Lithology and Mineral Resources, Vol. 36, No. 5, 2001, pp. 393–405.

Translated from Litologiya i Poleznye Iskopaemye, No. 5, 2001, pp. 451–465.

Original Russian Text Copyright © 2001 by Patyk-Kara, Gorelikova, Bardeeva, Shevelev.

Mineralogy of Placers: Modern Approaches and Solutions

N. G. Patyk-Kara, N. V. Gorelikova, E. G. Bardeeva, and A. G. Shevelev
Institute of Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM), Russian Academy of Sciences,
Staromonetnyi per. 35, Moscow, 109017 Russia
Received January 25, 2001

Abstract—The current state of placer research may be regarded as a transition from the descriptive mineralogy,
including the study of typomorphic properties of minerals and their assemblages, to probing fine mechanisms
of ore material migration in placers and the creation of quantitative models that describe an inhomogeneous
multidimensional space of placer deposits taking into account regional and local factors. Placers are complex
geochemical systems where the concentration of most resistant minerals is accompanied by a conversion of
their physical and chemical properties that affects the quality of ore, its dressability, and fields of usage. In this
work, data on specific (tin, rare metal, gold, and complex titanium–zirconium) placers are used to define the
current objectives of placer mineralogy and possibilities of their realization in the study of (1) placer mineral
assemblages and their modification during the placer formation, (2) primary typomorphic features of minerals
as guides for provenance and placer evolution, (3) acquired typomorphic features indicating the placer forma-
tion conditions, and (4) environmental and technological aspects of placer mineralogy.

INTRODUCTION The following important fact should be noted.

The mineral composition of placers bears the infor- Methods of the research of placer mineralogy do not
mation on sources of ore material and conditions of its principally differ from methods of ore mineralogy
modification in the course of migration and concentra- (Ginzburg et al., 1981), on the one hand, and mineral-
tion, paleotectonic, lithofacies, and lithodynamic envi- ogy of sedimentary rocks, on the other hand. However,
ronments of the above processes, as well as economic the set of methods is determined by specific features of
value and technological properties of ore sands. The placers as a particular class of sedimentary deposits
mineralogy of placers is one of the most developed according to V.I. Smirnov. When studying placer min-
branches of placer geology built upon the huge data- eralogy, it is important to distinguish the typomorphic
base that provides the solution of intricate theoretical features inherited from primary sources and those
and applied problems.
gained during the placer formation. Implications and
The following tendencies determine the progress of informative capacity of both features are determined by
modern research in placer mineralogy: the rank of placer deposit, the degree of its study, and
(1) The introduction of new analytical methods that its dynamic class.
can make it possible to obtain the information on
geochemistry and fine structural patterns of placer- The progress in placer mineralogy is largely pro-
forming minerals (Major…, 1997; Natural…, 2000). vided by the setting of nontraditional problems and
(2) The withdrawal from notions that regarded the their solution with nontrivial methods and techniques
placers as products of the primitive mechanical separa- including those adopted from adjacent fields. This
tion of clastic material by density, grain size, and stabil- statement may be illustrated by the application of rock
ity under supergene conditions. These concepts gave varnish composition to placer dating (Patyk-Kara et al.,
way to the recognition of placers as rather complex 1997; Gorelikova et al., 1999), which is widely used in
geochemical systems characterized by specific synore archeology.
and postore modifications (Shilo and Patyk-Kara,
1989). In this work, several specific cases are considered in
(3) The perception of placers as complex systems order to show how the above-listed approaches may be
with various levels of mineral field inhomogeneity con- realized in the study of (1) placer mineral assemblages
trolled by several regional and local factors (Major…, and their modification during the placer formation,
1997; Rossypnye…, 1997; Natural…, 2000). (2) primary typomorphic features of minerals as guides
(4) The complex evaluation and development of for feeding sources and placer evolution, (3) acquired
placer deposits that envisage the consideration of all typomorphic features indicating the placer formation
useful components (mineral phases and admixtures) in conditions, and (4) environmental and technological
major economic minerals (Rossypnye…, 1997). aspects of placer mineralogy.

0024-4902/01/3605-0393$25.00 © 2001 åÄIä “Nauka /Interperiodica”

394 PATYK-KARA et al.

i i
k k ≥ I(+i)
i
k>i
I
I≥k
k

k≅I
I > k >> i
(a) (b) I

1 2 3

Fig. 1. Reflected ore zonality in placer (generalized scheme). (a) Exposure of primary source on one side of valley; (b) exposure of
primary source on both sides of valley. Indices i, k, and l denote the elements of ore zonality in primary source (after Rundqvist and
Nezhenskii). (1) Present-day cutting; (2) stages of downcutting; (3) stages of accumulation.

PLACER MINERAL ASSEMBLAGES during erosion resulting in the reflected ore zonality of
AND THEIR MODIFICATION DURING placers (Patyk-Kara, 1980). The second factor pertains
THE PLACER FORMATION to the variable migration ability of minerals that gives
Placer mineral assemblages, including the associa- rise to the migration zonality of placers. Both tenden-
tions of major placer-forming minerals, are governed cies in the mineral composition variation in proximal
by the following principal factors: (a) the composition placers were discussed by A.G. Betekhtin, J. Mertie,
of provenance region as a whole; (b) the mineral com- A.G. Mochalov, V.V. Stolyarenko, and M.V. Koso-
position of primary sources; (c) the migration ability of lapova (for PGM placers), Yu.N. Trushkov, L.B. Voron-
minerals, which depends on their density, grain size, ina, T.M. Amichba, N.G. Patyk-Kara, and V.I. Shur (for
and chemical and abrasion stability and determines the Sn–W placers), N.Kun, A.M. Bolotov, S.I. Gurvich,
degree of mineral preservation during transportation and A.S. Talantsev (for rare metal placers), and
and redeposition; and (d) the dynamic characteristics of E.Ya. Sinyugina, A.E. Natalenko, and A.G. Bekker (for
transporting (solid, water, or air) medium and proper- complex gold placers).
ties of sedimentation barriers (Raeburn and Milner, Within a particular placer deposit, the variation of
1927; Baturin, 1947; Kukharenko, 1961; Momdzhi, ore mineral assemblages in the provenance–placer sys-
1960; Kochetkov, 1967; Tsymbal and Polkanov, 1975; tem may be described by models taking into account
Shilo, 1970, 1985; and others).
the spatial variability of reservoir morphology (Trush-
The influence of many factors and multivariant kov, 1972; Izbekov, 1995).
character of the system result in the complex polycom-
ponent composition of mineral assemblages in placers We adjusted the numerical imitation model pro-
and substantial complication of their genetic interpreta- posed by V.I. Klenov for the description of terraces in a
tion. It is evident that the simplest mineral assemblages downcutting valley to the assessment of reflected ore
are typical of proximal monocomponent placers of zonality (Patyk-Kara and Klenov, 1996). The evolution
gold, cassiterite, wolframite, cinnabar, etc. In this case, of river valley as a self-organizing system results in the
the main tendency consists in the modification of min- substantial complication of mineralogical zonality of
eral assemblages inherited from the primary source. placer deposits. The generalized scheme of reflected
However, even in this case, any complication of the sys- zonality in the downcutting valley that scours a zoned
tem, e.g., the rearrangement of the valley network, the source is shown in Fig. 1. This scheme developed by the
involvement of additional portions of ore material from numerical computer modeling takes into account a pos-
flanks or different levels of the deposit, the supplemen- sibility of discontinuous downcutting of valley with
tary feeding of placer by older ore-bearing sequences alternating stages of relative accumulation. The placers,
(transitional reservoir rocks) introduces an uncertainty which are formed by that time, participate in the feed-
in the quantitative interpretation of the placer mineral ing of younger placers as transitional reservoirs and
field. substantially modify the mineral assemblages. In rare
Typomorphic mineral assemblages in proximal metal placers, the reflected mineral zonality is
placers are inherited from the primary source. Their expressed in proportions of tantalite, columbite, and
variability within a deposit or placer field is controlled other rare-metal minerals. In Sn–W placers, the relative
by the mutual effect of two factors. The first and most amounts of cassiterite and wolframite are changed. In
important factor is related to the mineral composition placers of noble metals, the reflected mineral zonality is
of ore in the provenance. This composition is modified most diverse at PGM deposits (Mertie, 1976; Sto-

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

 MINERALOGY OF PLACERS 395

lyarenko, 1994; Patyk-Kara and Kosolapova, 1998; and and facies factor is less significant and revealed by the
others). MC 3 and following components.
At scales of placer fields and districts (zones), the The most ordered mineral field is typical of complex
system is governed by a greater number of factors. On distal coastal-marine placers where the lithodynamic
the one hand, the mineral assemblages are sequentially factor ranks first. The efficiency of ore-forming process
depleted in associated minerals with a relatively low is directly correlated with the dynamic sorting of min-
migration ability. This process was thoroughly studied erals by their hydraulic sizes. This allows us to state that
in diamond placers (N.V. Razumikhin, B.I. Prokop- the degree of mineral field ordering in such placers
chuk, E.G. Sochneva, N.N. Zinchuk and others). On the measured by the correlation links of minerals and the
other hand, the mineral composition of placers great contribution of MC 1 serves as an index of ore-
becomes more integral. Both tendencies may be clearly forming process efficiency (Patyk-Kara and Shevelev,
recognized using various measures of mineral assem- 2000).
blage (field) ordering. For example, integral mineral The structure of mineral field at complex coastal-
fields of tin placer fields and districts in northeastern marine placers clearly demonstrates structural patterns
Yakutia were estimated by their entropy values, which of the placer deposit and yields an additional informa-
increase with distance from feeding sources. It was tion about its origin. This may be exemplified by data
established that the lowest entropy value (<15) is typi- on the Tsentral’noe Ti–Zr deposit hosted in the Cenom-
cal of placer fields. Medium values (15–60) character- anian sand. The contribution of MC 1 (ilmenite, rutile,
ize the placer districts on the whole. The highest values and zircon) is more than 82.5%. The highest values of
of >60 are related to background areas devoid of pri- this component spatially coincide with the economic
mary mineralization and placers (Shur and Patyk-Kara, contour of deposit in the northwestern part of the placer
1983). field, which corresponds to the prodelta zone (Fig. 2).
No indications of discordant behavior of ore minerals
As is known, quite different features are typical of are observed in this part of the placer.
mineral assemblages related to complex placers of The contribution of MC 2 is approximately ~15%. It
heavy minerals, e.g., Ti–Zr placers (Zherdeva and Abu- demonstrates individual patterns of the distribution of
levich, 1964; Tsymbal and Polkanov, 1975). The tran- particular minerals, namely the antagonistic behavior
sition from local areas to integral basins results in the of ilmenite relative to the rutile + zircon pair. The spa-
further integration of mineral assemblages. Kheraskov tial pattern of this component is substantially distinct:
et al. (1960) were the first who called attention to this the elevated values are confined to the littoral zone
problem in connection with rare metal placers that are where two belts of relatively high values of MC 2 are
distinguished by not only the development of multi- traced in the northeastern direction in agreement with
component composition but also the formation of com- orientation of the along-shore transportation. The
mercial deposits at all stages of ore mineral transporta- northwest-oriented depression of MC 2 presumably fits
tion from the source to final sedimentation basins. Sub- the transverse structural and sedimentation barrier,
sequently, this issue was discussed by Gurvich (1968, which is also reflected in the MC 1 field. Thus, the
1978), and Burkov and Solodov (Mestorozhdeniya…, structure of mineral field supports the following previ-
1980). In other words, the mineral assemblages in distal ously stated suggestion: the Tsentral’noe placer deposit
placers reveal the integral characteristics of provenance was formed at the boundary of prodelta and littoral
and the lithodynamics of coastal zone in sedimentation facies environments.
basin.
Researchers of the Placer Group at the Institute of PRIMARY TYPOMORPHIC FEATURES
Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, OF MINERALS AS INDICATORS
and Geochemistry (IGEM) assessed the integral min- OF PROVENANCE AND PLACER EVOLUTION
eral assemblage ordering in polymineral placers using
the major components (MC) method. This method Major and trace element compositions of minerals,
yielded an additional information on the placer origin their phase composition, physical properties, crystal
(Shevelev, 1998). As was shown for the Ichet-Yu dia- morphology, and indications of formation conditions
mond–rare metal–gold placer deposit of the Devonian are especially important for the reconstruction of prov-
age in the Middle Timan, the total contribution enance–placer system.
(“weight”) of three major components in placers, which For example, the cassiterite morphology and trace
are spatially closely related to primary sources, does element composition serve as indicators of primary
not exceed 25% (Patyk-Kara and Shevelev, 2000). source, formational affiliation, and formation depth for
Inhomogeneities of mineral field of the first and second tin placers (Evzikova, 1984; Gorelikova et al., 1994).
levels reflect rock composition variation in the prove- The habit of cassiterite crystals at hydrothermal tin
nance. The MC 1 and MC 2 components indicate the deposits varies with depth from pinacoidal-dipyramidal
contributions of metamorphic and igneous alkaline to prismatic–dipyramidal forms. Therefore, the mor-
rocks, respectively. The effect of hydrodynamic sorting phology of cassiterite grains in placer serves as rather a

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

396 PATYK-KARA et al.

A
II a II b
I I

I I

II II
max min
B
Rel. value
max II MC 1 (IIm + Ru + Zr) II

(IIm/Ru + Zr)
MC 2

min
max I MC 1 (IIm + Ru + Zr) I

(IIm/Ru + Zr)
MC 2
min

Fig. 2. Distribution of major components (MC) within the Tsentral’noe Ti–Zr placer deposit and variation of MC “weights” along
profiles I–I and II–II; (A-a) MC 1; (A-b) MC 2.

reliable guide of primary source and its erosion depth. suggest that the primary source of tin placers was a
The important genetic information may also be large polygenous cassiterite deposit of a considerable
deduced from the prevailing habit, crystal elongation, vertical extent (Fig. 3). The erosion level presumably
mineral zonality, presence of phantom crystals, and corresponded to the upper and middle levels of ore col-
character of cassiterite twinning. In combination with umn.
other geological data, these features allow judging on
the size of primary and placer mineralization. The variation of geochemical characteristics of cas-
siterite from placers was studied with the statistical pro-
The investigation of such kind was carried out for cessing of trace element contents (Shcheka et al., 1987;
the evaluation of placers in the northern Lyakhovsky Gorelikova et al., 1992). Using the factor analysis, it
Islands tin-bearing district on the shelf of the eastern was established that the cassiterite from major placers
Arctic Region. It was established that the internal zon- of the northern Lyakhov district are characterized by a
ality of nonuniformly colored crystals has a typomor- stable assemblage of minor elements (Nb–Ti–V–Sc or
phic significance. The successive replacement of the Nb–Ti–V–Cr) in MC 1, indicating the genetic similar-
phantom crystals from the center to the margin clearly ity of cassiterite in all studied placers. The primary
demonstrates the morphological evolution of cassiterite source was defined as an eroded cassiterite–silicate–
during its growth. Placers in the northern Lyakhov dis- sulfide deposit (Gorelikova et al., 1992). The variation
trict contain zonal cassiterite crystals with several of trace element assemblages in cassiterite through the
phantoms and overgrown pinacoids, which exhibit a section of metalliferous sediments together with crystal
long-term evolution of the primary deposit in the prov- habit variation exhibits the mineralogical and
enance area (Gorelikova et al., 1994). These features geochemical zonality of placers and allows to recon-

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

 MINERALOGY OF PLACERS 397

W ❙
E
❙

V
❙ ❙
❙ ❙ ❙
❙ ❙
❙ ❙ ❙

❙
❙

❙
❙
❙
❙

❙
❙

❙
IV

❙
❙
II
III

1 2 3 4 5 6
❙
7 8 9 ❙ 10 II–V 11

Fig. 3. Distribution of morphological types of cassiterite crystal along longitudinal section of the placer, northern Lyakhov district.
Sn-bearing sediments: (1) Upper Pleistocene, (2) Upper Pliocene–Pleistocene, (3) Miocene, (4) Eocene–Oligocene; (5) Cretaceous
granite; (6) Jurassic sandstone and siltstone; (7) stockwork-type zone at the Beregovoe ore occurrence and orebodies; (8) fault zone;
(9) bedrock roof; (10) bedrock roof restored for older stages of placer formation; (11) types of cassiterite crystal morphology (after
N.Z. Evzikova).

struct their evolution (Fig. 4). Trace element contents in zircon from granodiorite of the northern Lyakhov dis-
cassiterites and their ratios, e.g., Nb/Sc and In/Sc, trict reveals a medium intensity of main luminescence
change in stepwise manner at unconformities that bands. Thus, the luminescence is a primary indicative
divide the multistage tin placers (Fig. 5). Such variation property of minerals in placers.
is a result of local rearrangements in the provenance– Thus, the study of indicative properties of placer-
placer system with a sequential supply of separate por- forming minerals substantially widens the genetic
tions of cassiterite with a distinct trace element compo- information on specific formation conditions of placers
sition. In other words, the pattern under discussion may and their provenances.
be interpreted as a complicated version of the reflected
ore zonality within a multistage member of metallifer-
ous sediments (cf. Fig.1). ACQUIRED TYPOMORPHIC FEATURES
Zircon is a reliable indicator of various sources for OF PLACER MINERALS AS INDICATORS
rare metal placers. As was established by the compari- OF PLACER FORMATION ENVIRONMENTS
son of zircon habit from Ti–Zr placers in Kazakhstan, Being trapped in the placer, allothigenic mineral
Timan, and Kola Peninsula, the morphology of crystals grains retain the properties inherited from provenance
clearly indicates the type of provenance. The equant
zircon crystals with a great number of vicinal faces tes-
tify to the metamorphic provenance. Zircon-type crys- Frequency 1
tals are typical of the water-deficient near-surface gra- 1.0 2
nitic intrusions and volcanic rocks, whereas the hya- 3
cinth-type crystals are inherent in epigeosynclinal 0.8
intrusive complexes (Krasnobaev, 1986). Zircons from 0.6
various primary sources also differ in luminescence,
REE content, and Zr/Hf ratio (Votyakov et al., 1993). 0.4
Several luminescence centers are recognized in X-ray
0.2
luminescence spectra, and the respective spectral char-
acteristics serve as petrogenetic indicators. The integral 0
X-ray luminescence brightness of zircon varies within –16 –8 0 8 16 20 24 32
two orders of magnitude from brightly to slightly Borehole profile no.
luminiferous grains. The luminescence centers are most
conspicuous in zircon grains from alkaline rocks Fig. 4. Distribution of geochemical cassiterite types in the
longitudinal section of the Kutta placer, northern Lyakhov
(Khibiny Pluton and Karaotkel) and are poorly devel- district. Types of cassiterite-bearing ore: (1) cassiterite–sul-
oped in zircon from metasedimentary complexes fide, (2) cassiterite–silicate, (3) cassiterite–quartz. The total
(Malyshevo and Obukhovo deposits). The accessory cassiterite type content in the sample is accepted as unity.

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

398 PATYK-KARA et al.

Content, wt %
Depth, m 5 10–4 5 10–3 5 10–2 5 10–1 5 100 5%

10
Nb/Sc In/Sc Mn Ag In Sc Nb W Ti Fe

QIII–IV

IV 20
IV
In Sc Nb
N32

III III
30
II II
N1
I I
Nb
Mn Ag In Sc
40 W

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 5. Distribution of trace elements in cassiterite across the Western placer (Borehole 256, profile 0298), northern Lyakhov district.
Lithology of sediments: (1) clay, (2) mud, (3) sand, (4) pebble, (5) rock debris, (6) ice, (7) plant remains; (8) bedrock (weathered
sandstone and siltstone); (9) erosion boundary; (10) sample location; (I–IV) unconformities separating the cassiterite-bearing
sequences of different ages.

and at the same time acquire some new features in con- rounded; i.e., crystal faces and edges are retained. At
sistence with properties of the medium where the min- the same time, R.V. Boyarskaya revealed that pore-
erals are transported and concentrated. The most wide- opening in such grains was significant and related to
spread modifications are as follows: (a) mechanical explosion, as indicated by shears at pore margins. The
crushing, grinding and rounding, forging, and rolling completely ground tubular pores were observed on
(for gold); (b) change in mineral composition owing to grain surfaces. Judging by their diameter, the thickness
oxidation and leaching of major elements and phases; of removed outer layer reached a few micrometers
and (c) mechanical and chemical transformations that (Fig. 6a). The pore opening was accompanied by
accompany the opening of pores and removal of min- removal of mineral inclusions composed of REE min-
eral inclusions and phases. In an ideal case, the in situ erals, ilmenite, rutile, titanite, dolomite(?), kaolinite
modification in weathered rocks, the alteration during group minerals, and others. This process affected the
the transportation, and the epigenetic modification can trace element composition of zircon concentrates
be recognized. Actually, results of these transforma- derived from ravine placers. In general, the above zir-
tions are not always discernible. con is depleted in REE and Ti relative to the zircon
A significant progress in this direction was provided from weathered granite (Mineralogiya…, 1992).
by modern analytical methods with a high resolution The extensive destruction of zircon grains without
including scanning electron microscopy, transmission their rounding indicates that this process started within
electron microscopy with a microdiffraction, Auger the weathering crust and simultaneously proceeded
microscopy, microprobe analysis, etc. Some results are with the source rock disintegration. It may also be
discussed below. inferred that the pore opening was provided by a mech-
The SEM investigation of zircon from the Karaotkel anism similar to “rock pressure.” Therefore, we can
Ti–Zr placer deposit in eastern Kazakhstan (Minera- revise common notions on the mechanical destruction
logiya…, 1992) revealed an apparently paradoxical dis- of placer minerals at initial stages of the migration
integration of mineral grains during the weathering and cycle.
initial transportation. Zircon grains from ravine placers The microtopography of allothigenic grain surfaces
within the feeding granitic massif are practically non- is a very informative indicator for the estimation of

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

 MINERALOGY OF PLACERS 399

(a) (b)
B

(a) 50 µm (b) 200 µm

C

(a) (b) 5 µm

Fig. 6. Surface features acquired by allothigenic minerals during the recovery, transportation, and deposition (SEM data).
(A) Destruction of zircon in ravine placer: (a) opening of tubular pores over the entire surface of crystal, (b) scalloped microrelief
of surface near pores (Karaotkel Ti–Zr placer); (B) microtopography of grain surface: (a) drag grooves in water, (b) pitty relief of
quartz grains (Tsentral’noe Ti–Zr deposit); (C) dull surface of zircon grains: (a) with pitty relief, (b) taken from the Ichet-Yu placer
in the Middle Timan region.

their transportation conditions. The elucidation of gen- As is known from literature, indications of the
esis of Quaternary sediments was formerly based on mechanical reworking are most conspicuous on the sur-
such indicators (Margolis, 1968; Krinsley and face of chemically resistant minerals, e.g., quartz and
Doornkamp, 1973; Pye, 1984; and others). We applied zircon. Ilmenite, garnet, and other minerals with a
this method to reconstruct environments of the fossil lower chemical stability bear the signs of dissolution
placer formation. and corrosion, the rate of which depends on the trans-

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

400 PATYK-KARA et al.

Distribution of quartz grains with signs of eolian origin in the The study of microtopography of zircon and quartz
vertical section of the Tsentral’noe placer deposit grains from the sand of the Tsentral’noe Ti–Zr deposit
in the Tambov region, Russia showed that two types of
Grains with eolian
Sample no. and age Number of samples
relief
microrelief are recognized for quartz and zircon grains
in the ore sand. The surface of type 1 grains is crosscut
7 (Snt) 1800 20/1.1 by narrow drag grooves, which are formed in modern
8 (Snt-Cm) 1800 87/4.8 sediments owing to grain transport by water (Fig. 6B-a).
Type 2 grains are distinguished by a dull surface with
1 (Cm) 1900 297/15.6 numerous small pits (upturned plates) developed dur-
3 (Cm) 1700 67/3.3 ing collision of grains in the air. The presence of grains
4 (Cm) 1700 15/0.8 of stable allothigenic minerals with such surfaces indi-
4a (Cm) 1800 4/0.2 cate the eolian reworking of fossil placers (Fig. 6B-b).
5 (Cm) 1800 10/0.5 Zircon and quartz grains with indications of eolian
6 (Cm) 1800 3/0.17 reworking are regularly distributed in vertical section of
the studied paleoplacer. According to Bardeeva (1999),
Samples are listed downsection; (Snt) Santonian, (Cm) Cenoma- they are extremely rare in the lower part of the Cenom-
nian; numerator is number of grains, denominator is the grain per- anian placer but abundant (15–20%) in the upper part,
centage.
which is considered a paleodune complex (table).
The same criterion was also applied to older placers
porting medium. Corroded faces of garnet and ilmenite that underwent a substantial epigenetic alteration,
were described by Mallik (1986) and S. Babu who stud- which affected most placer-forming minerals, e.g., the
ied modern coastal-marine placers in Kerala, India Devonian Ichet-Yu placer in the Middle Timan region.
(Mineralogiya…, 1992). The origin of this placer, in particular, its eolian genesis
still remains a material of debate. Most minerals in this
diamond–rare metal–gold placer were affected by a sig-
nificant epigenetic alteration. The clastic quartz was
entirely regenerated and has a pseudoblastic appear-
ance. Gold grains are also strongly recrystallized and
overgrown by a newly formed quartz. Zircon, modified
to the least degree, is mostly represented by perfectly
rounded ellipsoidal and spherical grains with upturned
plates (Fig. 6C). The surface morphology was probably
formed as a result of rewinnowing of proluvial placers
halite devoid of vegetation cover (Patyk-Kara et al., 1994).
Alien inclusions in fractures and pores of primary
minerals, e.g., halite crystals or microfossil fragments
(foraminifera, etc.) (Fig. 7) also may indicate the envi-
ronment where the paleoplacer was formed.
(a) Epigenetic modifications of minerals in placers are
diverse and depend on properties of the mineral, the
character of superimposed physicochemical processes,
and the age of placer. The most contrasting modifica-
tion is typical of ancient, mostly Paleozoic placers, in
particular, their lithified varieties. If the metamor-
phosed placers with completely replaced primary min-
erals, e.g., Riphean rutile and rutile–hematite placers in
the southern Urals as counterparts of the younger
ilmenite and titanomagnetite placers are ruled out, then
the Devonian placers of the Middle Timan region may
serve as a typical case. As was noticed by many
researchers, the specific features of Middle Timan plac-
ers were caused by an epigenetic alteration related to
hydrocarbon emanations. Kalyuzhnyi (1982) has
(b) shown that the practically monomineral leucoxene
composition of the Yarega placer is a result of advanced
Fig. 7. Inclusions in pores and fractures of detrital minerals alteration of initial titanium minerals (ilmenite and
from the Obukhovo Ti–Zr deposit, northern Kazakhstan: titanite) from Riphean metapelites induced by a spe-
(a) halite, (b) microfossil. cific water–gas–oil medium presumably in the late Per-

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

 MINERALOGY OF PLACERS 401

100 µm 100 µm
(a) (b)

10 µm
(c)

(d) (e)

Fig. 8. Epigenetic alteration of minerals in the Ichet-Yu diamond–rare metal–gold placer, Middle Timan. (a) Etching figures on the
surface of a rounded garnet grain; corrosion texture of rutile–anatase pseudomorphs after ilmenite: (b) entire grain, (c) closeup of
(b); regeneration of rounded gold grains: (d) rounded “older” gold with a cocarde overgrowth of “younger” gold, (e) crustification
texture in the “older” gold overgrowth.

mian or early Triassic. The influence of hydrocarbon of new minerals. Primary rounded grains of
emanation is traced in other placers of the Middle allothigenic quartz are commonly strongly regenerated
Timan region; e.g., thin kerite interlayers and coatings and overgrown by regeneration rims with the formation
are abundant in the ore layer of the Ichet-Yu placer. The of a specific scalloped surface. The agglomeration of
carbonaceous material forms lenticular clots and aggre- quartz grains and recrystallization of cement resulted in
gates along with newly formed quartz and layered sili- the pseudoblastic appearance of sandstone. Microinclu-
cates indicating that the solid bitumen had been depos- sions of authigenic minerals are observed at the bound-
ited before the termination of quartz crystallization. aries between primary clasts and regeneration rims.
Placer-forming minerals bear signs of intense epige- Euhedral dipyramidal quartz crystals are formed as a
netic alterations at the postmineral stage including the result of recrystallization. Bitumen segregations are
corrosion and replacement textures and the formation detected in outer zones of newly formed quartz crystals.

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

402 PATYK-KARA et al.

The presence of crystalline inclusions (Ti–Nb–Mn predetermines the leading role of mineral properties,
phase and others) testifies to the epigenetic migration such as grain size and morphology, density, presence of
and redistribution of Ti, Nb, and Mn. Ilmenite is com- intergrowths, and other characteristics, that define the
pletely replaced by rutile, anatase, and brookite (Fig. boundary conditions of transfer and concentration of
8a). These minerals replace the rounded grains after the ore components in water flow. This phenomenon was
formation of ore layer. Several types of leucoxene described by N.V. Razumikhin, N.A. Shilo, Yu.V. Shu-
pseudomorphs after ilmenite indicate that the latter milov, E.I. Tishchenko, B.S. Lunev, Yu.A. Polkanov,
mineral was sequentially replaced by rutile, rutile + Yu.N. Bragin, and others. The chemical composition of
anatase, and brookite. The rutile–anatase pseudomor- ore minerals, including the contents of valuable and
phs, most stable in the supergene zone, are transformed adverse components, also remains important.
into rutile–brookite aggregates with brown euhedral
In addition, the new properties of mineral gained in
brookite crystals enriched in Nb, Mn, and Th.
the process of weathering, transportation, and existence
Well-rounded garnet grains also bear the signs of within the placer are of particular significance. For
intensive etching (Fig. 8b). In some cases, the nature of example, gems and piezoquartz are refined during the
etching traces on garnet crystals remains debatable and destruction of defective crystals in the weathering crust
one cannot be confident whether or not the etching and alluvium; the amber is upgraded due to the forma-
reflects processes in the weathering crust prior to the tion of free succinic acid in the marine environment. As
placer formation. Generally, the etched rounded garnet was mentioned above, zircon in placers can loose a cer-
grains serve as unequivocal evidence for epigenetic tain portion of trace elements contained in inclusions
alteration. during the opening of pores. In the weathering crust and
The studied placer also reveals a considerable alter- especially in placers, ilmenite is progressively enriched
ation of gold, which readily responds to the conditions TiO2. Consequently, the magnetic susceptibilityof
of placer formation (Nikolaeva, 1968; Yablokova, ilmenite decreases, and the technology of ilmenite con-
1972; Boyle, 1979; DiLibio et al., 1988). In the Ichet- centrate dressing is complicated (data of M.G. Dyat-
Yu placer, strongly reworked tabular, flaky, and disk- chenko, Yu.A. Polkanov, L.B. Zubkov, and others). One
shaped gold grains of ancient appearance are often can distinguish different stages of this process in Ti–Zr
flared out along margins and rimmed by a newly placers, such as the ilmenite alteration in the weather-
formed highly pure gold having a fibrous structure ing crust and the superimposed processes in placers. It
(Nikiforova et al., 1991; Mineralogiya…, 1997). The was noted that ilmenite concentrates from upper parts
gold underwent deep corrosion and agglomeration. The of ancient Ti–Zr placers, which were subject to rewin-
redistribution and partial removal of Ag resulted in the nowing and weathering, are markedly enriched in TiO2
increase in fineness up to 950–970. The outer rims are (75–84%) in comparison with concentrates from under-
often enriched in Ag (Fig. 8c). Traces of Fe, Ti, Mn, and lying beds (~65% TiO2). In particular, such difference
Si in outer zones of gold grains indicate the removal was recorded for the Trail Ridge placer on the Atlantic
and redistribution of ore elements at the late stage. coast of the United States (Force and Rich, 1989).
Nikiforova and Filippov (1990) suggested that the Finally, the increase in gold fineness and possible for-
intricate features of gold grains, such as cloddy shape, mation of nuggets in placers should be noted.
pitted surface, and ingrowths of rounded quartz grains, The currently applied complicated procedure of
are secondary properties related to the subsequent concentrating flowsheets for placers with the introduc-
lithostatic pressure. Based on experimental data these tion of crushing, flotation, and leaching expands the
authors concluded that the above-described forms of field of technological mineralogy to a much greater
gold grains are produced as a result of the placer sub- extent. Ecological problems, which arise in the process,
sidence down to a depth of approximately 0.8 km. become especially acute during the mining of placers
Thus the mineralogical studies indicate an intense within national parks, reserve areas, and fisheries. We
low-temperature alteration of Devonian fossil placers at came up against such problem during the evaluation of
the epigenetic stage. This process affected all clastic beach placers of heavy minerals on the Terskii coast of
minerals and induced the redistribution of Ti, Nb, Fe, the White Sea (Patyk-Kara and Gorelikova, 1996).
Mn, Ag, Si, Al, Zn, Th, Mg, K, and Na. New mineralogical tasks are related to the reevalua-
tion of technogenic placers and tailings, which are
close to technogenic placers in their formation mecha-
ENVIRONMENTAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL
nisms. The processes therein are not limited by a simple
ASPECTS OF PLACER MINERALOGY
recovery of useful minerals from pebbles, intergrowths,
Traditional objectives of technological mineralogy and clay pellets. As was recently shown (Major…,
are focused on the achievement of the maximum recov- 1997; Natural…, 2000), many technogenic placers are
ery and use of mined raw materials and the overall uti- represented by mineral lodes that compositionally dif-
lization of waste (Ginzburg et al., 1981; Izoitko, 1993). fer from source deposits. They are characterized by
As applied to placers, these objectives acquire a spe- specific distribution of valuable components both in
cific meaning. The prevalence of gravity separation vertical and lateral directions, occasional unusual seg-

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 36 No. 5 2001

 MINERALOGY OF PLACERS 403

regations, and specific contrasting physicochemical material during the evolution of this system. Statistical,
processes inducing the migration and redistribution of correlation, and imitation models are used in order to
ore material. reveal the levels with most significant abrupt changes
Special mineralogical problems arise in relation to that indicate the rearrangements in the provenance–
the mining of technogenic placer deposits enriched in placer system.
fine metallic clastics. It has been found that noble met- The concept of placer-forming barriers, which
als are contained in tailings largely in the free state, and change the conditions of mineral migration and con-
the main cause of their loss is pertained to imperfect strain the concentration regions for minerals of diverse
concentration technology (Amosov and Parii, 2000). In nature and migration ability, is important for the setting
this connection, physicochemical processes in the tech- and solution of problems related to placer mineralogy.
nogenic placers and newly formed mineral species The application of this approach to the interpreta-
attract considerable interest. Taking this into account, tion of statistical models describing the multidimen-
we began the research of technogenic Au bearing plac- sional space of placers is helpful for the elucidation of
ers in the Amur region. The study of primary gold con- their internal structure and characterization of control-
centrate from the alluvial technogenic placer of the ling factors. This approach is especially effective for
Burgali River in the Skovorodino district showed that heavy mineral placers with a complex multilevel distri-
the amalgamation yields not only pure metal but also bution of economic components.
intermetallic compounds of Au and Sn, and there is no The rigorous classification of typomorphic mineral
way to recover the pure metal from such compounds. assemblages and features, which were inherited from
The SEM investigation of morphology and microto- primary sources or acquired during the recovery, trans-
pography of gold grains from technogenic placers portation, and deposition in placers, is important both
revealed indications of recrystallization, dissolution, for the prospecting of primary deposits using the plac-
agglomeration, and redistribution of Au and Ag. This ers as guides and for the reliable reconstruction of
process is not steady and results in a wide scattering of placer formation environments. The evaluation of plac-
Au, Ag, and Hg contents in various grains. Grains with ers also requires such classification.
a specific internal structure of biogenic gold previously At the present time, the placers are regarded as
described by Amosov and Vasin (1993) also were objects with a complex geochemistry. They are the sites
found. Aggregates with a cribrate structure, which was where the gravity separation of relatively heavy and
suggested by Amosov to be a result of lithification of resistant clastic minerals is combined with processes
muciferous trichome shells by gold, are most typical. that alter physical and chemical properties of useful
Biogenic gold grains are enriched in Hg and locally in minerals and their hosts. Such alteration affects the
organic material. This feature is typical of gold micro- quality of the ore, its dressability, and possible fields of
fossils as well. The occurrence of biogenic gold in plac- utilization.
ers indicates that microorganisms take part in the depo-
sition and redistribution of gold. However, their contri-
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