Analog Communication Systems

(ECE3001)

Dr. Jeetashee Aparajeeta

Assistant Professor (Sr)
SENSE
Module 2
 Linear Modulation

 Modulation is the process in which low frequency signal is translated in to

high frequency signal.

 This process is called frequency translation.

 All the message signals are low frequency signals or Low pass signal.

 The low frequency signals message signal is converted in to a high

frequency signal by the process of modulation.
 Frequency Translation
Low frequency signal
y(t)
m(t)
High frequency
signal
frequency
signal
High

c(t)
 Let the message signal frequency is 5KHz and the high frequency carrier
signal frequency is 1000KHz.

 If the carrier signal is 𝑐 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, where 𝑓𝑐 denotes the carrier

frequency, then the Modulated signal 𝑦(𝑡) will be:

 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
 Spectrum

 Frequency domain representation of a signal.

M(f)

- 5KHz 0 BW 5KHz f
Frequency spectrum of message signal

 Bandwidth = 5KHz

1
 𝑌 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2

 The carrier frequency is 1000KHz, so the central frequency component will

be shifted to (0 - 10000) KHz and (0 + 1000)KHz.
 M(f)
Low pass Signal as the
frequency is centered
around zero.

- 5KHz 0 BW 5KHz f

Y(f)

995KHz 1005KHz
1000KHz
- 1005KHz - 1000KHz - 995KHz 0 BW
Frequency spectrum of Modulated signal
Bandpass Signal as the
frequency is centered at
𝑓𝑐 .
 Analog Modulation

 Two Types of signal

 Message signal or Modulating Signal or Baseband Signal

 Carrier Signal (𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜙))

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Types of AM

 Double sideband Supressed Carrier (DSB-SC)

 Single sideband Supressed Carrier (SSB-SC)

 Vestigial sideband Supressed Carrier (VSB -SC)

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Amplitude Modulation : The amplitude of the carrier signal change in

proportion with the instantaneous value of the information signal.

 General expression of AM signal is,

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝐴𝑐 = Amplitude of carrier

 𝑠 𝑡 is the modulated signal

 𝑚 𝑡 is the message signal

 𝑘𝑎 denotes amplitude sensitivity of modulator(unit is 𝑣 −1 )

 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐

 𝑓𝑐 denotes the carrier frequency

 Envelope of the modulated signal = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡

 The message signal in present in the envelope of the modulated signal so at

the receiver, it is important to detect the envelope to get the message
signal.
 Modulation Index (MI)

 MI is defined as the measure of how much a modulating signal modulates

the carrier signal.

 It is also known as Depth of modulation.

 Denoted by 𝑚𝑎

 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜇 = 𝑘𝑎 max(𝑚(𝑡))
𝑚(𝑡) 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
AM

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 Single tone Message signal

 Single tone (single tone means the signal has only one frequency component) sinusoid
modulating signal,

 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

 Modulation index is,

 𝜇 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 max 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 … [Eq 1]

 For single tone, the modulation index is also written as:

𝐴𝑚
 𝑚𝑎 = … [Eq 2]
𝐴𝑐
 Equating Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, we will get

1
 𝑘𝑎 =
𝐴𝑐

 If 𝑘𝑎 is not given, apply the above formula to calculated.

 If 𝑘𝑎 is given, the above formula will not be valid.

 Modulated signal for single tone message signal is,

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 Problem

 Calculate the 𝑘𝑎 and 𝑚𝑎 .

 𝑠 𝑡 = 5 1 + 0.5 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜇𝑓𝑐 𝑡
 𝑚 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
 Solution

 Correct solution:

 𝑘𝑎 = 0.5, 𝐴𝑚 = 2

 𝑚𝑎 = 0.5 × 2 = 1

 Incorrect solution: (Because 𝑘𝑎 value is given in question)

1
 𝑘𝑎 =
𝐴𝑐
 Time domain representation of AM

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 E = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑚𝑎 ] when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) = 1 … eq 3
 𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 − 𝑚𝑎 ] when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) = -1 … eq 4
 From eq 3 and eq 4, we can get

 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 + 𝐴𝑐 1 − 𝑚𝑎

 2𝐴𝑐 = 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛
 𝐴𝑐 =
2
 By dividing Eq 3 by Eq 4, we will get

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑐 [1+𝑚𝑎 ]
 =
𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑐 [1−𝑚𝑎 ]

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 [1+𝑚𝑎 ]
 =
𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 [1−𝑚𝑎 ]

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 −𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 1+𝑚𝑎 −[1−𝑚𝑎 ]

 =
𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 +𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 1+𝑚𝑎 +[1−𝑚𝑎 ]

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 −𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛
 𝑚𝑎 =
𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 +𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛
 Under Modulation

 Case I : 𝑚𝑎 < 1

Unmodulated carrier

𝐴𝑐 (1 + 𝑚𝑎 )
Modulated carrier
 𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 + 𝒎𝒂 )

𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒎𝒂 )

L2 L1
- 𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒎𝒂 )

- 𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 + 𝒎𝒂 )

Trapezoidal
Pattern

L1 and L2 are size of the two parallel sides of the trapezoidal pattern
 L1 and L2 are size of the two parallel sides of the trapezoidal pattern.
𝐿1−𝐿2
 𝑚𝑎 =
𝐿1+𝐿2
 Perfect Modulation

 Case II : 𝑚𝑎 = 1
𝟐𝑨𝒄

− 𝟐𝑨𝒄
Triangular
Pattern
 Over Modulation

 Case III : 𝑚𝑎 > 1

𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 + 𝒎𝒂 )

− 𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒎𝒂 )

𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒎𝒂 )

− 𝑨𝒄 (𝟏 + 𝒎𝒂 ) Trapezoidal
Pattern :
L1 and L2 formula
Zero crossing : phase reversal effect of the carrier cannot be used
 Frequency Domain Representation

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

 Apply 2 cosA cosB = cos(A+B) + cos(A-B),
𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + [cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2

 We are getting three components,

1. Carrier component
2. Upper sideband frequency component :
 Frequency which is higher than carrier frequency
3. Lower Sideband frequency component:
 Frequency which is lower than carrier frequency
 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2 2

Carrier frequency
USB LSB
 Fourier Transfer:

𝐴𝑐
 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ↔ [𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )]
2

 Here, we have two impulses at (𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) and (𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 ).

 Likewise for USB and LSB, we will get four impulses i.e two for each
sideband.

 So, the total number of impulses for s(t) will be six.

Spectrum of Single tone sinusoidal
Modulating signal
S(f)

𝑨𝒄
𝟐
𝑨𝒄 𝒎𝒂
𝟒

𝒇𝒄 - 𝒇𝒎 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎
−(𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 ) − 𝒇𝒄 −(𝒇𝒄 - 𝒇𝒎 ) 𝒇𝒄

Bandwidth
 Bandwidth

 Bandwidth required to transmit the signal is calculated from the positive side
of the spectrum,

 𝐵 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝐹𝐿

= 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 2𝑓𝑚
 Power Calculation for Single tone
sinusoidal Modulating signal

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2 2

 Carrier Power :

 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
 =
𝑅

 In terms of peak amplitude, the power equation can be rewritten as

𝑉 1 𝑉0 2
 𝑃𝑐 = ( 0 )2 = where, 𝑉0 is the peak amplitude of the signal.
2 𝑅 2𝑅
 As the peak amplitude of carrier is 𝐴𝑐 , the carrier power is

𝐴𝑐 2
 𝑃𝑐 =
2𝑅

 Upper Sideband Power:

𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2 1 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = =
2 2𝑅 8𝑅

𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 =
4
 Lower Sideband Power:
 Since the amplitude of USB and LSB is same, so the power of USB and LSB is
also same.

𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2 1 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = =
2 2𝑅 8𝑅

𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =
4
 Total power requirement for transmitting the signal is,

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵

 The sum of 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 and 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 is know as total sideband power

𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 4
+ 4

𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 2

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 2
 Transmission Efficiency for Single
tone sinusoidal modulating signal

 Transmission Efficiency is defined as ratio of total sideband power to total

transmitted power.

 Denoted by 𝜂.

2 𝑚𝑎 2ൗ
𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎 ൗ2
 𝜂= = 2 = 2
2
𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑐 1+𝑚𝑎 ൗ2 1+𝑚𝑎 ൗ2

𝑚𝑎 2
 𝜂= %
2+ 𝑚𝑎 2
 Power requirement for any random
modulating signal

 In general, the modulated signal is represented as:

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 = Carrier + Total sideband

 Power requirement:

1
 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = ‫׬‬ 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

𝑇
1 2 2 2
 = ‫׬‬ 2
𝑇 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 −
2

𝑇
1 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑚(𝑡)2
 = ‫׬‬ (1 + cos 2𝜔𝑐 𝑡) dt
𝑇 −𝑇 2 Zero as average of cos
2
𝑇 𝑇
over a complete time period
1 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑚(𝑡)2 1 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑚(𝑡)2
 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = ‫׬‬ dt + ‫𝑇 ׬‬ cos 2𝜔𝑐 𝑡 dt
𝑇 −𝑇 2 𝑇 − 2
2 2
 𝑇 Power of m(t)
𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2 1 2
 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = ‫׬‬ 2
𝑇 𝑚(𝑡) dt
2 𝑇 −
2

 Power of m(t) is denoted by 𝑆𝑀

 So, Total sideband power for any signal can be written as

𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑆𝑀
2

 Carrier power in general is

𝐴𝑐 2 𝐴𝑐 2
 𝑃𝑐 = , 𝑖𝑓 𝑅 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑐 =
2𝑅 2
 Message signal is 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

𝐴𝑚 2
 Message signal power is 𝑆𝑀 =
2

 Total transmitted power is

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵

𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑆𝑀
2

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀
 Transmission Efficiency

𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑃𝑐 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀
 𝜂= = =
𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑐 (1+𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀 ) (1+𝑘𝑎 2 𝑆𝑀 )

 This is the equation for transmission efficiency in general.

𝐴𝑚 2
 For sinusoidal signal 𝑆𝑀 =
2

𝑚𝑎 2ൗ
𝑚𝑎 2
 So, 𝜂 = 2
𝑚𝑎 2ൗ
=
1+ 2+ 𝑚𝑎 2
2
 Problem

 Find the power and Transmission Efficiency requirement for the following
signal.
m(t)

𝐴𝑚

T t
− 𝐴𝑚
 Solution
 Power

1 𝑇
 𝑆𝑀 = ‫׬‬ 𝑚(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 2
𝑇 0

 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 max 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚

𝑘𝑎 2 𝐴𝑚 2 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝜂= 1+𝑘𝑎 2 𝐴𝑚 2
= 1+𝑚𝑎 2

 If 𝑚𝑎 = 0.5, then 𝜂 = 11.1%

 If 𝑚𝑎 = 0.707, then 𝜂 = 20%
 If 𝑚𝑎 = 1, then 𝜂 = 33.3%
 𝜂 is a monotonically increasing function of modulation index. 𝑚𝑎 can not be
more than 1.
 𝑃𝑆𝐵
 𝜂=
𝑃𝑡

𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2

 If 𝑚𝑎 = 1 and the required transmitted power is 𝑃𝑡 = 300𝑊

1
 300 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + 2)

2×300
 𝑃𝑐 = = 200 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
3

 Information is present in sidebands but maximum power will be consumed by

the carrier and less power will be left for message or sidebands.
 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝑐 = 300 − 200 𝑊 = 100𝑊

 This is waste of power, so different types of AM is used to save the power

and increase the efficiency
 Question

 Why AM is not suitable for practical application?

 Power and Bandwidth Calculation of
AM for Multi-tone m(t)

 Multi-tone modulating signal (more than one frequency components),

 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡)

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴1 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴2 cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

= 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎1 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑎2 cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2
 𝐴 𝑚 𝐴 𝑚
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑎1 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑎1 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 𝑡 +
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎2
cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓2 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓2 𝑡
2 2

 The total power required to transmit the signal is,

𝐴𝑐 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎2 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎2 2
 𝑃𝑡 = + + + +
2𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴𝑐 2
 is carrier power 𝑃𝑐 , Assume R = 1.
2𝑅
𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎2 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎2 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + + + +
4 4 4 4
𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎2 2 𝑚𝑎1 2 𝑚𝑎2 2 𝑚𝑎1 2 +𝑚𝑎2 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + + = 𝑃𝑐 1 + + = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2 2 2 2 2
 𝑚𝑎𝑇 2
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + , where 𝑚𝑎𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑎1 2 + 𝑚𝑎2 2
2

 𝑚𝑎𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑎1 2 + 𝑚𝑎2 2

 In general,

 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡 + . . . +𝐴𝑁 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑁 𝑡

 𝑚𝑎𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎1 2 + 𝑚𝑎2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑎𝑁 2

 Transmission Efficiency

𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑇 2
 𝜂= =
𝑃𝑡 2+𝑚𝑎𝑇 2
 Bandwidth Requirement (if 𝑓2 > 𝑓1 )
𝐴 𝑚 𝐴 𝑚
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑎1 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑎1 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 𝑡 +
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎2
cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓2 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓2 𝑡
2 2
S(f) FT
𝑨𝒄
𝟐
𝑨𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝟏
𝟒
𝑨𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝟏
𝟒

𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝒄 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝟐

BW f
 BW = 2𝑓2 , if 𝑓2 is the highest frequency component present in message
signal.

 If there are three frequency components in message signal 𝑓3 > 𝑓2 > 𝑓1 ,

then

 BW = 2𝑓3

 In general,

 BW = 2 x maximum freq. component present in message signal

 Problem 1

 Find M and N for the following modulated signal,

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑀 cos(2𝜋 2000𝑡) + 𝑁 cos(2𝜋 1800𝑡) + 𝑁 cos(2𝜋 2200𝑡)

 Given 𝑃𝑐 = 50𝑊 and 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 3% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡

 Solution

 The modulated signal is in the form of one carrier component and two
sideband. So the message signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal.

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝐴 𝑐 𝑚𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 … eq i
2 2

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑀 cos(2𝜋 2000𝑡) + 𝑁 cos(2𝜋 1800𝑡) + 𝑁 cos(2𝜋 2200𝑡) … eq ii

 Equating eq i and eq ii, we will get

 𝑀 = 𝐴𝑐

𝐴𝑐 +𝑚𝑎
 𝑁=
2
 𝐴𝑐 2
 𝑃𝑐 =
2
 𝐴𝑐 = 2𝑃𝑐 = 2 × 50 = 10
 M = 10
𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑚𝑎 2
 𝜂= =
𝑃𝑡 2+𝑚𝑎 2
𝑚𝑎 2
 3% =
2+𝑚𝑎 2
𝑚𝑎 2
 0.03 =
2+𝑚𝑎 2
 𝑚𝑎 = 0.248
𝐴𝑐 +𝑚𝑎 10×0.248
 𝑁= = = 1.24
2 2
 Generation of AM

1. Square Law Modulator

2. Switching modulator
 Square Law Modulator

 Characteristic of the nonlinear device is the relation between the output

and input
 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣𝑖 2 𝑡 + 𝑎3 𝑣𝑖 3 𝑡 + ⋯
 We will consider till the second term as the amplitude is very small and
increase in power will decrease the value.

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
m(t) Non-Linear Band-Pass AM Signal
Device Filter s(t)

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣𝑖 2 𝑡

 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 2

 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡)

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
 Apply 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 2

1+cos 2𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 2 ( 2
) + 2𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡)

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
 III IV V
I II
𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 2
 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 + + cos 2𝜔𝑐 𝑡 +
2 2
2𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
VI
𝑉𝑜 (𝑓)

II V

I
IV
VI
III

𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑐 f
  Output of the bandpass filter with BW 2𝑓𝑚 and center frequency 𝑓𝑐 will have
three frequency components i.e 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 , 𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚

𝑉𝑜 (𝑓) Response of BPF

Carrier V
II

I
IV
VI
III

𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑐 f
 Output of the bandpass filter is,

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 The standard form of AM is,

2𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 1 +
𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

2𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡)
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 1 +
𝑎1

𝐴𝑐 ′ = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐
2𝑎2 2𝑎2
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑘𝑎 =
𝑎1 𝑎1
 The condition for carrier frequency to achieve AM signal without any
distortion,

 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚

 ⇒ 𝑓𝑐 ≥ 3𝑓𝑚

 Question :

 Why it is important to take carrier frequency more than thrice of message

frequency?
 Switching Modulator

+ +
+ D Bandpass
Filter
𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 Center Freq
- “𝒇𝒄 ”
𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) S(t)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) Bandwidth
“𝟐𝒇𝒎 ” AM Signal
+
m(t)
- - -
 Apply KVL at input

 −𝑉𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 = 0

 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 is the input to the diode. If +ve voltage is applied to the P side of diode,
then it will be forward biased and if –ve voltage is applied to the P side of
diode, then it will be reversed biased.

 For an ideal diode, FB means short circuited and RB means Open circuited.
 Ideal Diode
 F.B -> D ON -> SC

 R.B -> D OFF -> OC

 Assuming that the carrier signal amplitude is always greater message signal,

𝐴𝑚
 𝑚𝑎 = , 𝐴𝑐 ≥ 𝐴𝑚 to maintain 𝑚𝑎 < 1
𝐴𝑐

 The polarity of the 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) will be decided by the polarity of the carrier.

 For eg. m(t) = 0.5, 𝐴𝑐 = 5

 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = 0.5 + 5 = 5.5
 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = 0.2 − 2 = −1.8
 …
 If carrier amplitude is +ve, the 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 is positive and viceversa.
 For positive half cycle of the carrier,

 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = +𝑣𝑒, 𝐷 − 𝑂𝑁

 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 … eq 1

 For negative half cycle of the carrier,

 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = −𝑣𝑒, 𝐷 − 𝑂𝐹𝐹

 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 0… eq 2

 We can rewrite the equation for 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 as,

 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑃(𝑡)𝑉𝑖 𝑡 … eq 3
 Where p(t) is 1 for +ve half cycle and 0 for negative half cycle.

P(t)

𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐 0 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
− 𝑇𝑐 − − 𝑇𝑐
2 4 4 2
 P(t) is a periodic signal with time period 𝑇𝑐 .

 So, the Fourier Series can be written as,

𝑎0
 𝑃 𝑡 = + σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 … eq 4
𝑇𝑐

𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
2 2
 𝑎0 = ‫׬‬ 2
𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝑐
𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 4
𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝑐
1 𝑑𝑡 =1
2 4

𝑇𝑐
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
2 2 2 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 4
 𝑎𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 2
𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝑐
𝑃 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 4
𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝑐
cos 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑇
2 4 − 4𝑐
 2𝜋
 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = , So 𝜔𝑐 𝑇𝑐 = 2𝜋
𝑇𝑐

2 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑇𝑐 −𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑇𝑐
 𝑎𝑛 = sin( ) − sin( )
2𝑛𝜋 4 4

1 2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋
 𝑎𝑛 = sin + sin( ) = sin
𝑛𝜋 4 4 𝑛𝜋 2

 If the signal is even, then 𝑏𝑛 = 0

 Applying the value of 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 in eq 4, we will get

1 2 𝑛𝜋
 𝑃 𝑡 = + σ∞
𝑛=1 sin cos 𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡
2 𝑛𝜋 2

1 2 1 1
 𝑃 𝑡 = + cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − cos 3𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 5𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + …
2 𝜋 3 5
 P(t) is a combinations of odd harmonics with alternative +ve and –ve
terms.

 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑃(𝑡)𝑉𝑖 𝑡
 Applying the value of P(t), we will get

1 2 1 1
 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡I + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐II𝑡 2
+ 𝜋
cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − 3
cos 3𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 5 cos 5𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + …

𝑚(𝑡) 2𝑚(𝑡)
 𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = + III cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + …IV V
2 𝜋

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 2 2
+ + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 cos 3𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + …
2 𝜋 3𝜋 𝑐
 The frequency components we will get are,
 I - > 𝑓𝑚
 II -> 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚
 III - > 𝑓𝑐
 IV - > f = 0 , 2𝑓𝑐
 V -> 4𝑓𝑐 and 2𝑓𝑐
.
.
.
 Spectrum

𝑉𝑜 (𝑓) Response of BPF

Carrier

𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑐 f
 The output of BPF would be,

2𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 4

 𝑠 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + = 1+ 𝑚(𝑡)
𝜋 2 2 𝜋𝐴𝑐

 The standard form is,

 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 So the new values are,

𝐴𝑐
 𝐴𝑐 ′ =
2

4
 𝑘𝑎 =
𝜋𝐴𝑐
 Condition for carrier frequency to get the AM signal without distortion.

 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 ≥ 𝑓𝑚

 𝑓𝑐 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚

 These conditions are for switching modulator.

 Demodulation

1. Square Law Demodulator

2. Envelope Detector
 Square Law Demodulator

𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑉0 (𝑡) x(𝑡) y(𝑡)

Lowpass
𝑠(𝑡) Non-Linear DC m(𝑡)
Filter
Device Blocker
‘𝑓𝑚 ’
AM Signal

𝑉0 (𝑡) = x(𝑡)

𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) = s(t)
 𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑖 2 (𝑡)

 S(t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 2 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝎𝒄 𝒕
 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑨𝒄 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒌𝒂 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒂 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 (𝒕)
𝟐

 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑨𝒄 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐
+ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝒌𝒂 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝒌𝒂 𝒎 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐
+ 𝒌𝒂 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒂 𝒎 𝟐 𝟐
(𝒕) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
 Frequency Spectrum

 Frequency components
 𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 , 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 , f = 0, 2 𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑐 −
2𝑓𝑚

𝑉𝑜 (𝑓)

Carrier

Response of LPF

f=0 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 2𝑓

𝑐
2𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 f
2𝑓 − 2𝑓 2𝑓𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑚
 Output of LPF,

a2 Ac 2 a2 Ac 2
 y t = 2
+ a2 Ac k a m t + k a 2 m2 t
2 2

 Output of DC blocker,

a2 Ac 2
2
 y t = a2 Ac k a m t + k a 2 m2 t
2

Signal (desired) + noise (undesired)

 SNR > >1 for better performance of receiver.

𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 SNR =
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑉2
 Power (P) = = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅

 SNR > >1

𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2
 So, ( ) ≫ 1
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 > 1 for SNR >>1
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 a2 Ac 2 ka m t
⇒ a2 Ac 2 2 2
≫1
2
ka m t

2
⇒ ≫1
ka m t

⇒ ka m t ≪ 2
⇒ max[ k a m t ] ≪ 2

⇒ max[ 𝑚a ] ≪ 2
Square law modulator will work with high efficiency, if ⇒ max[ 𝑚a ] ≪ 2
 Envelope Detector/ Diode Detector

+ D
𝐴𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
- C R
𝑉𝑖 (𝑡)
 For proper envelope detection, the time constant of the capacitor should as
follows so that the capacitor voltage will follow the envelope closely.

1 1
 ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪
𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑚

Reference :
https://electronicspost.com/explain-the-square-law-demodulation-and-envelope-demodulation-of-am-wave/
 Distortions

1
 1. RC <
𝑓𝑐

 Capacitor discharges very fast even before the time period of carrier and
capacitor voltage does not follow the envelope. It is also known as
negative peak clipping.

1
 2. RC >
𝑓𝑚

 If RC is very high, that means the capacitor is taking too much time during
discharging so missing the envelope as the capacitor voltage does not
follow the envelope. Its known as diagonal clipping.
 Problem

 Carrier wave of frequency f = 1mHz with pack voltage of 20V

used to modulate a signal of frequency 1kHz with pack voltage
of 10v. Find out the following
 (i) μ?
 (ii) Frequencies of modulated wave?
 (iii) Bandwidth
 Solution
 (i) μ = Am/Ac = 10/20= 0.5
 (ii) frequencies of modulated wave
 f → fc, fc + fm and fc – fm
 fc = 1mHz, fm = 1kHz
 fc + fm = 1×106 + 1×103 = 1001 ×103 = 1001 kHz
 fc – fm = 1×106 – 1×103 = 999 × 103 = 999 kHz
 (iii) Band width: (W)
 (W) = upper side band frequency – lower side band frequency
 = fc + fm – (fc – fm)
 = 2fm = 1001 kHz – 999 kHz = 2 kHz
 Envelope Detector/ Diode Detector

 The Input to the Envelope detector is,

 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 𝜔𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

 The envelope is,

 𝐸 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

 For proper envelope detection,

𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝐸
 ≥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Magnitude of slop of capacitor voltage ≥ magnitude of the slope of the

envelope.
 1−𝜇2
 𝑅𝐶 ≤
𝜇𝜔𝑚
 Problem

 An AM signal is detected using an envelope detector. The carrier frequency

and modulating signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2KHz. Find an appropriate
value for the time constant of the envelope detector.
 Solution

1 1
 ≪𝑅𝐶≪
𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑚
 10−6 𝑆𝑒𝑐 ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 0.5 𝑚𝑆𝑒𝑐
 1𝜇𝑆𝑒𝑐 ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 500 𝜇𝑆𝑒𝑐