2(t);
Property 3: Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
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since, cos(2πfct + A + B) ≠ cos(2πfct + A) + cos(2πfct + B)

PM and FM waves do not have perfect regularity in their spacing across the time scale. Zero-crossings
are defined as the instants of time at which a waveform changes its amplitude from a positive to negative
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value. Irregularity of zero-crossings is also attributes nonlinear characteristics.
Property 4: Visualization Difficulty of Message
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Visualization of a message refers to the ability to glean insights about the shape of m(t) from the
modulated signal s(t). It is difficult to visualize the message in angle modulated signals due to the
nonlinear nature of the modulation process.
Property 5: Trade-Off of Transition Bandwidth vs. Noise Performance
Angle modulation offers the possibility of exchanging an increase in the transmission bandwidth for an
improvement in noise performance. That means, angle of a carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence
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of additive noise than transmission by modulating the amplitude of the carrier. The more bandwidth that
the angle modulated signal takes, the more robust to noise.

2.1.2 Relationship Between PM and FM Waves

Phase modulation and frequency modulation are uniquely related to each other. This
relationship, in turn, means that we may deduce the properties of phase modulation from those
of frequency modulation and vice versa is as given in the table:

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Fig 2 Illustrating the relationship between frequency modulation and phase modulation. (a) Scheme for generating an
FM wave by using a phase modulator, (b) scheme for generating a PM wave by using a frequency modulator.3

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Sl.
Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)
No

Frequency deviation is proportional to modulating Phase deviation is proportional to modulating

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1
signal m(t) signal m(t)
2 Noise immunity is superior to PM Noise immunity better than AM but not FM
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is better than Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is not as good as in
3
in PM FM
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FM is widely used for commercial
4 PM is primarily for some mobile radio services
broadcast radio (88 MHz to 108 MHz)
Modulation index is proportional to modulating Modulation index is proportional to modulating
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5
signal m(t) as well as modulating frequency fm signal m(t)
6 m(t) drives the variation of frequency f. m(t) drives the variation of phase .

2.2 Frequency Modulation

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The FM signal s(t) define by Eq. (2.1.9) is a nonlinear function of the modulating signal m(t) which
makes frequency modulation a , which makes frequency modulation a nonlinear modulation process.
Consider then a sinusoidal modulating signal define by
m(t) = Am cos(2π fm t ) ……………..(2.2.1)
The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal is
……………..(2.2.2)
Δf = kf Am
The quantity Δf is called the frequency deviation, representing the maximum departure of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal form the carrier frequency fc.

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Using Eq. (2.2.2), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is obtained as

……………..(2.2.3)
The ratio of the frequency deviation Δf to the modulation frequency fm is commonly called the
modulation index of the FM signal, denoted by β,

The parameter β represents the phase deviation of the FM signal, i.e. the maximum departure of the
angle θi(t) from the angle 2πfct of the unmodulated carrier. β is measured in radians.

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The FM signal itself is given by9

……………..(2.2.4)
Depending on the value of the modulation index β, we may distinguish two cases of frequency
modulation: Narrowband FM and Wideband FM.

Bandwidth
Modulation index
Spectrum
Small
Narrowband FM

Small, i.e., lesser than 1 RA

consists of carrier, USB, and LSB.
Infinite
Wideband FM

large, i.e., higher than 1.

consists of a carrier and infinite number of
sidebands, which are located around it.
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Applications mobile communications such as entertainment broadcasting applications
police wireless, ambulances, such as FM radio, TV, etc.
taxicabs, etc
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2.2.1 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation

The FM wave itself is given by

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For the FM wave of Eq. (2.2.4) to be narrow-band the modulation index must be small compared to one
radian (|β| ≪ 1). To proceed further, we use the trigonometric identity to expand Eq. (2.2.4)

The case where |β| ≪ 1 for all t is called narrow band FM. Using the approximations
cos x 1 and sin x x for |x| ≪ 1, the FM signal can be approximated as:

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……………..(2.2.5)

……………..(2.2.6)
Eq (2.2.6) is the AM signal. Comparing Eqs. (2.2.5) and (2.2.6) and putting aside the respective
constants β and μ and the basic difference between an AM wave and a narrow-band FM wave is that the
algebraic sign of the lower side-frequency in the narrow-band FM is reversed. Nevertheless, a narrow-
band FM wave requires essentially the same transmission bandwidth (i.e, 2fm for sinusoidal modulation)
as the AM wave. Fig.3 shows indirect method of generating NBFM wave.

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Fig. 3 Indirect method of generating NBFM wave.

Phasor Interpretation: Fig. 4(a) represents NBFM wave with a phasor diagram in which the carrier
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phasor used as reference. It is seen that the resultant of the two side frequency phasors is always at right
angles to the carrier phasor. The effect of this geometry is to produce a resultant phasor representing
NBFM wave that is approximately of the same amplitude as the carrier phasor, but out of phase with
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respect to it.
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Fig.4 Resultant phasor representing the narrow-band FM wave that is approximately of the same amplitude as the
carrier phasor, but out of phase with respect to it.

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Ideally, FM wave has a constant envelope. But, the modulated wave produced by the narrow-band FM
differ from this ideal condition in two fundamental respects:
1. The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation that varies with time.
2. The angle θi(t)contains harmonic distortion in the form of third and higher order harmonics of
the modulation frequency fm.

2.2.2 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation

For an arbitrary value of the modulation index β the single-tone FM wave for sinusoidal modulation is
given by:

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s(t) = Ac cos[2πfct + β sin(2πfmt)] ............(2.2.7)
Expanding this equation using trigonometric identity:
s(t) =Ac cos(2πfct) cos[β sin(2πfmt)] − Ac sin(2πfct) sin[ β sin(2πfmt)] ..............(2.2.8)
From this expanded form we see that in phase and quadrature phase components of FM wave s(t) is

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given as: sI(t) =Ac cos[β sin (2πfmt)] ….........(2.2.9)
sQ(t) =Ac sin[β sin (2πfmt)] ..........(2.2.10)
Hence the complex envelope of FM wave is given by:
s˜(t) = sI(t) + j sQ(t)
= Ac cos[β sin(2πfmt)] + j Ac sin[β sin(2πfmt)]
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= Ac exp(j β sin(2πfmt)) .......(2.2.11)
The complex envelope s˜(t) retains all the information related to modulation process indeed we may
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readily express FM wave s(t) in terms of complex envelope s˜(t).

s(t) = Re[Ac exp(j2πfct + j β sin(2πfmt))]
= Re [Ac exp(j2πfct) exp(j βsin(2πfmt))]
=Re [Ac exp (jβsin2πfmt) exp(j2πfct)]
=Re [s˜(t) exp(j2πfct)] ..........(2.2.12)
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From eqn (2.2.12) visualize that the complex envelope s˜(t) is periodic function, with fundamental
frequency equal to frequency modulating frequency fm. Therefore express s˜(t) in complex Fourier series

……………..(2.2.13)

where the complex Fourier coefficient, …………..(2.2.14)

……………… (2.2.15)

Redefine the complex Fourier coefficient in Eq. (2.2.15) in the new form

x = 2πfmt; when, t = −1/2fm; x = −π

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dx = 2πfm dt; when, t =1/2fm; x = π

dt = dx / 2πfm

Now, ……………..(2.2.16)
The integral on right hand side is recognized as the nth order Bessel function of the first kind and
argument β. It is denoted by symbol Jn(B),

...............(2.2.17)
Rewrite Eq. (2.2.16) in the compact form

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cn =Ac Jn(β) ……......(2.2.18)
Substituting Eq. (2.2.18) into (2.2.13), we get, in terms of the Bessel function the following expansion
for the complex envelope of the FM wave:

RA …………. (2.2.19)
The carrier amplitude is a constant and may therefore be taken outside the real-time operator Re[ ].
Moreover, we may interchange the order of summation and real-part operation, as they are both linear
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operators. Accordingly, we may rewrite Eq.(2.2.19) as:

………. (2.2.20)
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Eqn (2.2.20) is the desired form for the Fourier series expansion of the single-tone FM signal for an
arbitrary value of modulation index β. The discrete spectrum of s(t) is obtained by taking the Fourier
transforms on both sides of Eq. (2.2.20), which yields

....... (2.2.21)
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Eqn (2.2.21) shows that the spectrum of s(t) consists of an infinite number of delta functions, spaced at
f = fc ± nfm and n = 0, 1, 2, ….
Properties of Bessel function (Jn(B)):

1. For fixed β, Jn(β) = Jn(β); n = even and Jn(β) = - Jn(β); n = odd

The plot of Jn(β) versus modulation index for n =0, 1, 2, 3, 4. These plots show that for fixed n Jn(β)
alternates between +ve and –ve values increasing β and |Jn(β)|→0 as β→0.
2. For small values of the modulation index β

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3. The equality, holds exactly for arbitrary.

Observations:
1. The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier component and an infinite set of side frequencies
located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm , 3fm ….
2. Case of small β compared with unity, only the Bessel coefficients and have significant values, so that
the FM wave is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair of side-frequencies at fc ± fm.

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RA Fig. 5 Plots of the Bessel function Jn(β) of
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the first kind, for varying order n.
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3. The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0(β)

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4. Average power of an FM wave

2.3 Transmission Bandwidth of an FM Signals

In theory, an FM wave contains an infinite number of side-frequencies so that the bandwidth required to
transmit such a modulated wave is similarly infinite in extent. In practice, however, we find that the FM
wave is effectively limited to a finite number of significant side-frequencies compatible with a specified
amount of distortion.

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1. For small values of the modulation index β the spectrum of the FM wave is effectively
limited to the carrier frequency and one pair of side-frequencies at so that the bandwidth
approaches 2fm.
2. For large values of the modulation index β the bandwidth approaches, and is only slightly
greater than the total frequency excursion 2∆f.
In connection to these two limiting scenarios, we may define an approximate rule for the transmission
bandwidth of an FM wave generated by a single-tone modulating wave of frequency fm. Carson’s rule is
often used as an estimate of the bandwidth of an FM Signals.

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…………….. (2.3.1)
Where ∆f is the peak frequency deviation and fm is the maximum baseband message frequency
component.
For a more accurate assessment of FM bandwidth, we may use a definition based on retaining the

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maximum number of significant side frequencies whose amplitudes are all greater than some selected
value. A convenient choice for this value is one percent of the unmodulated carrier amplitude. We may
thus define the transmission bandwidth of an FM wave as the separation between the two frequencies
beyond which none of the side frequencies is greater than one percent of the carrier amplitude obtained
when the modulation is removed.
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That is, we define the transmission bandwidth as 2nmax fm, where fm is the modulation frequency and nmax
is the largest value of the integer n. that satisfies the requirement |Jn(β)| > 0.01. The value of nmax varies
SW

with the modulation index β and can be determined readily from tabulated values of the Bessel function
Jn(β).
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Fig. 6 Universal curve for

evaluating the one percent
bandwidth of an FM wave.

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In fig. 6, we note that as the modulation index β is increased, the bandwidth occupied by the significant
side-frequencies drops toward that value over which the carrier frequency actually deviates. This means
that the small values of modulation index β are relatively more extravagant in transmission bandwidth
than the larger values of β. This curve shown in fig. 6, is drawn as a best fit through the set of points
obtained by using below table.

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Example: Commercial FM signals use a peak frequency deviation of ∆f = 75 kHz and a maximum
baseband message frequency of fm = 15 kHz.
Carson’s rule estimates the FM signal bandwidth as BT = 2(75 + 15) = 180 kHz which is six times the 30
kHz bandwidth that would be required for AM modulation.
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2.4 Generation of FM signals
There are two basic methods of generating frequency-modulated waves, one is direct and the other is
indirect.
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2.4.1 Direct Method

This method uses a sinusoidal oscillator, with one of the reactive elements (e.g., capacitive element) in
the tank circuit of the oscillator. Moreover, it is capable of providing large frequency deviations.
Instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave (generated by means of VCO) is directly proportional to the
message signal. A typical implementation of the VCO is a Hartley Oscillator that uses a voltage variable
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capacitor to control the frequency of the oscillator.

The portion of the tank circuit in the oscillator is shown in fig. 7. The capacitive component of the tank
circuit consists of a fixed capacitor connected in parallel with a voltage-variable capacitor (ex: varactor
or varicap). The resulting capacitance of this circuit is represented by c(t). The capacitance of the
voltage variable capacitor depends on the voltage applied across its electrodes. The varactor diode is
another example of voltage variable capacitor operated in the reverse bias condition. The larger the
voltage applied across the diode, the smaller the transition capacitance of the diode. The frequency of
oscillation of the Hartley oscillator is given by

……………… (2.4.1)

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L1 and L2 = two inductance in frequency determining circuits.

c(t) = total capacitance of fixed capacitor and variactor given by
………….(2.4.2)
C0 = total capacitance in the absence of modulation and
Δc = maximum change in capacitance.
Fig.7 Hartley Oscillator
Substitute Eq (2.4.2) in Eq (2.4.1) and simplifying

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………….(2.4.3)
Where, f0 = unmodulated frequency of oscillations and Δc = maximum change in capacitance.

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The instantaneous frequency of the oscillator, being modulated is approximated as
…………… (2.4.4)
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…………… (2.4.5)
Thus the output of the oscillator will be a WBFM wave.
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Fig. 8 Block diagram of WBFM using VCO

The configuration shown in fig. 8, consists of a VCO followed by a series of frequency multipliers and
mixers provide:
1. Good oscillator stability
2. Constant proportionality between output frequency change and input voltage change
3. Necessary frequency deviation to achieve WBFM

Limitations of direct methods of FM generation:

1. Difficult to obtain a high order of stability in carrier frequency because tank circuit consists of L
and C.

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2. The non linearity produces a frequency variation due to harmonics of the modulating signal hence
there are distortions in the output FM signal.
2.4.2 Indirect Method
Generally, the frequency stability of the modulator is achieved by using an auxiliary stabilization circuit
consists of feedback around the oscillator as shown in the fig. 9.

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Fig. 9 Feedback scheme for frequency stability of a frequency modulator

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The output of the FM generator is applied to a mixer (product modulator + BPF) together with the
output of crystal controlled oscillator and the difference is obtained. The mixer output is applied to a
frequency discriminator, which gives an output voltage proportional to the instantaneous frequency of
the FM wave applied to its input. The discriminator is filtered by a LPF and then amplified to provide a
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dc voltage. This dc voltage is applied to a VCO to modify the frequency of the oscillator of the FM
generator. The deviations in the transmitter carrier frequency from its assigned value will cause a change
in the dc voltage. This dc voltage directs the VCO to restore the carrier frequency to its required value.
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This scheme is also known as frequency-locked loop.

2.5 Demodulation of FM signals

Frequency demodulation is the process by means of which the original message signal m(t) is recovered
from an incoming FM wave s(t). In other words, frequency demodulation is the inverse of frequency
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modulation. The frequency discriminator consists of slope circuits and envelope detectors. An ideal
slope circuit is characterized by the transfer function that is purely imaginary, varying linearly with
frequency inside a prescribed frequency interval. The transfer function defined by the equation (see
fig.11).

…………. (2.5.1)

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The slope circuit converts the frequency variations into amplitude variations. As the frequency of the
FM signal varies, it changes its position on the slope of the tuned circuit, so the amplitude will vary.
This signal can then be converted into a baseband signal by using an envelope diode detector. As the
frequency of the signals varies up and down in frequency according to its modulation, so the signal
moves up and down the slope of the tuned circuit. Ideal function of the slope circuit is depicted in the
fig. 10.

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Fig. 10. Ideal function of the slope circuit and frequency response of an ideal slope circuit

Limitations of slope circuit:

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(i) The range of linear slope of tuned circuit is quite small.
(ii) The detector also responds to spurious amplitude variations of the input FM
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An ideal frequency discriminator can be modeled as a pair of slope circuits followed by envelope
detectors and a summer as shown in fig. 12, which is called balanced frequency discriminator.
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Fig.11 Frequency response of complex LPF equivalent to ideal slope circuit

The upper and lower slope circuits (resonant filters or LPFs) are tuned to frequencies above and below
the un-modulated carrier frequency, fc. Two single-ended slope detectors connected in parallel and fed
1800 out of phase. Phase inversion is accomplished by the center-tapping secondary windings of the
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transformer.
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Fig. 12. Balanced frequency discriminator

Top slope circuit is tuned to a frequency above the unmodulated carrier frequency fc. At the frequency
fc, the output voltage from the two slope circuits are equal in amplitude but opposite in polarity,
therefore, Vout = 0 V. When fc deviate above resonance, top tuned circuit produces a higher output
voltage than the lower circuit and voltage goes positive. On the other hand, when fc deviate below
resonance, lower tuned circuit produces higher output than upper, and output goes negative.
The amplitude responses of the slope filters and the total response are shown in the fig.13. Consider an
FM signal s(t) having spectrum from (fc –BT/2) to (fc + BT/2) and zero outside this range. Let s1(t) be the
output of the upper slope circuit and s2(t) be the output of the lower slope circuit with their transfer
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functions H1(f ) and H2(f), respectively. Complex transfer function of upper LPF H1(f) is (see fig.11)
given by

…………………….(2.5.2)
The output of the upper envelope detector is proportional to | H1(f) | and the output of the lower envelope
detector is proportional to | H2(f) |. The output of the upper envelope detector is the positive portion of its
input envelope, and the output of the lower envelope detector is the negative portion of its input
envelope. Thus, output is proportional to | H1(f) | - | H2(f) |. The term balanced discriminator is used

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because the response to the undeviated carrier is balanced so that the net response is zero.
Frequency separation of 3B gives satisfactory results, where, 2B is 3dB BW of either filter. The overall
performance of the balanced frequency discriminator will be good only when both the filters have high
Q-factor and a proper frequency separation between the tuning frequencies of the two filters. However

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there will be distortions present in the output due to the following factors:
1. Spectrum of FM wave is not exactly zero for the frequencies outside the range.
2. Tuned filters are not strictly band-limited
3. RC filters in the envelope detector introduce distortions
4. Tuned filter characteristics are not linear over the whole frequency band.
A
SW
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Fig.13 Amplitude response of a balanced discriminator

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Fig.14 Frequency response of a balanced discriminator

2.6 FM stereo Multiplexing

Stereo multiplexing is a form of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) designed to transmit two

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separate signals via the same carrier. It is widely used in FM radio broadcasting to send two different
elements of a program (e.g., two different sections of an orchestra, a vocalist and an accompanist) so as
to give a spatial dimension to its perception by a listener at the receiving end.
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The specification of standards for FM stereo transmission is influenced by two factors:

1. The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM broadcast channels.
2. It has to be compatible with monophonic radio receivers.
The first requirement sets the permissible frequency parameters, including frequency deviation. The
second requirement constrains the way in which the transmitted signal is configured. Fig. 15, shows the
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block diagram of the multiplexing system used in an FM stereo transmitter.

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Fig. 15 Block diagram of the multiplexing system in FM stereo transmitter

Let ml(t) and mr(t) denote the two signals from the two different microphones at the transmitter end of
the system. They are applied to a matrixer that generates the sum signal [ml(t)+mr(t)] and the difference

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signal [ml(t) - mr(t)]. The sum signal [ml(t)+mr(t)] is used in the base band form only, it is available for
monophonic reception. The difference signal [ml(t)-mr(t)] along with 38 kHz sub-carrier are applied to a
product modulator to generate a DSBSC modulated wave. The sub- carrier is generated from a
frequency doubler using 19 kHz oscillator. The three signals: sum signal, difference signal and a pilot
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carrier signal of frequency 19 kHz are combined to obtain the multiplexed signal. The multiplexed
signal can be defined as:
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Where K is the amplitude of the pilot tone.

The FM stereo receiver consists of demodulator and de-multiplexer. At the stereo receiver, first of all the
multiplexed signal is recovered by frequency demodulation. Then is applied to the demultiplexing
system shown in Fig. 17. The matrixer ( add/subtractor) reconstructs the left signal, ml(t) and the right
signal, mr(t).
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The de-multiplexer consists of three filters: a LPF and two BPFs. The base band LPFs recovers the sum
signal in the band 0-15 kHz, the band pass filter recovers the modulated difference signal in the band 23-
53 kHz and a narrow band pass filter is used to recover the pilot carrier 19 kHz as shown in the fig. 16.
The sub-carrier signal of frequency 38 kHz is obtained by frequency doubling the pilot carrier. The
difference signal is then obtained from sub-carrier and modulated difference signal using a coherent
detector. See the part of Fig. 17 inside the dashed rectangle.

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Fig. 16 Spectrum of stereo multiplexed signal m(t)

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Fig. 17 Block diagram of the multiplexing system in FM stereo receiver.

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The recovered pilot (using a narrow-band filter tuned to 19 kHz) is frequency-doubled to produce the
desired 38-kHz subcarrier. The availability of this subcarrier enables the coherent detection of the DSB-
SC modulated wave, (see the part of fig. 17 inside the dashed rectangle). The difference signal, ml(t)-
mr(t) is thereby recovered. The baseband low-pass filter in the top path of fig. 17 is designed to pass the
sum signal ml(t) + mr(t). Finally, the simple matrixer reconstructs the original left-hand and right-hand
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signals except for the scaling factor 2, and applies them to their respective speakers. FM stereophonic
reception is thereby accomplished.
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2.7 Phase locked Loop

The Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is a negative feedback system used to track the phase of the input signal.
It consists of three major components: a multiplier, a loop-filter and a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) connected in the form of a loop as shown in the fig. 18. The VCO is a sine wave generator whose
frequency is determined by the voltage applied to it.
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Initially the VCO is adjusted such that control voltage is zero, two conditions are satisfied:
1. Frequency of VCO is set precisely at the carrier frequency, fc.
2. VCO output has a 90o phase shift with respect to the un-modulated carrier fc.
Let the input signal applied to the PLL be s(t):
……………..(2.7.1)

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Fig. 18 Block diagram of Phase Locked Loop

Ac = the carrier amplitude and its phase content is given by

……………..(2.7.2)

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VCO output in the phase locked loop be defined by

……………..(2.7.3)
Av = the amplitude of VCO output
With a control voltage v(t) applied to a VCO input, the angle is related to φ2(t) is related to v(t)

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by the integral

……………..(2.7.4)
kv = the frequency sensitivity of the VCO measured in Hertz/volt.
The object of the phase-locked loop is to generate a VCO output r(t) that has the same phase
angle (except for the fixed difference of 900) as the input FM signal s(t). To develop an
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understanding of the phase-locked loop, it is desirable to have a model of the loop.

2.7.1 Nonlinear Model of the PLL

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According to fig. 18, the incoming FM signal s(t) and the VCO output r(t) are applied to the multiplier.
Then output e(t) = km [s(t)][r(t)] ………… (2.7.5)
km = multiplier gain
Substituting Eq (2.7.1) and Eq (2.7.3) for s(t ) and r(t) in Eq (2.7.5), output of the multiplier is
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e(t) = km [Ac sin(2πfct+ø1(t)][ Av cos(2πfct+ø2(t)]

Using trigonometric identity
We get, e(t) = ½Ac Av km {[sin(4πfct + ø1(t) + ø2(t))]+ sin(ø1(t) - ø2(t))} ……… (2.7.6)
Eq (2.7.6) is the input to the loop-filter and high frequency (first term) component is filtered by passing
only second term.
Where øe (t) is the phase error defined by, øe (t)= ø1(t) - ø2(t) and
………………..(2.7.7)

Substitute for ø2(t) as in Eq (2.7.4)

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………………..(2.7.8)
The loop filter operates on the input e(t) to produce an output v(t) defined by the convolution
integral
i.e, v(t) = e(t) * h(t) defined as
Where h(t) is the impulse response of the loop filter and substituting in (2.7.8) then differentiating
wrt t we obtain the following nonlinear integro-differential equation as a descriptor of the
dynamic behavior of the phase-locked loop:
………………..(2.7.9)
Where K0 is a loop-gain parameter defined by K0 = km Ac Aυ

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Fig.19 Non-linear model of PLL

Eq. (2.7.9) suggest the model shown in fig.19 for a phase K0 = km Ac Aυ.
This model resembles the block diagram of PLL in the fig.18. The multiplier at the input of the
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PLL is replaced by a subtractor and a sinusoidal nonlinearity, and the VCO by an integrator.
The sinusoidal nonlinearity in the model of the fig. 19, greatly increases the difficulty of
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analyzing the behavior of the PLL. It would be helpful to linearize this model to simplify the
analysis.

1.7.1 Linear Model of the PLL

When the phase error øe (t) = zero, the phase-locked loop is said to be in phase-lock. It is said
to be near phase-lock when the phase error is small compared with one radian, under which
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condition we may use the approximation which is accurate to within 4 %

for ψe(t) < 0.5 radians. Correspondingly, we may approximate the error signal e(t) of Eq.
(2.7.7)

where the new parameter is called the loop-gain parameter of the PLL.
According to this model, the phase error ψe(t) is related to the input phase ψ1(t) by the linear
integro-differential Eq. (2.7.9) and re-writing the terms,

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we get ………………..(2.7.9)
Applying Fourier Transform

Let L(f) be open-loop transfer function of PLL

……………….. (2.7.10)
Then ϕe(f) can be written as 2.7.11 (2.7.11)

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The output of the linear model in fig 19, v(t) can be defined as Linearized PLL Model

Applying Fourier transform and using (2.7.10) (for L(f)) we get

Also using Eq (2.7.11)

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As the loop transfer function, L(f) approaches large value, ϕe(f) approaches zero. The phase of VCO
becomes asymptotically equal to the phase of the incoming wave and phase-lock is established.
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For | L(f)| >>1,
Applying inverse Fourier transform to the above equation:
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PLL may be modeled as a differentiator with its output scaled by the factor ½πkv and substituting

ϕ1(t )
Thus the output of the linearized model is proportional to the message signal.

2.8 Non-linear Effects in FM Systems

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Nonlinearities are present in all electrical networks in one form or the other. The two basic forms of
nonlinearities are: Strong non-linearity and weak non-linearity.
1. The strong non-linearity is introduced intentionally and in a controlled manner for some specific
application. Ex: Square-law Modulators, Limiters, and Frequency Multipliers.
2. The weak non-linearity is of parasitic nature which arises due to imperfections. The effect of
this is to limit the useful signal levels in a system.
The definition of a nonlinear input-output relation is defined by Eq.(2.8.2) and see also block diagram.
The channel in that equation is memoryless and the output signal vo (t) is an instantaneous function of the
input signal vi (t) (i.e. no energy storage is involved).

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In this section the effects of channel on FM signal is considered. Let vi(t) be an FM signal;
vi(t) = Ac cos[ 2π fc t + ϕ(t) ] ……….… (2.8.1)
Consider a communication channel whose transfer characteristic are defined by the non-liner input
output relation:
vo(t) = a1 vi(t) + a2 v2i(t) + a3 v3i(t) ………………. (2.8.2)
vo(t) = a1 Ac cos[ 2π fc t + ϕ(t)] + a2 A2c cos2 [ 2π fc t + ϕ(t)] + a3 A3c cos3 [ 2π fc t + ϕ(t)]

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Expanding and simplifying, using trigonometric we get

………………. (2.8.3)

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In Eq. (2.8.3) the first term represents the DC component, the remaining three terms represent the
frequency modulated signals with carrier frequencies fc , 2fc and 3fc. To extract the FM signal from the
channel output, it is necessary to separate the FM signal with carrier fc from the closest component of
carrier frequency 2fc.
Let f denote the frequency deviation and W denote the highest frequency component of message signal,
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m(t). The channel output vo(t) will have the highest component from first FM as (fc + f + W) and the
lowest component from the second FM is (2fc – (2 f + W)). Hence the necessary condition required to
separate the FM signal is:
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(2fc – (2Δf + W)) > (fc + Δf + W)

Therefore fc > 3Δf + 2W
Thus by using a band pass filter of mid frequency fc and bandwidth (2Δf + 2W) the channel output is
reduced to
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Therefore the effect of passing an FM signal through a channel with amplitude nonlinearities,
followed by appropriate filtering, is simply to modify its amplitude. Hence unlike AM, FM
signals are less affected by the channel distortions. The FM signal is sensitive to phase non-linearities.
Phase nonlinearities are encountered in Microwave radio systems, which is due to the phase
characteristics of repeaters or amplifiers used in the system. Thus the FM signal is less sensitive to
amplitude nonlinearities and more sensitive to phase nonlinearities.

2.9 The Superheterodyne Receiver

Basic principle: Mixing, generating Intermediate frequency of 455 KHz and Ganged tuning
Important Frequencies:
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1. RF- Radio Frequency. The center frequency the signal is broadcast on.
2. IF- Intermediate Frequency. Fixed frequency inside the RX. The RF signal is down-converted to
this frequency.
3. LO- Local Oscillator. Carrier-frequency tuning to select the desired signal (i.e.,desired radio or
TV station).
Important Systems:
1. Local Oscillator - Carrier-frequency tuning, the purpose of which is to select the desired signal
(i.e.,desired radio or TV station).
2. Filtering, which is required to separate the desired signal from other modulated signals that may
be picked up along the way.
3. Amplification, which is intended to compensate for the loss of signal power incurred

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in the course of transmission.

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Fig.20 Block diagram of a superhetrodyne receiver

The working of a superheterodyne receiver is explained with the help of the block diagram given below
in fig. 20 along with the waveforms at the output of each block.
The incoming amplitude-modulated wave is picked up by the receiving antenna and amplified in the RF
section that is tuned to the carrier frequency. The combination of mixer and local oscillator (of
adjustable frequency) provides a heterodyning function, whereby the incoming signal is converted to a
predetermined fixed intermediate frequency (IF), usually lower than the incoming carrier frequency.

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This frequency translation is achieved without disturbing the relation of the sidebands to the carrier. The
result of the heterodyning is to produce an intermediate-frequency carrier defined by
fIF = fRF - fLO
where fLO is the frequency of the local oscillator and fRF is the carrier frequency of the incoming RF
signal. The mixer and the local oscillator combination is sometimes referred to as the first detector, and
envelope detector recovers the original message signal m(t) and is called the second detector. The IF
section consists of one or more stages of tuned amplification that provide most of the amplification and
selectivity in the receiver. The output of the IF section is applied to a demodulator to recover the
baseband signal. The final operation in the receiver is the power amplification of the recovered message

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signal.
Blocks Function
RF section Tuning circuits – reject interference and reduce noise figure
– Wide band RF amplification

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Local Oscillator Tracking
IF amplifier Very narrow band width Class A amplifier –– Provides much of the gain
– Double tuned circuits
Detector RF is filtered and message signal is passed
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[In a superhetrodyne receiver, the hetrodyne principle is used to produce an intermediate frequency
which is higher than that can be heard i.e., supersonic. Superhetrodyne is short for supersonic
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hetrodyne.]
Advantages:
(i) High RF amplification. R.F. amplification at low frequencies is more stable since feedback through
stray and inter-electrode capacitance is reduced.
(ii) Improved selectivity. Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at intermediate frequency. Therefore, the
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quality factor Q of the tuned circuits is increased.

(iii) Lower cost. In this case a fixed intermediate frequency is obtained regardless of the radio wave
selected.

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