Chapter 4 ATM and Wireless Networks

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• ATM suitable for both Constant bit rate (CBR) and Variable Bit rate (VBR) traffic.
• In this chapter ATM layered architecture , the addressing and routing standards,
and the formats for different services.
• ATM networks provide end-to-end transfer or fixed size packet or cells over a
virtual circuit and with specified (in terms of delay, speed, and error rate).
• Main features of ATM : Four features of ATM:
• 1. The service is connection-oriented , with data transferred over a virtual
circuit (VC).
• 2.The data is transferred in 53 byte packet called cells;
• 3.cells form different VCs that occupy the same channel or links are
statistically multiplexed;
• 4.ATM swathe may treat the cell streams in different VC connections
unequally over the same channel in order to provide different qualities of
service (QoS).
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM is bearer service and not a bit way in terms of Open Data Network Model.
• ATM – Connection –oriented Service :

Figure 4.1 In virtual circuit transport , the cells of a given

connection follow the same path in the network.

• In connection –oriented service over a virtual circuit , the data stream from origin to
destination follows the same path.
• Data from different connections is distinguished by means of Virtual path identifier
(VPI) and virtual circuit identifier (VCI)
• A connections over a virtual circuits is called a virtual channel in the ATM
terminology..
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• VPI / VCI is much smaller than the length of a full source / destination address
needed in a datagram service.
• Disadvantage of connection- oriented in ATM:
• 1. Network must incur the overhead of connection set up even only a few cells
are to be transferred, which could be done more efficiently by a datagram service.
• 2. a link or node failure terminates the virtual channel, where such failure affects
only a few packets in a datagram network.
• ATM forum –specifies FIVE categories of services :
A. constant bit rate (CBR)
B. Variable bit rate – real time (VBR –RT)
C. Variable bit rate – non –real time (VBR –NRT)
D. Available bit rate (ABR)
E. Unspecified bit rate (UBR)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Generalized cell rate algorithm (CGRA):
The parameters of the traffic are defined by an algorithm – called the CGRA – that
controls arrival times of cells.
Parameters are following :
Peak cell rate (PCR)
Sustained cell rate (SCR)
Initial delay variation tolerance (CDVT)
Burst tolerance (BT)
Minimum cell rate (MCR)
The qualities of service (QoS) parameters (attributes ) are the following :
Cell loss ratio ( CLR)
Cell delay variation (CDV)
Peak –to –peak cell delay variation ( peak –to-peak CDV)
Maximum cell transfer delay (Max CTD)
Mean cell transfer delay (Mean CTD)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• The service categories specify the traffic and QoS according to Table 4.1

Table 4.1 ATM service classes and applicable parameters

 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• The ATM cell encounters FIVE types delay which is shown in figure 4.2:
• 1. packetization delay (PD ) at the source
• 2.transmissison and propagation delay (TD)
• 3.Queuing delay (QD) at each switch
• 4. a fixed processing delay (FD) at each switch
• 5. a jitter compensation or depacketization delay (DD) at the destination.

Figure 4.2 Five types of delays are encountered by

ATM cells. The table gives typical values of these
delays for a voice conversation.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
- The figure 4.3 shows an example of , if the links transmissions speed is 155 Mbps , the
speed of a SONET STS-3 signal , and a cell contains 53 x 8 = 424 bits, this unit of time is
424 / 155 = 2.74 µs.

Figure 4.3 In an output buffer switch, the cells that

arrive into a buffer are a subset of the cell streams
at the input lines of the switch.

The output buffer is modelled as an M/D/1 queue , with service rate equal to one cell per
unit time.
The average number of cells in the buffer is given by
N = 2ρ - 𝝆𝟐 / 2 (1- ρ)’
-Where ρ is the traffic intensity or load or average link utilization ( a Poisson process with
rate ρ per unit of time ).
-The Queuing analysis – ATM Switch – is as tutorial (in black board)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Addressing , Signaling and Routing :
• ATM Addressing :
• ATM forum has defined ATM addressing.
• ATM indicates the location of an ATM interface in the network topology
• This means that ATM addresses are not portable.
• The prefix address is associated with a group of interfaces with the same prefix.
• Prefixes are used in call routing tables.
• Each ATM system is assigned an address independent of the higher protocol
address (such as IP address) that the system supports.
• The decoupling afforded by the overlay model allow the higher –level protocols to
be developed independently of the ATM protocols.
• Hence all protocols operating over an ATM subnet require an adders resolution
protocols that maps the higher protocol address in the corresponding ATM
address.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Signalling and routing :
• An ATM networking consists of ATM switches connected by point-to-point links or
interfaces.
• ATM forum specifies several interfaces as seen in figure 4.4.
• The two important are the user –network interface or UNI and network –network
interface or NNI.
• A UNI connects ATM end systems (hosts, routers), and NNI connect two ATM switches.
• PNNI routing – Private Network-Network Interface.

Figure 4.4 UNI is the interface between an ATM end

system and an ATM switch, NNI is the interface
between two ATM switches , and FUNI is the frame
interface between a non-ATM end system and an
ATM switch.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM head structure :
• The figure 4.5 shows the ATM header structure for both UNI and NNI.
• The abbreviations used in the figure are ;
• GFC - General flow control
• VPI - Virtual path identifier
• VCI – Virtual channel identifier
• PT – Payload type
• CLP – Cell loss priority
• HEC- Header error control

Figure 4.5 The figure shows the headers of ATM

cells across a UNI and across the NNI
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• VCI and VPI :
• Virtual channels together as a group .
• Suppose , for example , as shown in figure 4.6, that a user wishes to establish
three virtual channels from A to B

Figure 4.6 A virtual path is a group channels that the network routes together
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• VCI and VPI :
• Make to give these channels the same path and permit the user to assign
VCIs to channel arbitrarily.
• This is the function of VPI.
• The virtual channels with the same VPI form a group.
• They are assigned the same path and are switched together , that is
routing and switching decisions are based only on the VPI.
• The bandwidth and buffer resources allocated to a VPI may be assigned
statistically and shared only by virtual channels with that VPI.
• This use of VPIs permits the creation of Virtual private networks : a multi
location firm can rent several paths to form its own private network
whose resources are then shared by its virtual channels.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM adaptation Layer :
• As shown on Figure 4.7 , the network converts the information stream into a
stream of 48-byte data cells.
• This conversation performed by the ATM adaptation layer or AAL.

Figure 4.7 the ATM adaptation layer (AAL) converts

the information stream into 48-byte cells.
The AAL is decomposed into the convergence
sublayer and the segmentation / reassembly
sublayer
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM adaptation Layer :
• AAL is divided in to two sublayers:
• CS or convergence sublayer and SAR or segmentation and reassembly
sublayer.
• CS converts the information stream into four types packet streams, called AAL
Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 / 4 and Type 5.
• The packets formats match constant bit rate-real time, variable bit rate – real
time , connection –oriented packet streams ,datagrams and IP packets, as
indicated in table 4.1.
• Five AAL types of packets are originally envisioned.
• AAL Type 2 was recently specified for use in narrowband services.
• The individual packets are called SDUs ( service data units)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM – Management and Control :
• Important feature of ATM is that a number of management and control
decisions to discriminate among connections and to provide the variety of
QoS .
• The decisions are divided into three groups.
• When a request is made for a connection of particular QoS, the network
determine whether to accept or reject the request, depending on the
resources than available.
• (recall the three set of parameters : delay , cell loss, and source of traffic rate).
• The network monitor the data transfer, also conforms to QoS specifications
and to drop its cells as appropriate , This is called traffic policing.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM – Management and Control :
• The network uses operation and maintenance information flows for the
following functions :
Fault management
Traffic and congestion control
Network status monitoring and configurations, and
User / network signalling.
• These functions , like other network functions, are organized into layers
called the BISDN reference model.
• Figure 4. 8 shows the layer arrangement of all network functions, including
those of operation and management.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM – Management and Control :
• User plane comprises the function functions required for the transmission of
user information.
• For instance, for an internet protocol over ATM, these layer could be HTTP/TCP
/IP /AAL5

Figure 4.8 The BISDN model layer arrangement of network functions, including the operation and management functions.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM – Management and Control :
• Control plane are the functions needed to set up, supervise, and release a
virtual connection.
• These functions, implemented by signalling protocols such as PNNI, are
needed only for switched virtual connections and are absent in a network that
implements only permanent virtual connections.
• Layer management plane : contains management functions specific to
individual layers.
• Layer management also handles the operations and maintenance flows
specific to each layer. The protocols used for these functions include ILMI and
SNMP.
• Plane management consists of the functions that supervise the operations of
the whole network.
• Plane management has no layered structure.
 BISDN
• The ATM bearer service is the transport of cells with a variety of quality of
service.
• In this topic , how the ATM bearer service in turn implemented using SONET
networks.
• The results is an implementation of a Broadband Services Digital Networks ,or
ISDN.
• Figure 4.8 illustrates the BISDN reference model.

Figure 4.9 BISDN over STS-3C SONET frames

 BISDN
• The standard specifies both transport and physical layers.
• The Physical Layer standard has been specified for SONET STS-12C (622.08
Mbps) and STS -3C (155.52 Mbps) signals and for DS (44.736 Mbps) signals.
• We illustrate the ideas for STC-3C, the STS-3C frame shown in figure 4.9 is
arranged in a 9 x 270 byte matrix.
• The first nine columns are developed to section and line over head
(SOH,LOH).
• This leaves 9x261 bytes, of which one column is devoted to path
overhead(POH).
• The resulting 9 x 260 byte SPE (synchronous payload envelope) contains
consecutively arranged 530 byte ATM Cells.
 BISDN

• The most important future of this frame structure are the following.
• The ATM bit rate is 155.52 x 260 / 270 = 149.76 Mbps.
• The 9 x 260 = 2,340 byte SPE holds about 44.15 53-byte ATM cells.
• Thus ATM contributions bear no relationship to the SPE or STS -3C frame
boundaries.
• If the transport layer does not provide a sufficient number of ATM cells ,
the physical layer inserts idle ATM cells in the frame , which are removed by
the physical layer at the destinations.
• SONET traffic generally, the SPE is not aligned with the STS -3C frame.
• The SPE is obtained from the AU -4 pointer in the LOH.
• BISDN is a product of telephone –centric view of networking.
 BISDN – Internetworking with ATM
• An ATM network can be used to carry internetwork traffic.
• ATM network can be used to interconnect various LANs or IP subnetworks.

• It can be internetworked with ATM as follows.

Multiprotocol Encapsulation Over AAL 5

LAN Emulation (LANE) over ATM
IP over ATM : - Classical IP, Multicast IP over ATM
 Multiprotocol Over ATM (MPOA)
FR and SMDS over ATM
 BISDN – Internetworking with ATM
For a case described the diagram of LAN emulation (LANE) over ATM as shown in figure 4.10

Figure 4.10 A LAN emulation is inserted between the network layer and the AAL layer in ATM nodes
 Wireless Networks
• Future wireless networks will enable to move communicate with anyone ,
anywhere, at any time , using a range of multimedia services.
• Cellular systems exploit the fact that the power of a transmitted signal falls off
with distance, so the same frequency channel can be allocated to users at
spatially separate locations with minimal interference.
• A cellular system divides the geographical area into adjacent, non
overlapping “cells”
• Cells assigned the same channel set are spaced apart so the interference
between them is small.
• Base station : Each cell has a centralized transmitter and receiver called Base
station, communicates with the mobile units in the cell , both for control
purpose and as a call relay.
• MTSO : All base stations have hifh – bandwidth connections to a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO), which itself connect to public-switched
telephone networks (PSTN)
 Wireless Networks

Figure 4.11 Wireless applications , systems, and coverage regions :

Growth of wireless communication services ;
Performance gap between wireless and wired networks
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel
• Wireless radio channel is a difficult mechanism, susceptible to noise, interference,
blockage , and multipath, and these channel impediments change over time
because of user movement.
• Radio waves in the UHF and SHF frequency bands , occupy 0.3 to 3-GHz and 3 – to-
30 GHz portions of the spectrum.
• Most terrestrial mobile use UHF band, satellite typically operate SHF band.
• At these frequencies the earth curvature and the ionosphere do not affect signal
propagation. Figure 4.12 depicts a typical situation.
• The transmitted signal has a direct path component between the transmitter and
the receiver that is attenuated or obstructed.
• Other component of the transmitted signal, referred to as multipath components,
are reflected, scattered, or diffracted by surrounding objects and arrive at the
receiver shifted in amplitude, phase , and time relative to the direct-path signal.
• The received signal may interference from other users in the same frequency band.
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel
• Based on the model the wireless channel has four main
characteristics : path loss, shadowing, multipath and interference.

Figure 4.12 Wireless propagation scenario : the received signal has a direct-path
component which may be attenuated or blocked , and other reflected components.
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel
Path loss (PL)
• PL is the ratio of received power to the transmitted power for a given
propagation path and is a function of propagation distance.
• Free – space is the simplest propagation model for path loss.
• In this model , a direct signal component between the transmitter and the
receiver , with no attenuating objects or multipath reflections.
• If PR is the received signal power and PT is the transmitted power , then the
free-space propagation,

• Where f is the carrier frequency , d is the propagation distance , G is the

power gain from the transmit and receive antennas , and α = 2.
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel
• Multipath Flat-Fading and ISI :
• Multipath causes two significant channel impairments : flat-fading and ISI.
• Flat-fading describes the rapid fluctuations of the received signal power over short
time periods or over short distances .
• Such fading is caused by the interference between different multipath signal
components that arrive at the the receiver at different times and hence are
constructive and destructive interference,.
• This constructive and destructive interferences generates a standing wave pattern
of the received signal power relative to distance or , for a moving receiver, relative
time.
• Figure 4.13 shows a plot of the fading exhibited by the received signal power in Db
as a function of time or distance.
• Figure 4.14 describes the combination of path loss, shadowing, and flat-fading is
shown.
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel

Figure 4.14 received signal power with path loss,

Figure 4.13 Signal fading over time and distance shadow fading, and flat-fading.
 Wireless Networks – Wireless channel
• Additionally following issues are noted :
• Doppler frequency shift :
• Relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver causes a shift in the frequency of the transmitted
signal called Doppler shift.
• The Doppler shift is given by Fd = ᴠ /λ , where ᴠ is the relative velocity between the transmitter and the
receiver and λ is the wavelength of the transmitted signal
• Interference :
• Interference in wireless systems include adjacent channel interference , caused by signals in adjacent
channels with signal components outside their allocated frequency range, and narrowband interference ,
caused by users in other systems operating in the same frequency band.
• Interference Versus radio : two forms of Infrared (IR) transmissions : directive and non-directive.
• Infrared region more advantage over radio.
• ISI is a major problem (IR and Radio)
• Capacity limits of wireless channels
• For a channel without shadowing, fading , or ISI , Shannon proved the maximum possible data rate on a
given channel of bandwidth B is
R = B Log 2 ( 1 + SNR) bps Where R is data rate SNR is Singal –to-Noise Ratio
Wireless Networks – Link Level Design , Channel
Access Network Design

As a research approach and case study of

Wireless LAN (WLAN design)