Erbil polytechnic university

Erbil technical engineering college

Civil engineering department
Engineering Soil-2

Topic

Advantages and disadvantages of

Earth dam in iraq

Prepared by

Aram zrar Zahra sarok

Rebaz muhammad Bahra ismail
Zaytun hadi Ahmad rafiq

Supervised by

D. Zina mikhael dawood

Academic year
2021 – 2022
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Classification of earthen dams
3. Constructing the dam
4. What’s spillway in earth-dam?
5. Soil specific requirement
6. Design cross section of earth dam
7. Examples in Iraq
8. The advantages of earth dam
9. Disadvantages of earth dams
10. Conclusion
11. Reference

1
1.introduction

Earth fill dam, also called earth dam or embankment dam, dam built up by
compacting successive layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to
form a core and placing more permeable substances on the upstream and
downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain,
and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic
washout should water overtop the dam.

compared with concrete, soils

and rock fragments lack
strength, are much more
permeable, and possess less
resistance to deterioration and
disturbance by flowing water.
These disadvantages are
compensated for by a much
lower cost and by the ability
of earth fill to adapt to
deformation caused by
movements in the dam
foundation. This assumes, of
course, sufficient usable soil or rockfill is available near the dam site. Earth fill is
often quite economical, provided that a suitable “borrow” area can be utilized
close to the construction site.

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2.classification of earthen dams

Earthen dams may be classified in two ways:

2.1 classification based upon the method of construction.

under this classification earthen dams can be

(i) Rolled-fill earth dams. (ii)Hydraulic fill dams.

2.2 classification based upon the section of the dam.

According to this classification the dams can be of the following three types:

1. Homogeneous earth dams,

2. Zoned earth dams, and
3. diaphragm type earth dams.

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3.constructing the dam

3.1 setting out the dam

once the location of the dam has been
established, the longitudinal axis of the
embankment is marked with a solid
concrete benchmark positioned at each
end of the site. These benchmarks act
as reference levels during construction
work and should not be moved. The
dam axis
Is in most cases perpendicular to the
valley axis or to the contour lines.
The setting out of the dam axis is carried out is carried out with the use of ranging
rods. First a ranging rod is placed at each end of the dam axis. By sighting along
the rods, a straight line can be established by marking it at intervals of 50 to 100
metres.

On the basis of the survey along the axis of the dam, it is possible to
Determine:
• the height of the fill at any point along the dam axis,
• the width of the embankment at ground level, and
• the exact volume of the earth fill.

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3.2 clearing the dam site
Vegetation should be removed from:
• the dam foundation area and one meter to each side of it.
• the surface of the future reservoir area.
• the areas where ancillary structures are constructed (intake tower, valve
chamber, cattle trough, etc.).
• the spillway site if a
side spillway is
excavated.
the dam foundation
area and extensions
should be cleared of all
vegetation, including
trees, shrubs and grass.
Trees and shrubs need
to be dug up with their
roots. Roots can be extracted by tying a steel cable or solid rope to the trunk and
pulled by several persons. Alternatively, a hand winch or tractor can be used to
topple and uproot the stub. The uprooting of big trees can be made easier by
digging a circular ditch around the roots. Shrubs and grass are removed using
hoes or pickaxes.

Holes created by roots and trees uprooted at the location of the dam foundation
need to be filled and properly compacted. After clearing, the dam foundation
should be totally free of roots and vegetation. Foundation need to be filled and
properly compacted. After clearing, the dam foundation should be totally free of
roots and vegetation. Trees and shrubs in the reservoir area should be removed to
avoid their decay once the dam fills up. Otherwise, the quality of the water would
be unfit for domestic or livestock water supply.
All dead wood in the reservoir along with cleared material should be removed to
areas that cannot be flooded.
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3.3 constructing a temporary cofferdam

a cofferdam is a small dam built for the duration of the construction and is aimed
at protecting the work site against any water damage.
A cofferdam is not necessary if the construction takes place during a dry period
when there is no water flowing in the river. If the river has a permanent flow, or
flood hazards exist during the construction period, a cofferdam needs to be built.
The cofferdam is normally a small earth dam placed upstream from the main
embankment. An outlet to drain the water must be installed in a manner which
does not disturb the construction works. If, for example, there is a permanent flow
in the river during the construction of the dam, a bypass needs to be installed for
its drainage. The part of the embankment under construction should then be
protected by a cofferdam. The water stored in a cofferdam can be used for the
watering the earth fill.

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3.4 preparing the foundation
3.4.1 rock foundations
The area of contact between the rock surface and the dam embankment should
not be more permeable than the rest of the fill material. It is important to avoid:
• smooth surfaces between rock and earth fill, and
• unfilled fissures and crevices through which water can flow.

Topsoil and weathered rock are stripped using shovels, pickaxes and crowbars
and removed to a depth where sound rock is exposed. Locate all cracks and holes
and remove all earth and rock fragments they may be filled with. Above all, locate
any cracks perpendicular to the dam axis which can become channels for water
leakage. Cracks which are too narrow to be easily unblocked are made bigger in
order to permit their cleaning. Eliminate any overhanging rock and peaks with a
crowbar or sledgehammer. If the rock surface is too smooth, it should be made
rough using pickaxes.
before starting the major backfill operation, the following activities should be
carried out:
• first water the rock surface,
particularly if the rock is
porous or tends to soak up
water.
• fill in holes and cracks
preferably with clay soil. Compact carefully using a hand rammer or big wooden
sticks for narrow cracks without leaving any gaps which could create an excessive
loss of water. If clay is not available, a cement-water mixture can be used to fill
the cracks. Small, narrow and deep cracks can also be filled with mortar.
• place a 10 cm layer of fill material on the rock surface. Water and compact
carefully with a hand tamper.

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3.4.2 earth foundations
The foundation area should be stripped until reaching a clean surface
Free of organic or other unsuitable material. The required depth of stripping is
normally between 10 and 20 cm. The stripped area should be scarified in order to
obtain a rough surface. It should then be watered and compacted before the first
layer of earth fill is placed.
The stripped topsoil should be stockpiled as it can be used for grassing the
embankment slopes. All other excavated material is disposed in a safe place (for
example downstream of the dam) where it does not hinder the construction of the
dam or the drainage of water.
It should not be dumped in the catchment area as it is not compacted and could
Be washed into the reservoir thereby reducing its storage capacity.
If the foundation is pervious, a cut-off trench should be excavated preferably deep
enough to reach a rock layer. The exposed rock should be treated in the same way
as any naturally outcropping rock.

3.5 timing of ancillary works

It is recommended that ancillary structures, especially central spillways, be built
at the beginning of the construction period. The compaction of fill material
around it will as a result be much easier. If a side spillway is used, its channel
should be excavated together with the construction of the embankment, as the
excavated soil can be used as fill material. The draw-off structure consists partly
of a draw-off pipe laid in a trench dug out of the natural ground. This trench needs
to be excavated, the pipe laid and the trench backfilled and compacted before
starting the construction of the embankment. The construction should be
supervised by a qualified supervisor or technician.

8
3.6 excavating the cut-off trench
Once the area of the dam foundation has been cleared, the first step of the
building works is to excavate a cut-off trench.
trench excavation is best done in
two stages. First, a trench with a
rectangular shape is excavated, then
the side slopes are excavated.
Normally, one or two days are
allowed between each stage to
allow sufficient working space.
The excavation is set out using
string lines and pegs. Equally, a
measuring stick marked with the
correct depth of the trench is useful
for guiding the work.
A mark on a tool handle can also be
used for this purpose.
Both the ditching and sloping tasks
are calculated as a fixed length of
The trench. The sloping task is set at a rate higher than the ditching task, since
excavating soils on the slope face is easier to carry out than excavating the core
trench. If the trench is more than one meter deep, the vertical sides of the trench
may become unstable. For this reason, it is recommended that the excavation of
the full depth is carried out in two stages.
first excavate a rectangular trench down to a maximum of one meter and cut the
adjacent side slopes. This is carried out in the same fashion as described above.
During the second step, extend the rectangular trench to the full depth and once
again cut the side slopes.
The excavated material can be used to
build up the downstream zone of the
embankment, while the trench is filled
and compacted in layers of materials
with higher clay content.

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3.7 excavating fill material from borrow pits
borrow pits are used to
supply the large quantities of
material required to construct
the dam embankment.
Different locations may be
selected in order to obtain
various types of soil material
such as gravel, stone, sand
and clay. The excavated soils
from building a spillway can
also be used for the dam
construction. Borrow pits are
used for a limited period of time during the construction of the dam. Once the
necessary soils have been extracted, the borrow pit needs to be reinstated, thus
allowing the land to be returned to its original use. Borrow pits are normally
located close to the dam site in order to
Minimize transport distances. Depending on the availability of good building
materials, they can be located inside or outside the future reservoir. From an
environmental point of view, it is better to locate the borrow pits inside the
reservoir since such locations require less restoration works.

3.8 transporting the fill material

Choice of equipment hauling involves the transport of soil from its sources (i.e.
Borrow pit, quarry, river, etc.) To wherever it is required at the work site. It also
involves removing excess or unsuitable materials from the dam site. The most
effective mode of haulage varies with the distance and quantity of work. The
transport of materials can be carried out using baskets, stretchers, wheelbarrows,
animal carts, hand tractors, tractor-trailers or trucks. Efficient loading is important
since the waiting time for equipment needs to be kept at a minimum.

10
3.9 compaction
3.9.1 purpose
The purpose of compaction is to increase the quality of soils used as building
materials for embankment fills. The main effect of compaction is that it reduces
the volume of air in the material. By forcing the soil particles closer together, the
density is increased and the soil becomes stronger. This enables the materials to
carry heavier loads and increases their resistance to erosion. A dense material is
also less permeable thereby improving its performance. Equally, a densely
compacted material resists any further decreases in its volume when exposed to
heavy loads.

3.9.2 fundamentals of compaction

Good compaction is not difficult to achieve, however, it requires a
Good understanding of what is actually taking place when applying
Compaction to soils and surfacing materials. Good knowledge of the
Properties and performance of the materials, combined with the
Correct use of available equipment should result in reaching the
Prescribed quality levels.
soils in their natural state consist of solid
particles, water and air. Air does
Not contribute to the strength and stability
of the soil - it reduces the stability and
increases the permeability of a soil.
A certain amount of water, usually between
8 to 20%, depending on the soil type,
provides the best lubricating effect between
the soil particles and facilitates the
compaction. A certain amount of water in
the soils during compaction therefore has a
significant effect in terms of achieving the
required pavement strength and stability.

3.9.3 optimal moisture content

A simple way to check the moisture content is to take a sample of the material
and compact it in the hand by squeezing it into a ball. If a ball cannot be formed,
the material is too dry. The correct level of moisture is reached when a ball can
be formed and the material packs well together. When applying pressure, the ball
should retain its shape.

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3.9.4 compaction methods
There are basically four methods of compaction:
1. Manually or mechanically operated tampers or rammers,
2. Deadweight rollers,
3. Vibrating compaction,
4. Natural compaction.

Compaction effort
With most compaction equipment, fills are compacted in layers not more than
15 cm thickness. When using hand rammers, the thickness of the layers should
not be more than 10 cm. A common cause of poor compaction is attempting to
compact thicker layers of material.

3.10 other construction activities

3.10.1 filter
At the same time as commencing the embankment fill, the first layers of the filter
are placed at the downstream end. The filter material is temporarily separated
from the ordinary back fill by wooden boards or plastic sheets to avoid the
different materials being mixed. The wooden boards or plastic sheets are pulled
up as the filling proceeds.

3.10.2 settlement allowance

Upon completion of the main embankment fill, a settlement allowance is added
by increasing the height of the crest at the center of the dam. This allowance is
usually 10 to 20 percent of the dam height, depending on the compaction methods
used when building the embankment fill. If no compaction equipment has been
used, it is recommended that a higher allowance is applied, allowing for the
Increased settlement which will take place.

3.10.3 evacuation drain

at the end of the toe drain an evacuation drain is placed for the drainage of seepage
water and rainwater run-off from the downstream slope. It is made of gravel
and/or stone. It is also advisable that the last
metre (or 0.5 m) of the filter is made of the
same material.

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4. What’s spillway in earth-dam?
a spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water from a
dam or levee downstream, typically into the riverbed of the dammed river itself.
In the united kingdom,
they may be known as
overflow channels.
Spillways ensure that
water does not damage
parts of the structure not
designed to convey
water.
Spillways can include
floodgates and fuse
plugs to regulate water
flow and reservoir level.
Such features enable a spillway to regulate downstream flow—by releasing
water in a controlled manner before the reservoir is full, operators can prevent
an unacceptably large release later.
Other uses of the term "spillway" include bypasses of dams and outlets of
channels used during high water, and outlet channels carved through natural
dams such as moraines.

4.1 types of spillways:

Different types of spillways are as follows:
1. Straight drop spillway
2. Ogee spillway
3. Shaft spillway
4. Chute spillway
5. Side channel spillway
6. Siphon spillway
7. Labyrinth spillway

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5. Soil specific requirement:
We are primarily in interested in two basic soil features when we are building an
earth dam; soil permeability and soil strength. Soil permeability predicts the
seepage rate of water stored in a dam reservoir, and soil strength indicates stability
and strength of the dam embankment. The properties that effect both permeability
and strength are numerous and complex. But, they do not have to be understood
completely to perform some simple tests to determine if a soil is suitable for
building dams.

Soil can be broken down in to two basic categories: organic soils (such as peat)
and non-organic soils (sand, gravel, silt, and clay).

Organic soils: are formed from rotting and decomposing plant and animal matter
and are characterized by high compressibility, dark color, and occasionally an
organic smell. Because of their instable nature and extreme variability it is
considered to be completely useless for foundations, embankments, and other
forms or structures of engineering.
Soils with small amounts of organic matter don’t have to be discarded completely,
but the amount should be as little as possible.

Non-organic soils are soils that have been produced through erosion and other
geologic processes.

The four basic types of non-organic soil are: clay, silt, sand, and gravel. The
differences between these types of soils are the size of the grains.

Clay and silt: also have chemical and shape properties that separate them, but
since neither can be seen with the naked eye so they must be differentiated based
on feel and other factors. Since almost all soils contain a combination of these
grain sizes, soils can be classified based on how much of each type is present.

Soils with large amounts of clay are naturally impervious.

To be suitable for the impervious embankment of the dam
the soil will need at least 25-55% clay particles.

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Grain type Size Comments
Sticky and gooey when wet. Can be molded and
Clay 0.005-0.002mm rolled without breaking apart. Very hard when
completely dried as in an oven.
Very fine material, individual grains can’t be
seen with the naked eye. When dry silt feels like
Silt 0.002-0.06mm
talcum powder. When wet, clumps break apart
and disperse.
Loose grains over a range of sizes. Even the
Sand 0.06-2mm smallest sand grains can be seen with the naked
eye. The soil will feel gritty.
Gravel 2-64mm Large grains, easily distinguished

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6. Design cross section of earth dam:

1. Foundation
2. Sheet pile wall
3. Core wall + sheet pile wall or cut off wall
4. Core wall + cut off trench
5. Core wall + impervious blanket at the upstream surface
6. Flattening the downstream face
7. Rockfill toe on the downstream
8. Horizontal drainage / filter on the downstream side
9. Providing coarse section on the downstream face of the dam

1.foundation:
It consists of either earth or rock
and provides a support for the
embankment and resists both
vertical and horizontal loads. It
also resists under seepage on the
flow of water beneath the dam.

2. Core or membrane:
it holds back the free water of the dam reservoir. It is located either at the
center or upstream from the center of
the dam. In case of rock fill dams,
the core is provided on the upstream
face. To resist the under seepage, the
core is extended down into the
foundation till an impervious layer of
sufficient thickness is reached. The
extension of the core into the
foundation is termed as a cut off.

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 3. Shell:

it provides structural support for the core and distributes the load over the
foundation. The dams which are
constructed of the same
materials are called
homogeneous dams. Small dams
can suitably be constructed as
homogeneous dams if the
available materials are suitable.

4. Transition filter:
in core dams, a transition filter between the core and shell is generally
provided to prevent the migration of the fine-grained core materials into the
pores of the coarse-grained shell materials. In case of difference in particle
sizes of the materials of the core and shell is small, the transition filter is
omitted but in case of clay cover and rock or gravel shell, a transition filter is
necessarily provided.

5. Internal drain:
An internal drain is provided on
the downstream side of the dam to
carry away the seepage through
the core and cut off, and also to
prevent the saturation of the upper
part of the downstream shell by
rain on the dam.

6. Toe drain:
A toe drain is provided at the downstream face of
the shell. A riprap or grating is provided to cover the
upstream face to prevent erosion or wash by waves.

17
7. Examples in iraq:

7.1 adhaim dam : is a multi-purpose embankment dam on the al uzaym

(adhaim) river 133 km northeast of baghdad, iraq.
The storge capacity (1.5 billion 𝑚3 ) and dam body length (3800𝑚)
And height ( 76.5 m) and width (12 m).
The purpose of the dam is flood control, hydro-power and irrigation. The dam
was completed in 2000 with only the embankment, spillway and intake. The
power station and irrigation outlets are unfinished. When complete, the power
station will have a 27 mw installed capacity and the irrigation outlet will be able
to discharge 73 m3/s (2,578 cu ft/s).

18
7.2 duhok dam: is an earth-fill embankment dam on the duhok river just north
of duhok in duhok governorate, iraq. The storge capacity (52 million 𝑚3 ) and
dam body length (613𝑚) and height (60 m) and width (10 m).
The dam was completed in 1988 with the primary purpose of providing water for
irrigation. It is 60 m (197 ft) tall and can withhold 52,000,000 m3 (42,157-acre ft)
of water. The dam has a bell-mouth spillway with a maximum discharge of
81 m3/s (2,860 cu ft/s).

19
8. The advantages of earth dam:
1. An earth (embankment) dam is just that - a wall of soil, sand, clay and rock that
has been compacted to form a retaining structure behind which water can
accumulate. And this type of dam is suitable for places where there are very wide
valleys.
2. Availability of earth materials earth is readily available in most parts of the world
close to possible dam sites. Now a days the knowledge of soil mechanics has
further enhanced the chances to make unstable earth dam as stable.
3. Easy handling of earth can be excavated by hand, transported in baskets and
compacted with cattle’s walking over it. In suitable situation, earth can be
handled and moved with latest machinery.
4. Foundation condition it can be constructed on any types of foundation strut
which includes soil, earth dams are suited to the sites where a masonry dam
cannot be used for structural reasons. These dams can be constructed even on
compressible foundations. The intensity of foundation stress due to earth is less
than that due to solid masonry. The horizontal water pressure on the dams is
distributed over greater area because of greater base width and hence, the danger
of sliding on a weak foundation is minimized. The greater width of dam
foundation also minimizes the leakage through the foundation beneath the dam.
5. Cost of construction the most important advantage of an earth dam compared to
masonry dam, is its lesser cost. It has been observed that the total cost of an earth
dam, is roughly one-half of a concrete dam.
6. Earth dam can be constructed with the use of locally available natural materials,
hence reduces the cost of transportation. They also help reduce the need for land
dredging.
7. They can be constructed in comparatively less time and their height can be
increased without any difficulty.
8. The construction will be faster compared to other dams.

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9. Disadvantages of earth dams:
1. Non-availability of the materials at or near the dam site.
2. Excessive leakage and foundation erosion is more likely
3. Greater maintenance cost as compared to a good concrete dam.
4. Earthen dams are unsuitable for spillways, this is an important
disadvantage of an earthen. Inadequate capacity of the spillway causes dam
structure failure as there is potential for over-exploitation of the dam. So
requires a complementary structure to a spillway.
5. Burrowing animals can damage the dam’s structure.
6. The disadvantages of the earthen dam are it is a none rigid material so it
can destroy easily when more stress develops on the dam.
7. They cannot withstand heavy rains unless properly protected and they
cannot be constructed in large heights because the usual height is 30 m for
which most of the earthen dams are constructed.
8. Durability is very less, seepage, losses will be very high .and the
maintenance, cost will be very high.

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10. Conclusion:

Dams are renowned both for the positive changes they bring about, such as flood
control, irrigation and hydropower, and for their negative impacts, including
displacement of people, changes in water and sediment flows, and disruption to
environmental services and livelihoods.

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11. Reference:
1. (Small earth dams and dugouts ) Note Book - Training guide and
technical reference for LIPW personnel. Copyright © International Labor
Organization 1988.
2. (Small Earth Dam Technical Assessment Report) by Jack T. Chow,
ACF Water Harvesting Consultant.
3. https://latifrashid.iq/articleh/dams in iraq/
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhok_Dam
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhaim_Dam

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