Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MECH 3 – MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES Period: 2nd Sem. AY .2021-2022

Course Instructor: Engr. Neri Dianne M. Bacuño Course and Year: BSCE 2
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1. Stress
Outline of Learning Topics
A. Load Classification
B. Stresses

Specific Intended Learning Outcome/s (SILOs)

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:
• Identify the five fundamental loads: compression, tension, shear, bending and torsion.
• Introduce concept of stress.
• Define different stress types: axial normal stress, shearing stress and bearing stress.
• Discuss the components of stress on different planes, and under different loading conditions.
• Develop problem solving approach.
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Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the internal effects of stress and strain in a
solid body that is subjected to an external loading. Stress is associated with the strength of the material from
which the body is made, while strain is a measure of the deformation of the body. Stresses occur in all
structures subject to loads.

A. Load Classification
The five types of loads that can act on a structure are tension, compression, shear, bending and
torsion.

1. Tension: Two pulling (opposing) forces that stretch an object trying to pull it apart (for example, pulling
on a rope, a car towing another car with a chain – the rope and the chain are in tension or are "being
subjected to a tensile load").

2. Compression: Two pushing (opposing) forces that squeeze an object trying to compress it (for example,
standing on a soda can, squeezing a piece of wood in a vise – both the can and the wood are in
compression or are "being subjected to a compressive load").

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

3. Shear: Two pushing or pulling adjacent forces, acting close together but not directly opposing each other.
A shearing load cuts or rips an object by sliding its molecules apart sideways (for example, pruning
shears cutting through a branch, paper-cutter cutting paper - the branch and paper are "subjected to a
shear loading").

Another example: Pulling on two pieces of wood that have been glued together; the glue joint is "being
subjected to a shear loading."

A Moment of a Force
Understanding a moment of a force is key to understanding the last two types of loads. A moment
is a "turning force" caused by a force acting on an object at some distance from a fixed point. Consider
the diving board sketch in Figure 5. The heavier the person (force), and the farther they walk out on the
board (distance), the greater the "turning force," which acts on the concrete foundation (fixed point).

The force (F) produces a moment or "turning force" (M) that tries to rotate the diving board around
a fixed point (A). In this case, the moment bends the diving board.

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F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

The stronger the force, and the greater the distance at which it acts, the larger the moment or
"turning force" it will produce.

A moment or "turning force" (M) is calculated by multiplying a force (F) by its moment arm (d). The
moment arm is the distance at which the force is applied, taken from the fixed point: M = F x d (As long
as the force acting on the object is perpendicular to the object.)

If a force measured in Newtons is multiplied by a distance in meters, then the units for the moment
are N-m (read "Newton-meters"). If the force is measured in pounds and multiply by a distance in inches,
then the units are be lb-in (read "pound-inches"). Units for moments can be any force unit multiplied by
any distance unit.

4. Bending: When a moment or "turning force" is applied to a structural member that is fixed on both ends,
such as a pole beam, making it deflect or bend. A moment that causes bending is called a bending
moment. Bending produces tension and compression inside a beam or a pole, causing it to "smile." The
molecules on the top of the smile get squeezed together, while the molecules on the bottom of the smile
get stretched out. A beam or pole in bending will fail in tension (break on the side that is being pulled
apart) (for example, a shelf in a bookcase, and the earlier diving board scenario).

5. Torsion (Twisting): Created when a moment or "turning force" is applied to a structural member (or piece
of material) making it deflect at an angle (twist). A moment that causes twisting is called a twisting or
torsional moment. Torsion produces shear stresses inside the material. A beam in torsion will fail in
shear; the twisting action causes the molecules to be slid apart sideways (for example, a pole with a sign
hanging off one side).

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F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Example Problem 1.1

Calculate the moment resulting when a person weighing 150 lbf stands at the end of a 120 in. diving board.

Solution:

Example Problem 1.2

If 1 N = 0.2248 lbf and 1m = 3.28 ft, convert the units in the previous problem to obtain a solution in Nm.

Solution:

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B. Stresses
Equilibrium of a Deformable Body

1. External Loads: A body is subjected to only two types of

external loads; namely, surface forces and body forces. See
Figure 8.
a. Surface Forces - are caused by the direct contact of one
body with the surface of another.
i. Concentrated Force: If the area of contact between
the bodies is small in comparison with the total surface
area of the body, then the surface force can be
idealized as concentrated force.
ii. Linear Distributed Load, w(s): If the surface loading
is applied along a narrow strip of area, the loading can
be idealized as a linear distributed load.
Figure 8. External Loads
The resultant force FR of w(s) is equivalent to the area under the distributed loading curve, and this
resultant acts through the centroid C or geometric center of this area. The loading along the length of a
beam is a typical example of where this idealization is often applied.

b. Body Forces: A body force is developed when one body exerts a force on another body without
direct physical contact between the bodies. Examples include the effects caused by the earth’s
gravitation or its electromagnetic field.

2. Support Reactions: The surface forces that develop at the supports or points of contact between bodies
are called reactions. For two-dimensional problems, i.e., bodies subjected to coplanar force systems, the
supports most commonly encountered are shown in Table 1.

As a general rule, if the support prevents translation in a given direction, then a force must be developed
on the member in that direction. Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a couple moment must be exerted on
the member.

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3. Equations of Equilibrium: Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of forces, to prevent the body
from translating or having accelerated motion along a straight or curved path, and a balance of moments,
to prevent the body from rotating. These conditions can be expressed mathematically by two vector
equations: ∑ 𝑭 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑴𝑶 = 𝟎.

Often in engineering practice the loading on a body can be represented as a system of coplanar
forces. If this is the case, and the forces lie in the x – y plane, then the conditions for equilibrium of the
body can be specified with only three scalar equilibrium equations; that is,
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑴𝑶 = 𝟎

The best way to account for all these forces is to draw the body’s free-body diagram.

4. Internal Resultant Loadings

Four different types of resultant
loadings can then be defined as
follows:
a. Normal force, N - This force
acts perpendicular to the area. It
is developed whenever the
external loads tend to push or
pull on the two segments of the
body.
b. Shear force, V - The shear force
lies in the plane of the area, and
it is developed when the external
loads tend to cause the two
segments of the body to slide
over one another.
c. Torsional moment or torque, T
- This effect is developed when
the external loads tend to twist
one segment of the body with
respect to the other about an
axis perpendicular to the area.
d. Bending moment, M - The
bending moment is caused by
the external loads that tend to
bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

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Example Problem 2.1

Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C of the cantilevered beam shown.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.2

The 500-kg engine is suspended from the crane boom shown on the right.
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section of the
boom at point E.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.3

Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at G of the beam shown. Each joint is
pin connected.

Solution:

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Stress
When a body subjected to external loads in sectioned, there is a distribution of force acting over the
sectioned area which holds each segment of the body in equilibrium. The intensity of this internal force at a
point in the body is referred to as stress.

Stress is the limiting value of force per unit area, as the area approaches zero. For this definition, the
material is considered to be continuous and cohesive.

The magnitude of the stress components at a point depends upon the type of loading acting on the body,
and the orientation of the element at the point.

1. Normal Stress in an Axially Loaded Bar

When a prismatic bar is made from homogeneous
and isotropic material, and is subjected to an axial
force acting through the centroid of the cross-sectional
area, then the center region of the bar will deform
uniformly. As a result, the material will be subjected
only to normal stress. This stress is uniform or
averaged over the cross-sectional area.

If the normal force or stress “pulls” on A, it is

referred to as tensile stress, whereas if it “pushes” on
A, it is called compressive stress. See Figure 9 below.

𝑷
𝝈= Figure 9. Normal Stress in Axially Loaded Bar
𝑨
Where:

𝜎 = average normal stress at any

point on the cross-sectional
area
𝑃 = internal resultant normal force,
which acts through the centroid
of the cross-sectional area. P
is determined using the
method of sections and the
equations of equilibrium.
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the bar
where is determined

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Example Problem 2.4

A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the
outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MPa.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.5

A homogenous 800 kg bar AB is supposed at either end by cable as shown below. Calculate the smallest
area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.6

A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between steel and bronze sections as shown
below. Axial Loads are applied at the positions indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the cross-sectional area of the
rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each section.

Solution:

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2. Shear Stress
Shear stress has been defined as the stress component that acts in the plane of the sectioned area.
Consider the effect of applying a force F to the bar in Figure 10a, if the supports are considered rigid,
and F is large enough, it will cause the material of the bar to deform and fail along the planes identified
by AB and CD. A free-body diagram of the unsupported center segment of the bar, Figure 10b, indicates
that the shear force V = F/2 must be applied at each section to hold the segment in equilibrium. The
average shear stress distributed over each sectioned area that develops this shear force is defined by:
𝑽
𝝉=
𝑨

Where:
𝜏 = average shear stress at the section, which is assumed to be the same at each point located on
the section
𝑉 = internal resultant shear force on the section determined from the equations of equilibrium
𝐴 = area at the section

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Shear Stress

Example Problem 2.7

What force is required to punch a 20 mm

diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The
shear strength is 350 MN/m2.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.8

Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used

in the clevis shown on the right if P = 400 kN. The
shearing strength of the bolt is 3000 MPa.

Solution:

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3. Bearing Stress
Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members they connect, along the bearing surface, or
surface of contact. For example, consider the two plates A and B connected by a bolt CD shown in Figure
11. The bolt exerts on plate A a force P equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt
(Figure 11a). The force P represents the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the inside surface
of a half-cylinder of diameter d and of length t equal to the thickness of the plate. Since the distribution
of these forces --- and of the corresponding stresses --- is quite complicated, one uses in practice an
average nominal value σ b of the stress, called the bearing stress, obtained by dividing the load P by the
area of the rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the plate section (Figure 11b). The bearing
stress is defined by:

Where:
𝜎 b = bearing stress at the section, which is assumed to be the same at each point located on the
section
𝑃 = internal resultant force distributed on the inside surface on the section of the material
𝐴 = area at the section and is equal to td, where t is the plate thickness and d is the diameter of the
bolt

Figure 11. Bearing Stress (a) (b)

Example Problem 2.9

In the figure shown on the right, assume that a 20 mm diameter

rivet joins the plate that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable
stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60
MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine the largest average stress
in the plates.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.10

The lap joint shown is fastened by four ¾ in diameter rivets.

Calculate the maximum safe load P that can be applied if the
shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi and the bearing
stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load
is uniformly distributed among the four rivets.

Solution:

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4. Thin-walled Pressure Vessels

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resist
bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.

a. TANGENTIAL STRESS, σt (Circumferential Stress)

Consider the tank in Figure 12 being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L
and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank:

Figure 12. Tangential Stress

The forces acting are the total pressures caused by the internal pressure p and the total tension in
the walls T.

F = pA = pDL
T= σtAwall = σttL

ΣFH = 0
F=2T
pDL = 2(σttL)

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be expressed as:

b. LONGITUDINAL STRESS, σL
Consider the free body diagram in the transverse section of the tank in Figure 13:

Figure 13. Longitudinal Stress

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The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal stress on the wall
PT = σLAwall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is close to πDt

F = pA = p π/4D2
PT = σLπDt

ΣFH = 0
PT = F
σLπDt = pπ/4D2

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be expressed as:

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress.

c. SPHERICAL SHELL
If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas under a pressure of p = pi - po,
the stress at the wall can be expressed as:

Example Problem 2.11

A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to an
internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m. (a) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b) To what
value may the internal pressure be increased if the stress in the steel is limited to 120 MN/m2?

Solution:

Example Problem 2.12

The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 in. Calculate the allowable internal pressure if the
stress is limited to 8000 psi.

Solution:

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5. Allowable Load and Allowable Stress

One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number called the factor of
safety. The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load Ffail to the allowable load FAllow. Here, Ffail is
found from experimental testing of the material, and the factor of safety is selected based on experience
so that the uncertainties are accounted for when the member is used under similar conditions of loading
and geometry. Stated mathematically,

In any of these equations, the factor of safety must be greater than 1 in order to avoid the potential
for failure. Specific values depend on the types of materials to be used and the intended purpose of the
structure or machine.

If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed within the member, as
in the case of using σ = P/A and 𝜏avg = V/A, then we can also express the factor of safety as a ratio of
the failure stress σfail (or 𝜏fail) to the allowable stress σallow (or 𝜏allow). Here the area A will cancel,

Note: In some cases, as such columns, the applied load is not linearly related to stress.

Example Problem 2.13

The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in the figure. Determine
to the nearest ¼ in the required diameters of the steel pins at A and C if
the allowable shear stress for the steel is 9 ksi.

Solution:

Example Problem 2.14

The suspender rod is supported at its end by a fixed-connected circular disk as

shown in the figure. If the rod passes through a 40-mm-diameter hole,
determine the minimum required diameter of the rod and the minimum thickness
of the disk needed to support the 20-kN load. The allowable normal stress for
the rod is σallow = 65 MPa, and the allowable shear stress for the disk is τallow
= 40 MPa.

Solution:

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 14 of 14