Environment International 30 (2004) 501 – 507

www.elsevier.com/locate/envint

Naturally occurring thallium: a hidden geoenvironmental health hazard?

Tangfu Xiao a,b,*, Jayanta Guha b, Dan Boyle c,1, Cong-Qiang Liu a, Baoshan Zheng a,
Graham C. Wilson d, Alain Rouleau b, Jingan Chen a
a
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China
b
Sciences de la Terre/Centre d’Études sur les Ressources Minérales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada G7H 2B1
c
Division of Applied Geochemistry, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada K1A 0E8
d
Turnstone Geological Services Limited, PO Box 130, Station ‘‘B,’’ Toronto, Canada M5T 2T3
Received 15 July 2003; accepted 13 October 2003

Abstract

This paper illustrates a real environmental concern and draws attention to the fact that natural processes can mobilize thallium (Tl), a
highly toxic metal, which may enter the food chain as a ‘‘hidden health killer’’ with severe health impacts on local human population. Natural
processes may be exacerbated by human activities such as mining and farming, and may cause enrichment of Tl in the environment. In
geochemically anomalous areas with concentrated levels of Tl in the surface environment (bedrocks, waters, soils, and crops), such as the
Lanmuchang area in southwestern Guizhou Province, China, it is essential to establish base-level values and to pay heed to the geological
context of ‘‘natural contamination,’’ as high concentrations of Tl in bedrocks/ores (6 – 35,000 mg/kg) can lead to enrichment of Tl in the
aquatic system (0.005 – 1100 Ag/l in groundwaters and 0.07 – 31 Ag/l in surface waters) and soil layers (1.5 – 124 mg/kg). In sensitive areas
such as the Yanshang area of southwestern Guizhou, elevated natural levels of Tl from bedrocks may also cause higher concentrations of Tl
in the surface environment, and thus more attention must be paid to geoenvironmental management of human activities if socio-economic
catastrophes are to be avoided. Due to high uptake of Tl by crops, Tl can be transferred from soils to crops and remarkably concentrated in
food crops. Concentrations of 1 – 500 mg/kg Tl based on dry weight (DW) were determined in many food crops growing on Tl-contaminated
arable soils from the Lanmuchang area. The daily intake of 1.9 mg of Tl from consumed food crops was estimated for the local adult
inhabitant of Lanmuchang. Thus, Tl is regarded as a latent health hazard with potential risk of toxicity in humans within areas of ‘‘natural’’
contamination by Tl.
D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thallium; Geoenvironment; Health hazard; Contamination; Chronic poisoning; Guizhou; China

1. Introduction level data exist concerning the natural migration of toxic

metals prior to the onset of mining activities. Such data are
The fact that ‘‘nature’’ contributes to pollution is often essential if the impact of pollution related to metal disper-
overlooked or ignored when searching for the source of sion induced by human activities is to be adequately
problems involving metal pollution. Human activities can measured. This involves the concept of geoenvironment.
accelerate natural processes. Thus, mining operations in The term geoenvironment is defined here as a geoscien-
sensitive areas can generate toxic pollution, by either the tific regime, which can play a role, in conjunction with other
liberation of natural elements within the rocks, or by parameters [such as mineral resources, soil, topography,
addition of artificial compounds such as cyanide leachates (sub)surface water, crops, socio-economic development,
or hydrocarbons. To provide reliable identification of the etc.], in defining environmental impacts (Guha, 2003).
cause of pollution, it is important to ask what kinds of base- These impacts can be chemical or physical, and they will
greatly influence the choice of parameters required to make
a clear diagnosis of assessment criteria needed for proper
* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Environmental management.
Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Guiyang 550002, China. Tel.: +86-851-888-1768; fax: +86-851-589-1609.
The scientific and medical literature documents negative
E-mail address: tfxiao@mail.gyig.ac.cn (T. Xiao). effects of numerous mildly to highly toxic metals on human
1
Deceased. health (Christensen, 1995; Nixon and Moyer, 1996; Janssen

0160-4120/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.10.004
502 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507

et al., 2003). Thallium (Tl)’s role as a toxic health threat, mining activities as the cause (Zhou and Liu 1985; Zhang et
which mainly affects the central nervous system, causes al., 1998). High Tl concentrations in drinking water were
visual disorders (with failing eyesight or total blindness), found to be the principal cause of Tl poisoning. In the early
hair loss, and even death, and has been investigated exten- 1990s, the drinking water problem was resolved by piping
sively (Feldman and Levisohn, 1993; Meggs et al., 1994) Tl-free groundwater from outside areas, yet high quantities
but mostly within the context of industrial pollution of Tl (153 –2668 Ag/l) are still being detected in urines of
(Dolgner et al., 1983; Wells, 2001). Nevertheless, numerous the local population (Xiao, unpublished data). Thus, a
studies show the presence of Tl in ore deposits, rocks, soils, further study on the health impact of Tl on the local
water, and plants. Kuroko-type volcanogenic massive sul- population is urgently needed.
phide ores are known to carry significant Tl levels, with
much of the metal hosted by pyrite (Murao and Itoh, 1992).
Arsenical gold deposits may also display a Tl-enriched 2. Materials and methods
signature (Percival and Radtke, 1993), as may some Mis-
sissippi Valley-type Pb– Zn deposits (Leach et al., 1995). 2.1. Study area
Experiments with bioaccumulator plant species indicate
that, under favorable circumstances, plant tissues may The study area, centered on Lanmuchang, a small town
develop dry weight (DW) Tl contents of several tenths of with approximately 1000 inhabitants, was chosen for a pilot
1% (Leblanc et al., 1999). The importance of trace elements study for Tl’s potential impact on the environment and the
in soil for human health has been established for elements local inhabitants during both natural process and man-made
such as F, As, and Se, as well as heavy metals such as Cd, disturbance. The area presents a karstic topography, with a
Hg, and Pb (Abrahams, 2002). The analysis of Tl in soil has generally higher elevation in the northwest and lower
recently been discussed by Castle (2000). However, no elevation in the southeast. The average altitude is 1400 m
previous comprehensive study has provided evidence of above sea level, with a relative relief of 100– 200 m.
natural contamination processes of Tl that may have serious The Tl mineralization within a metallogenetic belt in the
consequences for human health. Recognition of this prob- study area is associated with either independent Tl miner-
lem prompted a comprehensive investigation in a rural area alization (e.g., the Lanmuchang Hg – Tl– As deposit), gold
with Tl – Hg – As sulfide mineralization in southwestern mineralization (e.g., the Yanshang Au deposit), or hydro-
Guizhou Province, China (Fig. 1). In this rural area, symp- carbon accumulation (the Lanmuchang coal deposits) (Fig.
toms related to thallotoxicosis were detected in the early 1). The area exhibits a karstic topography and the deposits
1960s with 200 cases of Tl poisoning, resulting in a number show some similarities to epithermal Carlin-type dissemi-
of deaths. Most of the early investigations focused on local nated Au mineralization, hosted by strata of Permian to

Fig. 1. (a) Sketch map showing the study area and (b) Geological sketch map showing the Huijiabao anticline metallogenic belt in southwest Guizhou, China.
 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507 503

Triassic age. The local history of mining for coal and Table 1
Concentrations of thallium in various sampling media from the Lanmu-
mercury dates back to more than 350 years.
chang area
A detailed description of the local geology has been
Sampling media Numbers Tl concentrations
recently reported and published (Xiao, 2001; Xiao et al,
of samples Range Mean
2003a,b). Therefore, only a brief summary is provided here.
The Lanmuchang Hg – Tl –As deposit area is underlain by Rocks/ores Sulfide ores 9 100 – 35 000 4400
Permo-Triassic sediments and overlain by Quaternary allu- (mg/kg) Coals 2 12 – 46 29
Secondary minerals 3 25 – 1100 89
vium. The exposed rocks include limestones, argillites, and
Mine wastes 3 32 – 2600 136
coal seams. Thallium enrichment is associated with sulfide Altered host rocks 6 39 – 490 124
minerals of Tl – As –Hg with a reserve of about 500 metric Outcropping rocks 6 6 – 330 39
tons of Tl (Chen, 1989; Xiao, 2001). The deposit has a long Bedrocks in 3 0.06 – 0.2 0.16
mining history for Hg and coals, and it was mined for Tl in the background area
Waters (Ag/l) Deep groundwater 5 13 – 1100 62
1990s. Thallium is also present in coals. Sporadic artisanal
Shallow 15 0.005 – 0.75 0.04
mining of coal seams is undertaken by local residents to groundwater
augment their fuel supply for domestic heating. Thallium Well water 5 0.01 – 0.38 0.2
mineralization outcrops in the hills, where it is susceptible to Background 2 < 0.005 < 0.005
weathering and dispersion by natural processes. groundwater
Stream water 12 0.09 – 31 1.8
(base-flow regime)
2.2. Sampling and analysis Stream water 12 0.07 – 4.5 1.5
(flood-flow regime)
Extensive suites of rocks (46 samples), groundwaters and Soils (mg/kg) Soils in mine area 10 40 – 124 63
surface waters (58 samples), soils (38 samples), and edible Natural slope wash 2 20 – 28 24
materials
crops (47 samples) were collected and analyzed using
Alluvial deposited 12 14 – 62 31
sampling and analytical protocols established by the Geo- soils
logical Survey of Canada (Boyle and Xiao, 2003). Care was Undisturbed natural 5 1.5 – 6.9 4.2
taken to include sampling of old mine workings, mineral- soils
ized zones, and barren host rocks, as well as control samples Background area 3 < 0.2 – 0.5 0.3
Crops (mg/kg, Green cabbage 6 15 – 495 120
remote from the influence of mineralization. When sampling
DW) Carrot 1 22 22
vegetables and cereals, a corresponding soil sample was Chili 3 0.8 – 5.3 2.9
collected for correlation purposes. To further test for natural Rice 4 1 – 5.2 1.7
dispersion processes, another known mineralized area was Chinese cabbage 9 0.87 – 5.4 1.3
chosen at Yanshang, a site 6 km from Lanmuchang, which Corn 8 0.78 – 3.1 1.3
Background area 7 0.05 – 0.35 0.27
has no known mining tradition. All samples were deter-
mined for Tl and other metals by inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) at the Geological Thallium concentrations in the Lanmuchang area range
Survey of Canada (Ottawa, for rock and water samples), from 100 to 35,000 mg/kg in sulfide ores, and from 12 to
Norwest Laboratories (Edmonton, Canada, for soils), and 46 mg/kg in coals. Secondary minerals, produced by
Activation Laboratories (Ancaster, Ontario, for crops). De- weathering, contain 25– 1100 mg/kg, with 32 –2600 mg/
tailed information on sampling and analyis procedures has kg in mine wastes. Altered host rocks contain 39 – 490 mg/
been presented recently (Xiao et al., 2003a,b,c). The min- kg Tl, with 6 –330 mg/kg in outcropping rocks. Unaltered
imum detection limit for Tl by the above methods is 0.02 country rocks from the background area, barren of metallic
mg/kg in rocks/ores, 0.005 Ag/l in waters, 0.2 mg/kg in mineralization, contain only 0.06– 0.2 mg/kg Tl (Xiao et
soils, and 0.05 mg/kg in crop samples. Analytical precision, al., 2003b).
determined by quality assurance/quality control procedures, The small karstic watershed of Lanmuchang (area about
using duplicates (at every 10th sample), reagent blanks, 3 km2) exhibits an enrichment of Tl level in groundwaters
internal standards (Rh solution) and international reference and related stream waters (Xiao et al., 2003a). This affords
samples (Ottawa 96, GBPG-1, OU-6, NBS-1663A, GSR-5, an excellent demonstration of the natural processes of Tl
CAL-5, etc.), was better than F 10%. dispersion, and the resultant impact on the local ecosystem.
The concentration of Tl in the water system decreases from
deep groundwater to stream water to shallow groundwater.
3. Results Thallium shows high levels (13 – 1100 Ag/l) in deep
groundwater within the Tl-mineralized area, decreasing
3.1. Thallium dispersion in the Lanmuchang area with distance away from the mineralized area to back-
ground levels ( < 0.005 Ag/l). The occurrence of Tl in the
The analytical data for Tl in various geological media water system is dictated by Tl mineralization, water – rock
from the Lanmuchang area are listed in Table 1. interactions, and hydrogeological conditions. Thallium
504 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507

concentrations in waters generally correlate with concen- Table 2

Concentrations of thallium in various sampling media from the Yanshang
trations of total dissolved solids, sulphate, calcium, and pH
area
values. This indicates water – rock interactions driven by
Sampling media Numbers Tl concentrations
weathering of Tl-bearing sulfides, which decreases pH
of samples Range Mean
values in groundwater, and by dissolution of limestones
enhanced by acid fluids. Thallium in stream water in both Rocks/ores Au ores 7 0.22 – 16 2.5
the base-flow regime (0.09 – 31 Ag/l) and flood-flow re- (mg/kg) Coals 4 0.3 – 8.4 3.5
Background area 3 0.06 – 0.2 0.16
gime (0.07 –4.5 Ag/l) shows higher concentrations than
Waters (Ag/l) Groundwater 7 0.006 – 0.095 0.016
those found in shallow groundwater (0.005 – 0.75 Ag/l), Soils (mg/kg) Natural soils 6 0.9 – 1.4 1.13
which serves as the stream’s source (mainly springs, dug- Crops Vegetables 9 0.07 – 1.4 0.21
well flows, and karstic cave waters). This can be, in part, (mg/kg, DW) and cereals
ascribed to Tl release into the stream through soil – water
interaction. Due to dilution effects, concentrations of Tl in
sulfide mineralization (Table 1). These values demonstrate
stream water in the flood-flow regime (mean value 1.5 Ag/
that the erosion of natural soils from the Tl-mineralized
l) are generally lower than those in the base-flow regime
area and the local mining activity are both responsible for
(mean value 1.8 Ag/l). Interestingly, Tl concentrations in
the dispersion of high Tl values in soils (Xiao et al.,
stream water in both regimes are remarkably higher (2- to
2003c).
30-fold) downstream than in upstream and midstream
Thallium concentrations in crops are species-dependent
proximity to the Tl-mineralized area (Xiao et al., 2003a).
(Xiao et al., 2003c). The enrichment of Tl in edible parts of
The marked increases of Tl concentration are likely caused
crop species decreases in the following order with regards to
by unidentified natural discharges of Tl-rich deep ground-
mean values: green cabbage>carrot>chili>rice>Chinese
water through fracture zones to the watershed downstream
cabbageicorn (Table 1). The highest level of Tl in green
of the mining area.
cabbage is up to 500 mg/kg (DW), surpassing the values of
Thallium levels in soils of the Lanmuchang area range
Tl (14 –124 mg/kg) in the soils in which the green cabbages
from 40 to 124 mg/kg in soils from the mining area, from
grow. The enrichment factor [i.e., the ratio of metal con-
20 to 28 mg/kg in natural slope wash materials, from 14
centration (DW) in crops to that in soils] for Tl in green
to 62 mg/kg in alluvial deposits downstream, from 1.5 to
cabbage is up to 1 – 10 (Fig. 2), indicating that green
6.9 mg/kg in undisturbed natural soils, and from < 0.2 to
cabbage is a high accumulator for Tl.
0.5 mg/kg in soils from the background area devoid of
3.2. Thallium dispersion in the Yanshang area

The analytical data for Tl in various geological media

from the Yanshang area are listed in Table 2.
In the Yanshang area, where the gold orebody is at a
depth of 300 – 400 m, drill core samples from the primary
gold zone show a range of Tl levels from 0.22 to 16 mg/kg,
with a mean value of 2.5 mg/kg. Natural soils from the area
contain 0.9 –1.4 mg/kg, groundwater contains 0.006– 0.095
Ag/l, and edible parts of crops contain a 0.07 –1.4 mg/kg Tl
(DW). It is important to note that the mean concentration in
soils is slightly above the Canadian guideline of 1 mg/kg
(CCME, 2003) for arable soils, and edible parts of crops are
higher than the worldwide limits of 0.03– 0.3 mg/kg (DW)
(Table 3).

Table 3
Environmentally safe limits for thallium
Tl Sources
Drinking water 2 Ag/l USEPA (2003)
Arable soils 1 mg/kg CCME (2003)
World land plants 0.008 – 1.0 Kabata-Pendias and
mg/kg (DW) Pendias (1992)
World edible plants 0.03 – 0.3 Kabata-Pendias and
mg/kg (DW) Pendias (1992)
Fig. 2. Concentrations of Tl in (a) green cabbages and (b) Chinese cabbages World average daily intake 2 Ag/day Sabbioni et al. (1984)
vs. Tl concentrations in soils. Oral reference dose 0.056 mg/day RAIS (2003)
 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507 505

4. Discussion human body through the food chain. It represents both a

significant threat to the health of the local villagers and a
4.1. Environmental implication hidden geoenvironmental hazard.

The high concentrations of naturally occurring Tl in the 4.2. Geoenvironmental management concern
Lanmuchang area, as well as lower concentrations in the
Yanshang area, show that Tl disperses into waters, soils, This study illustrates a real environmental concern
and, ultimately, crops at levels that are above the health related to land use and human health in areas containing
guidelines set by many countries (Tables 1– 3). This disper- high concentrations of Tl in soils associated with the
sion is not necessarily related to mining activities at Yan- natural occurrence of Tl-rich sulfides and coals, with or
shang; in contrast to Lanmuchang, it has seen no mining without mining activities. Thallium contamination in rocks
activity. Groundwater-related Tl transfer processes affect the and soils, and underground and surface drainage patterns
ecosystem through contamination of water supply and should be critical parameters for proper land use and
arable soil, diffusing up the food chain to pose an undoubted health-related environmental planning and regulation. This
threat to human health. research in Guizhou and earlier interesting studies have
The endemic studies of Li (1963) and Zhou and Liu identified the capacity of certain plants to superaccumulate
(1985) indicated the prevalence of thallotoxicosis in the Tl (green cabbage in the present case), so even a value
Lanmuchang area in the period between 1960 and 1970, slightly higher than the accepted Canadian guideline (1
which was attributed to increased farming in the mined area. mg/kg) for Tl in arable soils can be a risk factor for such
However, these studies did not detect the widespread plants, if consumed.
dispersion of Tl beyond the immediate environments of Proper land management practice should not necessarily
mine workings. Drinking water showed high Tl concen- be restricted to mining activities, and procedures such as
trations, which were thought to be the major agent of Tl the use of mine tailings for terracing should be banned.
poisoning (Zhou and Liu, 1985). Although drinking water However, it is also important to note that without proper
with Tl contents below international limits (2 Ag/l) in both knowledge of the base-level values of Tl (and also other
the well waters (0.01 – 0.38 Ag/l) and the Tl-free piped toxic metals) in rocks, waters, and soils, and their disper-
groundwaters ( < 0.005 Ag/l) (Tables 1 and 3) is now being sion patterns, unsafe practices can compound the problem
supplied, Tl levels in urines of local villagers are still quite of Tl dispersion and increase the risk to the biosphere.
high, ranging from 153 to 2668 Ag/l (Xiao, unpublished Potentially hazardous activities include foundation excava-
data). These urinary Tl levels are several orders of magni- tions, agricultural expansion based upon irrigation with
tude higher than the world urinary Tl levels of < 1 Ag/l for waters tainted with Tl, lining of irrigation channels with
‘‘nonexposed’’ humans (Brockhaus et al., 1981; Minoia et rocks containing Tl minerals, and artisanal mining of coal
al., 1990; CDC, 2003). seams in terraced hillsides.
Local villagers in the Lanmuchang Tl mineralized area Although proper nutrition can offset or retard Tl poison-
consume the crops growing in the Tl-contaminated soils ing in Lanmuchang (Xiao, 2001), it still needs strict mon-
during the entire year. Chinese cabbage, green cabbage, and itoring for the geoenvironment to safeguard the health of the
chili are often freshly consumed, whereas corn and rice are population. Simple solutions for immediate implementation
consumed after air drying. The yield of Tl in vegetables include elimination of the planting of green cabbage, a
from fresh to dried samples was determined by dividing the species that hyperaccumulates Tl. Although the scope of
dry weight by the fresh weight. Thus, using the values of this study did not permit an assessment of the human intake
dry yield, consumption amounts of fresh vegetables, and dry of Tl through livestock, it is inevitable that animals fed with
cereals, the amount of Tl from each crop type consumed by local crops and other plants may also transfer Tl to humans.
the local villagers can be quantitatively estimated. Accord-
ingly, the average daily intake of Tl by villagers of the 4.3. Impact beyond the study area
Lanmuchang area through consumption of locally planted
crops has been estimated at 1.9 mg per person (Xiao et al., Thallium deposits are rare in nature. However, the
2003c). The calculated average human ingestion rate of Tl occurrence of Tl in a number of hydrothermal ore deposits
(given a mean adult body weight of 70 kg) is up to 27 Ag/ and alteration zones is a well-established fact and the
kg/day in the Lanmuchang area, 50 times the ingestion rate presence of Tl has been used as tracer for geochemical
of the metal (0.04 mg/day) in people of Tl-free background exploration (Ikramuddin et al., 1983). For instance, hydro-
area. This high ingestion rate of Tl is 1000 times higher than thermal precipitates in the Rotokawa geothermal system of
the world average daily intake (2 Ag/day) as indicated by New Zealand have Tl levels as high as 5000 mg/kg (Krupp
Sabbioni et al. (1984), and also far above the element’s and Seward, 1987). The Allchar Sb –As – Tl deposit in the
‘‘oral reference dose’’ of 0.056 mg/day (RAIS, 2003). This former Yugoslavia also boasts of an extremely high natural
clearly indicates that Tl in the contaminated soils related to Tl content (Percival and Radtke, 1994), as does the Len-
natural Tl mineralization is being readily transferred to the genbach Pb –Zn – As – Ba –Tl in Switzerland (Hofmann and
506 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507

Knill, 1996). Some Chinese iron sulfide deposits and Pb – 40203010 (to T. Xiao), and the Chinese Academy of
Zn deposits also show high Tl levels (Chen et al., 2001). Sciences KZCX2-105 (to C.-Q. Liu). We thank Dr. Conrad
From the pilot study in the Lanmuchang area (with high Grégoire and Mr. Peter Bélanger (Geological Survey of
baseline values of Tl) and the Yanshang area (with low Canada) for arranging and undertaking the analyses. Dr.
baseline values of this element), it is clear that Tl can be Ruth Alcock and two anonymous reviewers are acknowl-
dispersed beyond a mineralized zone, and its abundances in edged for their critical comments and suggestions, which
water, soils, and crops can rise above the permissible levels have improved the manuscript considerably.
to a health-threatening extent. Thallium is associated with
hydrothermal mineralization in many mining areas of the
world, in quantities similar to Lanmuchang or Yanshang,
and is concentrated within rocks susceptible to weathering. References
Soils developed in situ on such rocks would have a higher
background of Tl concentration, which, coupled with a Abrahams PW. Soils: their implications to human health. Sci Total Environ
2002;291:1 – 32.
favourable hydrological regime, could potentially contami- Boyle D, Xiao T. Guide to sampling protocols in environmental geochem-
nate the environment and ultimately affect the biosphere. istry investigations. In: Liu CQ, Zhao Z, Xiao T, Guha J, editors.
Thallium contamination in soils poses a significant threat to Strategic management of environmental and socio-economic issues: a
human health due to the high toxicity of the element and its handbook. Guiyang: Guizhou Science and Technology Publishing
House; 2003. p. 50 – 8.
ready assimilation by crops and other plants. This study
Brockhaus A, Dolgner R, Ewers U, Kramer U, Soddemann H, Wiegand H.
points to the fact that environmental management related to Intake and health effects of thallium among a population living in the
Tl does not concern industrial contamination alone, and vicinity of a cement plant emitting thallium-containing dust. Int Arch
indicates that more attention must be paid to natural pro- Occup Environ Health 1981;48:375 – 89.
cesses of contamination. From the current study, it is easy to Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). Summary of
visualize how a geoenvironment amenable to dispersion of existing Canadian environmental quality guidelines (available at http://
www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/e1_062.pdf); 2003.
naturally occurring Tl may create environmental health Castle B. Thallium data for soil: what did you really get? Explore 2000;
hazards. Without proper knowledge of the background 107:7 – 9.
values in an area, this hidden health hazard may become Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Second national report
worse if coupled with mining or agricultural activities. on human exposure to environmental chemicals. 2003;42 – 4 US NCEH
Publ. No. 02-0716.
Chen D. Discovery of rich-thallium ore body in paragenesis ore deposit of
mercury and thallium and its mineralization mechanism. J Guizhou Inst
5. Conclusions Technol 1989;18:1 – 19 [in Chinese].
Chen Y, Xie W, Wu Y, Wang Z. Utilization of mineral resources containing
Thallium may pose high-potential health risks on humans thallium and thallium pollution in China. J Shenzhen Univ 2001;
through the food chain due to both natural processes and 18:57 – 63 [in Chinese].
Christensen JM. Human exposure to toxic metals: factors influencing
human activities. In terms of geoenvironmental concern, interpretation of biomonitoring results. Sci Total Environ 1995;166:
proper planning would be far less costly to the well-being of 89 – 135.
the population. To do so, it is essential that the distribution Dolgner R, Brockhaus A, Ewers U, Wiegand H, Majewski F, Soddemann
pattern of Tl be established. The base-level data from H. Repeated surveillance of exposure to thallium in a population living
bedrocks, waters, and soils will provide guidelines for the in the vicinity of a cement plant emitting dust containing thallium. Int
Arch Occup Environ Health 1983;52:79 – 94.
safe use of lands, and serve to minimize or prevent cases of Feldman J, Levisohn DR. Acute alopecia: clue to thallium toxicity. Pediatr
Tl poisoning. The present study underlines the fact that Dermatol 1993;10:29 – 31.
ignorance regarding surface geological processes creates Guha J. Geo-environmental management, public awareness and develop-
health hazards due to improper land use. ment—an interdisciplinary approach. In: Liu CQ, Zhao Z, Xiao T, Guha
J, editors. Strategic management of environmental and socio-economic
Similar contexts, with high primary content of Tl, can be
issues: a handbook. Guiyang: Guizhou Science and Technology Pub-
found in other areas of China and the world. Therefore, a lishing House; 2003. p. 1 – 7.
thorough geoscientific study must be the primary step in any Hofmann BA, Knill MD. Geochemistry and genesis of the Lengenbach
environmental monitoring in these areas in order to manage Pb – Zn – As – Tl – Ba mineralization, Binn Valley, Switzerland. Miner
land use, whether for mining, agriculture, or habitation. Depos 1996;31:319 – 39.
Without establishing specific geoenvironmental guides, Tl Ikramuddin M, Asmeron Y, Nordstrom PM, Kinart KP, Martin WM, Digby
SJM. Thallium: a potential guide to mineral deposits. J Geochem Explor
poisoning can reach epidemic proportions. 1983;19:465 – 90.
Janssen CR, Heijerick DG, De Schamphelaere KAC, Allen HE. Environ-
mental risk assessment of metals: tools for incorporating bioavailability.
Acknowledgements Environ Int 2003;28:793 – 800.
Kabata-Pendias A, Pendias H. Trace elements in soils and plants. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1992.
This research was funded by the Canadian International Krupp RE, Seward TM. The Rotokawa geothermal system, New Zealand:
Development Agency Project SULCP 01-282/19156 (to J. an active epithermal gold-depositing environment. Econ Geol Bull Soc
Guha), the National Natural Science Foundation of China 1987;82:1109 – 29.
 T. Xiao et al. / Environment International 30 (2004) 501–507 507

Leach DL, Viets JB, Foley-Ayuso N, Klein DP. Mississippi Valley-type Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS). Toxicity profiles (available
Pb – Zn deposits. In: du Bray EA, editor. Preliminary compilation of at http://risk.lsd.ornl.gov/tox/profiles); 2003.
descriptive geoenvironmental mineral deposit models. US Geological Sabbioni E, Ceotz L, Bignoli G. Health and environmental implications of
Survey Open-File Report 95-831. 1995;234 – 43. trace metals released from coal-fired power plants: an assessment study
Leblanc M, Petit D, Deram A, Robinson BH, Brooks RR. The phytomining of the situation in the European Community. Sci Total Environ 1984;
and environmental significance of hyperaccumulation of thallium by 40:141 – 54.
Iberis intermedia from southern France. Econ Geol Bull Soc 1999;94: United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). National pri-
109 – 13. mary drinking water regulations (available at http://www.epa.gov/
Li JY. A report on survey of chronic thallium poisoning in a county. Trans safewater/dwh/t-ioc/thallium.html); 2003.
Anti-Epidemic Station Guizhou Province 1963;1:154 – 8 [in Chinese]. Wells J. Deadly poison detected at B.C. smelter. Toronto Star 2001;E1 – 9
Meggs WJ, Hoffman RS, Shih RD, Weisman RS, Goldfrank LR. Thallium [January 29].
poisoning from maliciously contaminated food. J Toxicol, Clin Toxicol Xiao T. Environmental Impact of Thallium Related to the Mercury – Thal-
1994;32:723 – 30. lium – Gold Mineralization in Southwest Guizhou Province, China. PhD
Minoia C, Sabbioni E, Apostoli P, Pietra R, Pozzoli L, Gallorini M, Nic- thesis. Chicoutimi, Canada: Université du Québec à Chicoutimi; 2001.
olaou G, Alessio L, Capodaglio E. Trace element reference values in Xiao T, Boyle D, Guha J, Rouleau A, Hong Y, Zheng B. Groundwater-
tissues from inhabitants of the European community: I. A study of 46 related thallium transfer processes and their impact on the ecosystem:
elements in urine, blood and serum of Italian subjects. Sci Total Environ southwest Guizhou Province, China. Appl Geochem 2003a;18:675 – 91.
1990;95:89 – 105. Xiao T, Guha J, Boyle D. Adverse environmental impact of high thallium
Murao S, Itoh S. High thallium content in Kuroko-type ore. J Geochem content in rocks associated with Au – As – Hg – Tl and coal mineraliza-
Explor 1992;43:223 – 31. tion in southwest Guizhou, China. Geochem, Explor Environ Anal
Nixon DE, Moyer TP. Routine clinical determination of lead, arsenic, 2003b;8:223 – 244.
cadmium, and thallium in urine and whole blood by inductively coupled Xiao T, Guha J, Boyle D, Liu CQ, Chen J. Environmental concerns related
plasma mass spectrometry. Spectrochim Acta, Part B 1996;51:13 – 25. to high thallium levels in soils and thallium uptake by plants in south-
Percival TJ, Radtke AS. Thallium in disseminated replacement gold depos- west Guizhou, China. Sci Total Environ 2003c (in press).
its of the Carlin-type; a preliminary report. Neues Jahrb Mineral Abh Zhang Z, Zhang B, Long J, Zhang X, Chen G. Thallium pollution asso-
1993;166:65 – 75. ciated with mining of thallium deposits. Sci China, Ser D 1998;41:
Percival TJ, Radtke AS. Sedimentary-rock-hosted disseminated gold min- 75 – 81.
eralization in the Alsar district, Macedonia. Can Mineral 1994;32: Zhou DX, Liu DN. Chronic thallium poisoning in a rural area of Guizhou
649 – 65. Province, China. J Environ Health 1985;48:14 – 8.