ILO1: : Able to understand the applications of shaft

and the general procedure of the design.

ILO2: Able to design shafts based on the allowable
material strength and rigidity.
ILO3:. Able to calculate maximum shear and
bending moments in designing transmission shafts
with pulleys and gears.
 Introduction
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power
from one place to another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some
tangential force and the resultant torque (or twisting moment) set up
within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various
machines linked up to the shaft.
 The shafts are usually cylindrical
but may be square or cross-shaped
in section. They are solid in cross-
section, but sometimes hollow
shafts are also used.
An axle, though similar in shape
to the shaft, is a stationary Shaft
machine element and is used for
the transmission of bending
moment only. It simply acts as a
support for some rotating body
such as hoisting drum, a car wheel
or a rope sheave.
A spindle is a short shaft that
imparts motion either to a cutting
tool (e.g. drill press spindles) or to
a work piece (e.g. lathe spindles).
Spindle
 Materials Used for Shafts
The material used for shafts should have the following properties:
1. It should have high strength.
2. It should have good machinability.
3. It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
4. It should have good heat treatment properties.
5. It should have high wear resistant properties.

The mechanical properties of these grades of carbon steel are given

in the table.

Mechanical properties of steels used for shafts. (Indian Standard)

Materials Used for Shafts
ρ
𝛔𝐲

 

 

 

 
 Manufacturing of Shafts
Shafts are generally manufactured by hot rolling and finished to size
by cold drawing or turning and grinding. The cold rolled shafts are
stronger than hot rolled shafts but with higher residual stresses. The
residual stresses may cause distortion of the shaft when it is machined,
especially when slots or keyways are cut. Shafts of larger diameter are
usually forged and turned to size in a lathe.
 Types of Shafts
Transmission shafts
These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines absorbing
power. The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all factory shafts
are transmission shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts such as pulleys,
gears etc., therefore they are subjected to bending in addition to twisting.

Machine shafts
These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is an
example of machine shaft.
Standard Sizes of Transmission Shafts
25 mm – 60 mm 5 mm increment
60 mm – 110 mm 10 mm increment
110 mm – 140 mm 15 mm increment
140 mm – 500 mm 20 mm increment
Standard lengths of the shafts are 5m, 6m, and 7m
 Stresses in Shafts
Depending on the application, shafts may be hollow or solid. Shafts
are generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion, and axial force.
Therefore, the design of the shaft is primarily driven by determining
the stresses at critical points in the assembly that may arise due to the
loading.
The following stresses are induced in the shafts :
1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to
torsional load).
2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting
upon machine elements like gears, pulleys etc. as well as due to the
weight of the shaft itself.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
 Design of Shafts
The shafts may be designed on the basis of:
1. Strength, and 2. Rigidity and stiffness.
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be
considered:
(a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only,
(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments, and
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and
bending loads.

In designing shafts on the basis of rigidity and stiffness:

This method suggests that the design of the shaft depends on the
allowable deflection and the maximum permissible angle of twist of the
shaft.
(a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment or
torque only,
When the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment (or torque) only, then the
diameter of the shaft may be obtained by using the torsion equation. We know
that

T = Twisting moment (or torque) acting upon the shaft,

J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation,
𝜏 = Torsional shear stress, and
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fiber
= d / 2; where d is the diameter of the shaft.
We know that for round solid shaft, polar moment of inertia,

The first equation may now be written as

We may determine the diameter of round solid shaft (d).

We also know that for hollow shaft, polar moment of inertia,

where do and di = Outside and inside diameter of the shaft, and r = do / 2.

Substituting this equation to the first,
The twisting moment (T) may be obtained by using the following relation :
We know that the power transmitted (in watts) by the shaft,

T = Twisting moment in N-m, and

N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
 Example 1
A line shaft rotating at 200 r.p.m. is to transmit 20 kW. The shaft may
be assumed to be made of mild steel with an allowable shear stress of
42 MPa. Determine the diameter of the shaft, neglecting the bending
moment on the shaft.
 Example 2
Find the diameter of a solid steel shaft to transmit 20 kW at 200 r.p.m.
The ultimate shear stress for the steel may be taken as 360 MPa and a
factor of safety as 8.
If a hollow shaft is to be used in place of the solid shaft, find the inside
and outside diameter when the ratio of inside to outside diameters is
0.5.
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment
only,
When the shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, then the
maximum stress (tensile or compressive) is given by the bending
equation. We know that

M = Bending moment,
I = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the axis
of rotation,
𝜎𝑏 = Bending stress, and
y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer-most fiber.
We know that for a round solid shaft, moment of inertia,

Substituting these values in first equation, we have

Or arranged as
We also know that for a hollow shaft, moment of inertia,

Again, substituting these values in equation

𝜋 𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4
𝑀= × 𝜎𝑏
32 𝑑0
 Example 3
A pair of wheels of a railway wagon carries a load of 50 kN on each
axle box, acting at a distance of 100 mm outside the wheelbase. The
gauge of the rails is 1.4 m. Find the diameter of the axle between the
wheels, if the stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
 Torsional Rigidity of shafts
The torsional rigidity is important in the case of camshaft
of an I.C. engine where the timing of the valves would be
affected. The permissible amount of twist should not
exceed 0.25° per meter length of such shafts. For line
shafts or transmission shafts, deflections 2.5 to 3 degree
per meter length may be used as limiting value. The
widely used deflection for the shafts is limited to 1 degree
in a length equal to twenty times the diameter of the shaft.
The torsional deflection may be obtained by using the torsion equation,
 Example 4
A steel spindle transmits 4 kW at 800 r.p.m. The angular deflection
should not exceed 0.25° per meter of the spindle. If the modulus of
rigidity for the material of the spindle is 84 GPa, find the diameter of
the spindle and the shear stress induced in the spindle.
 (c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting
and bending moments
When the shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment and
bending moment, then the shaft must be designed on the basis of the
two moments simultaneously. Various theories have been suggested to
account for the elastic failure of the materials when they are subjected
to various types of combined stresses. The following two theories are
important from the subject point of view:
1. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory. It is used for
ductile materials such as mild steel.
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for
brittle materials such as cast iron.
According to maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear stress in the
shaft,

Substituting the values of 𝜏 and 𝜎𝑏

is an expression known as equivalent twisting

moment and is denoted as 𝑇𝑒 .
Now according to maximum normal stress theory, the maximum normal stress
in the shaft,

is an expression known as equivalent bending

moment and is denoted as 𝑀𝑒 .
In case of a hollow shaft, the equations may be written as:

It is suggested that diameter of the shaft may be obtained by using both

the theories and the larger of the two values is adopted.
 Example 5
A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 3000 N-m
and a torque of 10 000 N-m. The shaft is made of 45 C 8 steel having
ultimate tensile stress of 700 MPa and an ultimate shear stress of 500
MPa. Assuming a factor of safety as 6, determine the diameter of the
shaft.
 Example 6
A shaft supported at the ends in ball bearings carries a straight tooth spur
gear at its mid span and is to transmit 7.5 kW at 300 r.p.m. The pitch circle
diameter of the gear is 150 mm. The normal force acted on the tooth of the
gear is 3387 N. The distances between the centre line of bearings and gear
are 100 mm each. If the shaft is made of steel and the allowable shear stress is
45 MPa, determine the diameter of the shaft. Show the shear and moment
diagram in solving the maximum bending moment of the mechanism.
 Shear and Moment Diagram

Calculating reaction forces

Shear Diagram

Moment Diagram
 Shafts subjected to Fluctuations
In the previous articles we have assumed that the shaft is subjected to constant
torque and bending moment. But in actual practice, the shafts are subjected to
fluctuating torque and bending moments. In order to design such shafts like
line shafts and counter shafts, the combined shock and fatigue factors must be
taken into account for the computed twisting moment (T ) and bending
moment (M ).
The equivalent twisting moment,

The equivalent bending moment,

Recommended values for Km and Kt
 Example 7
A mild steel shaft transmits 20 kW at 200 r.p.m. It carries a central load of
900N and is simply supported between the bearings 2.5 metres apart.
Determine the size of the shaft, if the allowable shear stress is 42 MPa and the
maximum tensile or compressive stress is not to exceed 56 MPa. What size of
the shaft will be required, if it is subjected to gradually applied loads?
 Example 8
As shown in the figure, a 24-inch diameter pulley is driven by a
horizontal belt transmits power through a solid transmission shaft to a
10-inch diameter pinion which drives a mating gear. The pulley
weighs 300lb to provide some flywheel effect. The arrangement of
elements, the belt tensions, and the components of the gear reactions
on the pinion are indicated in the figure. Find the necessary shaft
diameter using allowable shear stress of 5500 psi for commercial
shafting and shock factors of Km = 3.0 and Kt = 2.0
Solution
 15
3 𝑖𝑛
16
(d) Shafts Subjected to Axial Load in addition to
Combined Torsion and Bending Loads

When the shaft is subjected to an axial load (F) in addition

to torsion and bending loads as in propeller shafts of ships
and shafts for driving worm gears, then the stress due to
axial load must be added to the bending stress (𝜎𝑏 ).
and stress due to axial load
In case of long shafts (slender shafts) subjected to compressive loads, a factor
known as column factor (𝛼) must be introduced to take the column effect into
account.
Column Factor
This expression is used when the
slenderness ratio (L / K) is less than
115.

When the slenderness

ratio (L / K) is more than 115
In general, for a hollow shaft subjected to fluctuating torsional
and bending load, along with an axial load, the equations for
equivalent twisting moment (Te) and equivalent bending moment (Me)
may be written as

It may be noted that for a solid shaft, k = 0 and d0 = d. When the shaft
carries no axial load, then F = 0 an when the shaft carries axial tensile
load, then 𝛼 = 1.
 Example 9
A hollow shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 1.5 kN-m and a
maximum bending moment of 3 kN-m. It is subjected, at the same time,
to an axial load of 10 kN. Assume that the load is applied gradually
and the ratio of the inner diameter to the outer diameter is 0.5. If the
outer diameter of the shaft is 80 mm, find the shear stress induced in
the shaft.