Filter:

Filters can be divided into two distinct types: active filters and passive filters. Active filters
contain amplifying devices to increase signal strength while passive do not contain
amplifying devices to strengthen the signal. As there are two passive components within a
passive filter design the output signal has a smaller amplitude than its corresponding input
signal, therefore passive RC filters attenuate the signal and have a gain of less than one,
(unity).

Passive Filter:
Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal
gain, therefore their output level is always less than the input.
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass
through them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most commonly used filter
designs are the:
 The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from
0Hz to its cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
 The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals
from its cut-off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while
blocking those any lower.
 The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a
certain frequency band setup between two points to pass through while
blocking both the lower and higher frequencies either side of this frequency
band.
Simple First-order passive filters (1st order) can be made by connecting together a single
resistor and a single capacitor in series across an input signal, (V IN) with the output of the
filter, ( VOUT ) taken from the junction of these two components.
Depending on which way around we connect the resistor and the capacitor with regards to
the output signal determines the type of filter construction resulting in either a Low Pass
Filter or a High Pass Filter.
As the function of any filter is to allow signals of a given band of frequencies to pass
unaltered while attenuating or weakening all others that are not wanted, we can define the
amplitude response characteristics of an ideal filter by using an ideal frequency response
curve of the four basic filter types as shown.

Ideal Filter Response Curves

RC Low Pass Filter

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting together in
series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below. In this type of filter
arrangement the input signal ( VIN ) is applied to the series combination (both the Resistor
and Capacitor together) but the output signal ( VOUT ) is taken across the capacitor only.

Frequency Response of a 1st-order Low Pass Filter

 RC High Pass Filter Circuit

 
In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so
the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at VIN until the cut-off
frequency point ( ƒC ) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the
input signal to pass directly to the output as shown below in the filters response curve.

Frequency Response of a 1st Order High Pass Filter

Band Pass Filter Circuit

 
Unlike the low pass filter which only pass signals of a low frequency range or the high pass
filter which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass Filters passes signals
within a certain “band” or “spread” of frequencies without distorting the input signal or
introducing extra noise. This band of frequencies can be any width and is commonly known
as the filters Bandwidth.
Bandwidth is commonly defined as the frequency range that exists between two specified
frequency cut-off points ( ƒc ), that are 3dB below the maximum centre or resonant peak
while attenuating or weakening the others outside of these two points.
Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define the term “bandwidth”, BW as
being the difference between the lower cut-off frequency ( ƒcLOWER ) and the higher cut-off
frequency ( ƒcHIGHER ) points. In other words, BW = ƒH – ƒL. Clearly for a pass band filter to
function correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter must be higher than the cut-off
frequency for the high pass filter.
The “ideal” Band Pass Filter can also be used to isolate or filter out certain frequencies that
lie within a particular band of frequencies, for example, noise cancellation. Band pass filters
are known generally as second-order filters, (two-pole) because they have “two” reactive
component, the capacitors, within their circuit design. One capacitor in the low pass circuit
and another capacitor in the high pass circuit.
LC Filters

LC filters refer to circuits consisting of a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to
cut or pass specific frequency bands of an electric signal.
Capacitors block DC currents but pass AC more easily at higher frequencies. Conversely,
inductors pass DC currents as they are, but pass AC less easily at higher frequencies.
In other words, capacitors and inductors are passive components with completely opposite
properties. By combining these components with opposite properties, noise can be cut and
specific signals can be identified.

Types of LC Filters

LC filters are broadly classified into three types.

1. Low-pass Filters(LPF)
Low-pass filters are filter circuits that pass DC and low-frequency signals and cut
high-frequencysignals.
They are the most widely used filter circuits and are mainly used to cut high-
frequency noise.
In audio, they are also used to cut treble/mid-range sound components of bass
speakers.

2. High-pass Filters (HPF)

High-pass filters are filter circuits that cut DC and low-frequency signals and
pass high-frequency signals.
They are used to cut low-frequency noise in the audible range, cut mid-
range/bass sound components of treble speakers, etc.

3. Band-pass Filters (BPF)

 Band-pass filters are filter circuits that pass only signals at a specific
frequency and cut signals at other frequencies.
They are used for radio tuning (frequency adjustment) or for cutting the
bass/treble sound components of mid-range speakers, etc.

Types of Low-pass Filters

Although capacitors and inductors each have noise removal capabilities on their
own, combining these two components will achieve a significant level of noise
removal. Inductors connected in series block high-frequency noises, whereas
capacitors connected in parallel work to bypass high-frequency noises.
However, noise removal effects change depending on the magnitude of the external
impedance on the input and output sides. For example, even if a low-impedance
capacitor is used to bypass noise, the noise will flow to the load side if the output
impedance is lower. Conversely, even if a high-impedance capacitor is used to block
noise, the noise will flow to the load side if the output impedance is higher.
Therefore, when the external impedance is high, capacitors should be placed
nearby, and when it's low, inductors should be used.
The four types of low-pass filters shown below are used by taking external
impedances into consideration

1. L-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒High

and the output impedance ⇒ Low

2. L-type Filter
 When the input impedance ⇒ Low
and the output impedance ⇒ High

3. π-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ High

and the output impedance ⇒ High

4. T-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ Low

and the output impedance ⇒ Low
It should be noted that π- and T-type filters have better noise removal effects than the L-type,
which should be taken into consideration when selecting circuits.

Pi Filter

Definition: Pi filter consists of a shunt capacitor at the input side, and it is followed by

an L-section filter. The output from the rectifier is directly given across capacitor. The
pulsating DC output voltage is filtered first by the capacitor connected at the input side and
then by choke coil and then by another shunt capacitor.

The construction arrangement of all the components resembles the shape of Greek letter Pi
(π). Thus it is called Pi filter. Besides, the capacitor is present at the input side. Thus, it is
also called capacitor input filter.

Significance of Capacitor input filter or Pi filter (π- filter)

The ultimate aim of a filter is to achieve ripple free DC voltage. The filters we have discussed
in our previous articles are also efficient in removing AC ripples from the output voltage of
rectifier, but Pi filter is more efficient in removing ripples as it consists of one more capacitor
at the input side.
Working of Pi filter (π- filter)

The output voltage coming from rectifier also consist of AC components. Thus it is a crucial
need to remove these AC ripples to improve the performance of the device. The output from
the rectifier is directly applied to the input capacitor. The capacitor provides a low impedance
to AC ripples present in the output voltage and high resistance to DC voltage. Therefore,
most of the AC ripples get bypassed through the capacitor in input stage only.

The residual AC components which are still present in filtered DC signal gets filtered when
they pass through the inductor coil and through the capacitor connected parallel across the
load. In this way, the efficiency of filtering increases multiple times.

In the case of L-section filter, one inductor and capacitor were present so if some AC ripples
say 1% is left after filtering that can be removed in Pi-filter. Thus, Pi filter is considered more
efficient.

Characteristics of Pi filter (π- filter)

The Pi filter has the characteristics to generate a high output voltage at low current drains. In
pi-filters, the major filtering action is accomplished by the capacitor at input C 1. The residual
AC ripples are filtered by inductor coil L and capacitor C2.
The high voltage is obtained at the output of Pi filter, the reason behind this high voltage
output is that the entire input voltage appears across the input capacitor C1. The voltage
drop across choke coil and capacitor C2 is quite small.

Thus, this is the advantage of Pi capacitor that it provides high voltage gain. But in addition
to this high output voltage, the voltage regulation of Pi filter is very poor. This is because
the output voltage drops rapidly with the increase in current flowing through the load.

Apart from the above-mentioned disadvantage, its most crucial advantage is low ripple
factor.