QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in
production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects:

1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed

processes, performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records

2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications

3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organization culture,

motivation, team spirit and quality relationships.

The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.

Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects, and reporting to management
who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality assurance attempts to
improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid, or at least minimize, issues
that led to the defects in the first place. For contract work, particularly work awarded by
government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a
contract.

Quality Control (QC) is a system of routine technical activities, to measure and control the
quality

of the inventory as it is being developed. The QC system is designed to:

(i) Provide routine and consistent checks to ensure data integrity, correctness, and completeness;

(ii) Identify and address errors and omissions;

(iii) Document and archive inventory material and record all QC activities.

QC activities include general methods such as accuracy checks on data acquisition and
calculations and the use of approved standardised procedures for emission calculations,
measurements, estimating uncertainties, archiving information and reporting. Higher tier QC
activities include technical reviews of source categories, activity and emission factor data, and
methods.
TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL

"Total quality control" is a measure used in cases where sales decrease despite implementation of
statistical quality control techniques or quality improvements. If the original specification does
not reflect the correct quality requirements, quality cannot be inspected or manufactured into the
product.

TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

The 7 QC Tools are simple statistical tools used for problem solving. These tools were either
developed in Japan or introduced to Japan by the Quality Gurus such as Deming and Juran. In
terms of importance, these are the most useful. Kaoru Ishikawa has stated that these 7 tools can
be used to solve 95 percent of all problems. These tools have been the foundation of Japan's
astonishing industrial resurgence after the Second World War.

The following are the 7 QC Tools:

1. Pareto Diagram

2. Cause & Effect Diagram

3. Histogram

4. Control Charts

5. Scatter Diagrams

6. Graphs

7. Check Sheets

PARETO DIAGRAM

Pareto Diagram is a tool that arranges items in the order of the magnitude of their contribution,
thereby identifying a few items exerting maximum influence. This tool is used in SPC and
quality improvement for prioritizing projects for improvement, prioritizing setting up of
corrective action teams to solve problems, identifying products on which most complaints are
received, identifying the nature of complaints occurring most often, identifying most frequent
causes for rejections or for other similar purposes.

The origin of the tool lies in the observation by an Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto that a large
portion of wealth was in the hands of a few people. He observed that such distribution pattern
was common in most fields. Pareto principle also known as the 80/20 rule is used in the field of
materials management for ABC analysis. 20% of the items purchased by a company account for
80% of the value. These constitute the A items on which maximum attention is paid.

Dr.Juran suggested the use of this principle to quality control for separating the "vital few"
problems from the "trivial many" now called the "useful many".

PROCEDURE

The steps in the preparation of a Pareto Diagram are :

1. From the available data calculate the contribution of each individual item.

2. Arrange the items in descending order of their individual contributions. If there are too many
items contributing a small percentage of the contribution, group them together as "others". It is
obvious that "others" will contribute more than a few single individual items. Still it is kept last
in the new order of items.

3. Tabulate the items, their contributions in absolute number as well as in percent of total and
cumulative contribution of the items.

4. Draw X and Y axes. Various items are represented on the X-axis. Unlike other graphs Pareto
Diagrams have two Y-axes - one on the left representing numbers and the one on right
representing the percent contributions. The scale for X-axis is selected in such a manner that all
the items including others are accommodated between the two Yaxes. The scales for the Y-axes
are so selected that the total number of items on the left side and 100% on the right side occupy
the same height.

5. Draw bars representing the contributions of each item.

6. Plot points for cumulative contributions at the end of each item. A simple way to do this is to
draw the bars for the second and each subsequent item at their normal place on the X-axis as well
as at a level where the previous bar ends. This bar at the higher level is drawn in dotted lines.
Drawing the second bar is not normally recommended in the texts.

7. Connect the points. If additional bars as suggested in step 6 are drawn this becomes simple.
All one needs to do is - connect the diagonals of the bars to the origin.

8. The chart is now ready for interpretation. The slope of the chart suddenly changes at some
point. This point separates the 'vital few' from the 'useful many' like the A,B and C class items in
materials management.

CHECK SHEET

The check sheet is a simple document that is used for collecting data in real-time and at the
location where the data is generated. The document is typically a blank form that is designed for
the quick, easy, and efficient recording of the desired information, which can be either
quantitative or qualitative. When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes
called a tally sheet.

A defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data is recorded by making marks ("checks") on
it. A typical check sheet is divided into regions, and marks made in different regions have
different significance. Data is read by observing the location and number of marks on the sheet. 5
Basic types of Check Sheets:

1. Classification: A trait such as a defect or failure mode must be classified into a category.

2. Location: The physical location of a trait is indicated on a picture of a part or item being
evaluated.

3. Frequency: The presence or absence of a trait or combination of traits is indicated. Also

number of occurrences of a trait on a part can be indicated.

4. Measurement Scale: A measurement scale is divided into intervals, and measurements are
indicated by checking an appropriate interval.
 5. Check List: The items to be performed for a task are listed so that, as each is
accomplished, it can be indicated as having been completed.

The check sheet is one of the seven basic tools of quality control.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

A Cause-and Effect Diagram is a tool that shows systematic relationship between a result or a
symptom or an effect and its possible causes. It is an effective tool to systematically generate
ideas about causes for problems and to present these in a structured form. This tool was devised
by Dr. Kouro Ishikawa and as mentioned earlier is also known as Ishikawa Diagram.

Cause-and Effect diagram is a tool that provides best results if used by a group or team. Each
individual may have a few ideas for the causes and his thinking is restricted to those theories.
More heads are needed to make a comprehensive list of the causes. Brainstorming technique is
therefore very useful in identifying maximum number of causes.

PROCEDURE

The steps in the procedure to prepare a cause-and-effect diagram are:

1. Agree on the definition of the 'Effect' for which causes are to be found. Place the effect in the
dark box at the right. Draw the spine or the backbone as a dark line leading to the box for the
effect.

2. Determine the main groups or categories of causes. Place them in boxes and connect them
through large bones to the backbone.

3. Brainstorm to find possible causes and subsidiary causes under each of the main groups.
Make sure that the route from the cause to the effect is correctly depicted. The path must start
from a root cause and end in the effect. 4. After completing all the main groups, brainstorm for
more causes that may have escaped earlier.

5. Once the diagram is complete, discuss relative importance of the causes. Short list the
important root causes.
HISTOGRAM

Histograms or Frequency Distribution Diagrams are bar charts showing the distribution pattern
of observations grouped in convenient class intervals and arranged in order of magnitude.
Histograms are useful in studying patterns of distribution and in drawing conclusions about the
process based on the pattern.

The Procedure to prepare a Histogram consists of the following steps :

1. Collect data (preferably 50 or more observations of an item).

2. Arrange all values in an ascending order.

3. Divide the entire range of values into a convenient number of groups each representing an
equal class interval. It is customary to have number of groups equal to or less than the square
root of the number of observations. However one should not be too rigid about this. The reason
for this cautionary note will be obvious when we see some examples.

4. Note the number of observations or frequency in each group.

5. Draw X-axis and Y-axis and decide appropriate scales for the groups on X-axis and the
number of observations or the frequency on Y-axis.

6. Draw bars representing the frequency for each of the groups.

7. Provide a suitable title to the Histogram.

8. Study the pattern of distribution and draw conclusion.

CONTROL CHARTS

Variability is inherent in all manufacturing processes. These variations may be due to two
causes;

i. Random / Chance causes (un-preventable).

ii. Assignable causes (preventable).

Control charts were developed by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart during 1920's while he was with Bell
Telephone Laboratories.

These charts separate out assignable causes.

Control chart makes possible the diagnosis and correction of much production troubles and
brings substantial improvements in the quality of the products and reduction of spoilage and
rework. It tells us when to leave a process alone as well as when to take action to correct trouble.

BASIC CONCEPTS:

Data is of two types:

 Variable - measured and expressed quantitatively

 Attribute - quantitative

Mean and Range:

 ⎯X - Mean is the average of a sub-group

 R - Range is the difference between the minimum and maximum in a sub-
group

Control Charts for Variables

Charts depleting the variations in ⎯X and R with time are known as ⎯X and R charts. ⎯X and R
charts are used for variable data when the sample size of the subgroup is 2-5. When the
subgroup size is larger, s Charts are used instead of R charts where s is the standard deviation of
the subgroup.
Control Charts for Attributes

The control charts for attributes are p-chart, np-chart, c-chart and u-chart. Control charts for
defectives are p and np charts. P charts are used when the sample size is constant and np charts
are used when the sample size is variable. In the case where the number of defects is the data
available for plotting, c and u charts are used. If the sample size is constant, c charts are used and
u charts are used for variable sample sizes.

SCATTER DIAGRAM

When solving a problem or analyzing a situation one needs to know the relationship between two
variables. A relationship may or may not exist between two variables. If a relationship exists, it
may be positive or negative; it may be strong or weak and may be simple or complex. A tool to
study the relationship between two variables is known as Scatter Diagram. It consists of plotting
a series of points representing several observations on a graph in which one variable is on X-axis
and the other variable in on Y-axis. If more than one set of values are identical, requiring more
points at the same spot, a small circle is drawn around the original dot to indicate second point
with the same values. The way the points lie scattered in the quadrant gives a good indication of
the relationship between the two variables. Let us see some common patterns seen in Scatter
Diagrams and the conclusions one can draw based on these patterns.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Strong Positive Correlation - The value of Y clearly increases as the value of X increases.

Strong Negative Correlation- The value of Y clearly decreases as the value of X increases.

Weak Positive Correlation- The value of Y increases slightly as the value of X increases.

Weak Negative Correlation- The value of Y decreases slightly as the value of X increases.

Complex Correlation- The value of Y seems to be related to the value of X, but the
relationship is not easily determined.

No Correlation- There is any demonstrated connection between the two variables.

GRAPHS

Graphs of various types are used for pictorial representation of data. Pictorial representation
enables the user or viewer to quickly grasp the meaning of the data. Different graphical
representations of data are chosen depending on the purpose of the analysis and preference of the
audience. The different types of graphs used are as given below:
S.No Type of Graph Purpose
1. Bar Graph To compare sizes of data
2. Line Graph To represent changes of data
3. Gantt Chart To plan and schedule
4. Radar Chart To represent changes in data (before and after)

5. Band Graph Same as above

6. Pie Charts Used to indicate comparative weights
7. ISO Graph To represent data using symbols

INDUSTRY PROFILE
 Agricultural Machinery Industry in India and the farm mechanization of Indian fields
helps in effectiveness utilization of inputs to increase the productivity of land and labour.
Besides it helps in reducing the drudgery farm operations. The early agricultural mechanization
in India was greatly influenced by technological development in England. Tractors and threshers
were gradually introduced for farm mechanization. The high yielding varieties with assured
irrigation and higher rate of application of fertilizers gave higher returns that enable farmer to
adopt mechanization of inputs, especially after green revolution in 1960’s. The present trend in
agriculture mechanization is for high capacity machines through custom hiring and for
contractual field operations.

The manufacture of agricultural machinery in India is quite complex comprising of

village artisans, small scale industries, state agro industrial development corporations and
organized tractor, engine and processing equipment industries. Those industries have adopted
sophisticated production technology and some of them match international standards. Since cost
of production of farm machinery in India is more competitive due to lower labour wages, the
importers from various countries will find Indian farm equipment more attractive. Indian
products however, has made improvements in quality for gaining major export growth

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY INDUSTRY IN INDIA

The country witnessed unprecedented growth in agriculture which has helped India to
graduate from hunger to self sufficiency in food grains by increasing the food grain production
from 51 million tonnes to 208 million tonnes, with surplus for export. The technology back-up
by agricultural scientists, in the form of “Green Revolution” combined with industrial growth,
positive policy support, liberal public funding for agricultural research and development and
dedicated work of farmers contributed to the phenomenal increase in agricultural, animal and
fish production. Application of engineering in agriculture was equally appreciated by the farmers
and today they feel proud to have improved machinery from Bakhars to rotavators, Persian
wheel to drip and micro-sprinkler systems, cone-dibblers to pneumatic planters, sickles to
combine harvesters, sieve to colour sorters, and, kolhus to solvent extraction plants, and hand
mills to roller flour mills, etc.
 The growth in adoption of agricultural machinery in the country has been possible due to
their local manufacture. The manufacture of agricultural machinery is under taken by village
artisans, tiny units, small scale industries, organized medium and large scale sector. Organized
sectors manufacturing sophisticated machinery such as tractors, engines, milling and drying
equipment, traditional hand tools and bullock drawn implements are largely fabricated by village
craftsman and power operated machinery by small scale industries. An analysis has been made in
this paper to review the status of manufacture of agriculture machinery, after sale services, level
of adoption of mechanization inputs by the farmers so as to plan for future mechanization.

STATUS OF FARM MECHANIZATION IN INDIA

FARM POWER IN AGRICULTURE

 Unit farm power

During early sixties, a concept of farm power availability per hectare basis was used to
indicate level of farm mechanization. The potential power availability was used as the
measure and could not reflect critical constraint of farm power availability during peak
requirements or the actual level of use. Animate power contributed 60% of the total farm
power in 1971-1972 and mechanical and electrical together contributed only 40%. In
1996-1997 the contribution from animate power reduced to 21 % and from mechanical
and electrical power it increased to 79%. The farm power input per unit cultivated land
in India is still very low compared to South Korea, Japan and United State of America.

 Energy ratio for mechanization indicator

A major defect in considering power in quantifying mechanization is that it does not
reflect the dimension of time and thus does not bring in the actual scenario in focus.
Energy, from this point of view, is a better measure as it can define the actual quantity
under use or, in other words, the potentiality of use of available power sources in real
terms.
TRENDS IN USE OF FARM POWER

 Human power
 Draught animal power
 Tractive power

TRACTORS

The sale of agricultural tractors and other farm equipment has increased. To-day more
than 250,000 tractors are manufactured every year by 13 manufacturers. These tractors are
available in different horse power ranges of less than 25 to more than 55 horse power.

POWER TILLERS

The production of power tillers started in 1961 with licence to manufacture 12 models.
The manufacturers started offering these to farmers in various stages covering upland and
wetland farming conditions. Their introduction coincided with that of agricultural tractors which
were more suitable for upland work and provided more comfortable work environment to the
operators. The walk-behind power tillers, on the other hand, created dusty environment for the
operator.

Secondly, the power tillers in dry land conditions were tiresome which resulted in longer
rest periods, and consequently affected the work output. These were also difficult to manage in
the hilly situations. The power tiller models being manufactured, and also those being imported
from china, etc, and have being marketed for wet land, stationary and haulage work are being
well received by the farmers.

Stationary Power
 Electric Motors and Diesel Engines are the primary sources of stationary power for
irrigation, threshing and various post-harvest agro-processing operations.

A rotary tiller for agriculture

Two-wheel tractor. The higher horse power “riding” rotavators cross out of the home
garden category in to farming category especially in Asia, Africa and South America, capable of
preparing 1 hectare of land in 8-10 hours. These are also known as power tillers, walking tractors
or two-wheel tractors. Years ago they were considered only useful for rice growing areas, where
they are fitted with steel cage-wheels for traction, but now the same are being used in both
wetland and dry land farming all over the world. Compact, powerful and most importantly
inexpensive, these agricultural rotary tillers are providing alternatives to four-wheel tractor and
in the small farmers fields in developing countries are more economical than four-wheel tractors.