ALAMINOS CITY NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
MODULE IN EARTH and LIFE SCIENCE
QUARTER 3, WEEK 5 – March 14- 18, 2022
MODULE 10
Movements of Plates and
Formation of Folds and Faults
Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC):
A. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and
faults.
B. Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks are formed).
C. Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to
determine the age of stratified rocks.
The module focuses on the lesson:
• Lesson 1 – Movement of Plates and Formation of Folds and Faults
• Lesson 2 – Rock Layers
- Correlation of Rock Layers
• Lesson 3 – Relative and Absolute Dating
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Identify the three types of plate movements from a short excerpt;
2. Expound three types of plate movement based on plate tectonics theory
using an illustration.;
3. Cite specific examples of land forms as outcomes of plate movement;
4. describe how layers of stratified rocks are formed;
5. describe the different laws of stratigraphy;
6. determine how geologists correlate rock layers;
7. reflect on human environmental practices that may contribute to the
alteration on the Earth surface, particularly the rock layers;
8. illustrate an outcrop of rock layers applying the law of stratigraphy.
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9. differentiate relative from absolute dating through pictures presented;
and
10. compare relative and absolute dating using comparison chart.
This module contains topics about plate movement leading to the
formation of folds and faults. Students must explain how the movement of
plates leads to the formation of folds and faults by doing different activities
included in this module. Likewise, concept about the Plate’s movement is
available for the students’ reference in doing each activity incorporated in
the procedure.
What’s New
A. Directions. Read and analyze the excerpt.
TYPE OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
Studying plate boundaries is important because along these boundaries
deformation of the lithosphere is happening. Divergent plate movement occurs
when plates pull apart from each other. When two (2) plates diverge, pieces
from such plates sink towards the Earth’s mantle. On the other hand,
convergent movement occurs when plates crush into each other and land
crumples, forming trenches and mountains. Lateral or transform fault
movement occurs when plates move alongside each other in different
directions.
B. Directions. Read and analyze the diagram below which will provide you
background information about Plate Boundaries.
Transform
Plate
Boundary
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It is also called as strike slip fault boundary, the plates slide past each other
horizontally. This is a type of boundary that cuts through California, the well-known
San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas fault zone, which is about 1300 km long and is
tens of kilometer wide, slice through two thirds of the length of California. Along with
it, the Pacific Plat e has been for 10 million years, at an average rate of about 5cm/yr
(Pavico and Faraon, 2007, 193).
Convergent
Plate
Boundary
The heavier oceanic crust sinks below the lighter continental crust. It happens along
convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other and sometimes one plate
sink under another (subduction). Marianas Trench marks where the fast moving Pacific
Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate. This boundary is often sits of
major volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan . In a collision of two pieces of
oceanic crust, the result is a chain of volcanic islands, of which Indonesia is a prime
example. Where oceanic crust collides with a plate carrying continent, the result is a chain
of volcanoes on the continent such as the Cascade of volcanic chain in Pacific
Northwest of the US and the Andes Mountains of South America. When two continental
crusts collide, the result is a range of mountains such as Himalayan Mountain yr (Pavico
and Faraon, 2007, 193 -194).
Divergent Plate Boundaries are boundaries where the earth’s tectonic plates are
moving apart. For most part, these boundaries are located on the ocean floors, where
they form a continuous chain of volcanic mountains and rift called mid-ocean ridges
that extend throughout the earth’s oceans. Mid-Atlantic Ridge is good example which
runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. As the plates move apart, magma wells up
to fill the space between them, and this is why divergent plate boundaries are the sites
of volcanic activity. It is also a set where the earth’s crust is growing (Pavico and Faraon,
2007, 194).
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Activity A: Crossword Puzzle
Directions. Fill out the crossword puzzle with the correct terms using the given
clues.
Across
2. Fracture or discontinuity in a volume of
rocks.
4. Plates are moving away from each other.
6. Horizontal motion movement of plates.
9. A chain of mountains.
Down
1. Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle
3. Chain of volcanoes formed from
subducting plates. 5. Plates are moving
toward each other and collide.
7. Occur when flat surface bent or curved.
8. A large landform formed from tectonic forces.
10. Low area between hills and mountain
Activity B: My Understanding of Plate Movement
Directions. Complete the paragraph below. The first part is already given.
Faults, folding, ridges, mountains, valleys and volcanic arc are formed
when the plates move because
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5 points).
Criteria: 3 points: Appropriateness and relation to the topic
2 points: Neatness and free from grammatical errors.
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MODULE 11
Formation of Rock Layers
Are the current features of the Earth the same as they were 4.6 billion years
ago? Well, the answer is no. The Earth had undergone geological alterations
and evolutionary processes that changed its features. The exogenic and
endogenic processes that happened on the surface and within the inner portion
of the Earth may contribute to these alterations that occurred. The rocks are
being studied by geologists because they contain clues of what the Earth had
been in the past.
In this module, the formation of rock strata will be determined including the
order of rock layers, the manner on how rock layers are formed or deformed
due to physical factors and the age of rocks using the relative and absolute
dating method.
What’s New
If you will be given a cake for your birthday, how
many layers do you wish to have? How many
flavours do you want? What will be the order of
flavour in each layer?
If you apply pressure on cakes, it will be deformed,
flattened, or twisted. Just like the layers in the cake,
rocks can also form layers due to sediments
deposited on rocks or some forces that act on it which causes its deformation.
These are forces that may bring alteration to rock layers or the change in its
formation in the Earth’s surface.
In geologic time, it covers the whole sweep of Earth’s history, from how and
when the earth was first formed, to everything that has happened on, in, and
to the entire planet up to now.
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In this module, descriptions, characteristics, and behaviour of rock layers will
be discussed. Relevant information will be given which serves as a guide as
you go through with the lesson in the formation of rock layers.
What is It
The idea behind the concept that the Earth is billions of years old originated
in the work of James Hutton. Hutton concluded that there are forces that
changes the landscape of the Earth in the past. This conclusion is based on his
observation in the geological processes that were taking place in his farm.
His Principle of Uniformitarianism states that the current geologic processes,
such as volcanism, erosion, and weathering are the same processes that were
at work in the past. This idea was refined by other geologists that although
the process of the past and the present are the same, the rates of this process
may vary over time. The Earth’s history was studied using the different
records of past events preserved in rocks. The layers of rocks are like the
pages in our history books.
How are rock layers formed?
Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives rock, maybe fragmental or
crystalline. These rocks are products of sedimentary processes. These are
made of visible layers of sediments. The formation on rock layers depend on
its stratigraphy and stratification.
Stratigraphy Stratification
It is also known as bedding,
It is the branch of geology that
deals with the description, which is the layering that
correlation, and interpretation happens in sedimentary and
of stratified sediments and igneous rocks formed at the
stratified rocks on and within surface of the Earth that comes
the Earth. from lava flows or other
volcanic activity.
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It is the study of the rock It is expressed by rock layers
layers(strata). (units) of a general tabular or
It will give you clues to the lenticular form that differ in
location of ancient seas, rock type.
mountains, plateaus and plains.
As early as the mid 1600’s, Danish scientist Nicholas Steno studied the
relative position of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed particle
by particle, bed by bed, and the layers are piled one on top of the other. These
rock layers are also called strata.
Stratigraphic Laws
Stratigraphic laws are basic principles that all geologists use in decoding or
deciphering the spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers. These
includes the following: Original Horizontality, Lateral Continuity,
Superposition, Cross Cutting, Law of Inclusions and the Law of Faunal
Succession.
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Law of Superposition Law of Inclusions
The largest and heaviest rock A rock mass that contains
layer that settled first at the pieces of rocks called
bottom is the oldest rock layer. inclusions are younger
The lightest and smallest that than the other rock
settled last is the youngest rock masses.
layer.
LAWS OF
STRATIGRAPHY
Law of Cross Cutting Law of Original
Relationship Horizontality
a fault or dike - a slab rock sediments are deposited
cuts th rough another rock in flat layers, if the rock
when magma intrudes to maintains in horizontal
the rock, that fault or layers, it means it is not
magma is younger than the yet disturbed and still has
rock its original horizontality
Law of Unconformities Law of Faunal Succession
rock layers that are formed first
recognized by William
without interruptions are Smith
conformable. different strata contain
particular assemblage of fossils
describes a layer of rock that by which rocks may be
have been deformed or eroded identified and correlated over
before another layer is long distances
deposited, resulting in rock
layer mismatching
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Three Types of
Unconformities:
Disconformity Angular unconformity
It originates from horizontally
It originates from horizontal
sedimentary rock layers that is parallel strata of sedimentary
lifted and the top layers eroded. rock that are deposited on
tilted and eroded layers.
New sediments are deposited It produced an angular
when they are submerged discordance with underlying
beneath a freshwater or horizontal layers.
saltwater.
Non -conformity
It originates between sedimentary
rocks, metamorphic or igneous rock
when sedimentary rock lies above
and was deposited on the pre -
existing and eroded metamorphic or
igneous rock.
Correlation of Rocks
How do geologists correlate rock layers?
The process of showing that rocks or geologic events occurring at different
locations are of the same age is called correlation. Geologists have developed
a system for correlating rocks by looking for similarities in composition and
rock layer sequences at different locations.
The geological technique of correlation provides information that have taken
in Earth’s history at various time that occurred. There are different methods
in correlating rock layers, these includes:
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1. Rock types and its characteristics
color, texture, hardness, composition or its mineral content
the harder and more densely packed the particles are, the older the
rock and the deeper the layer it came from.
2. Index fossil
➢ also known as guide fossils or indicator fossils, are fossils used to
define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages)
3. Bed rock
a deposit of solid rock that is typically buried beneath soil and
other broken or unconsolidated material (regolith).
made up of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it
often serves as the parent material for regolith and soil.
How to match correlated rock layers?
Matching of rock layers may be determined by merely looking at its features.
Look at the three columns of rock layers below. Let us determine how they
are correlated.
Figure 1. The Steno’s Law of Stratigraphy
The Law of Stratigraphy shown -in Figure 1 indicates deposition, reshaping
and deformations of the rock layers due to geological processes.
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Figure 2. Stratigraphic Column in Different Location
These three columns represent rock layers from three separate locations or
outcrops. Some columns may be missing layers due to erosion. No single
column represents a complete record. Your job is to line them up so a
complete record of the region can be seen. Find one or more layers present in
all columns that can be matched like a puzzle.
Figure 3. Stratigraphic Column Matching up of Rock Layers
Figure 4. Strategic Column Fitting of the Rock Layers
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After matching correlated rock layers, we can determine the relative age
of each layer according to the law of superposition. Limestone in location A
is the oldest and limestone in location C is the youngest rock layer. While
those rock layers having the same composition, textures, and fossil content
were considered as rock layers with the same age.
In matching up rock layers, superposition and cross-cutting are helpful. When
rocks are touching one another, the lateral continuity rock layers aid to match
up with the layers that are nearby. Geologists then match, or correlate, the
different shorter sequences to create a geological column that spans further
back into earth’s past.
Correlations involve matching a particular rock unit in one exposure with its
counterpart at a different locality. By correlating various rock vulnerability
separated by great distances, geologic maps can be constructed and the
original geographical extent of the rocks can be estimated.
Types of Correlation
A) Physical Correlation is accomplished by using number of criteria such
as color, texture, and types of minerals contained within a stratum which
make it possible for geologists to classify a particular stratum specifically.
B) Fossil Correlation is a principle that geologists use to determine the
age of rock. It uses fossil with unique characteristics, such as geologically
short lifespan and easily identifiable features and use this information to
estimate the age of a rock layer in other areas that contain the same type of
fossil or group of fossils.
There are fossils which are used to date the layers of rock that they are found
in. Fossils that can be used in this way are called index fossils, and rock layers
with the same index fossils in them can be correlated.
Criteria to be considered in identifying index fossils includes:
1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable and it must be easy
to identify because of its uniqueness.
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2. Fossils must be geographically widespread, or found over large areas so
that it can be used to match rock layers separated by huge distances.
3. Fossils must have lived for only a short time, so that it appears in only
horizontal layer of sedimentary rocks.
What I Can Do
From the lists of human activities/practices, tell how these practices may
trigger the alterations of rock layers.
Human Activities/Practices How it will affect the rock layers?
1. Mining
2. Quarrying
3. Kaingin system of farming
4. Converting elevated areas into
subdivisions and roads
5. Forest denudation
Analysis:
1. Which in the list of human practices can be considered as detrimental to
human and other living things?
2. What will be the impact of this human practices in geological processes
such as weathering and erosion?
3. How will you address the result of these practices and its magnitude to the
government since your generation are considered as the hope of the
motherland?
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MODULE 12
Relative and Absolute Dating
How old is it? This might be the first question that will enter your mind when
you see an old rock or artifact. Certainly, that is one of the first thing that a
geologist wants to know.
Geologists find ways on how to determine the age and traces of history from
the large number of artifacts and monuments bestowed upon us by older
civilization.
There are methods and techniques used by geologists to help them determine
the age of the materials that evolved in the past. In this lesson, the relative and
absolute dating processes will be discussed.
Figure 1. Rock Layers
We have learned that geologic time is measured in two ways: relative and
absolute age. Relative date or age measurement refers only to the order in
which events occurred. On the other hand, absolute age is age in years. It tells
the order in which events occurred and the exact amount of time that has passed
since they occurred.
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What is It
Relative Age
Prior to absolute age measurements, geologist used
field observations to determine the relative ages. They
used simple principle in order to get the relative ages.
The following are the principles used by the
Figure3. Horizontal layers
geologists:
The principle of original horizontality is based on the
observation that sediment usually accumulates in
horizontal layers. Tectonic forces tilted or folded rocks
into an angle after it was formed.
The principle of superposition states that Figure .4Tiltation after
sedimentary rocks become younger from bottom to deposition into horizontal
layers
top. This is because younger layers of the sedimentary
always accumulates at the top of the layers. In figure
4, rocks number 5 are oldest and rocks in 1 are the
youngest.
The principle of crosscutting relationships is based
on the fact that rocks must exist before anything else Figure .5The principle of
happened like intrusions or dikecutting across rocks. superposition
In figure 5, the cut rock layers are older than the rock
that cuts across them.
The principle of faunal succession states that species
succeeded one another through time in a definite and
recognizable order and that the relative ages of Figure .6Horizontal
layerswith dikes
sedimentary rocks can be therefore recognized from
their fossils. The absence or the presence may be used to give a relative
age of the sedimentary where they are found.
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The principle of lateral continuity explained that layers of sediment are
continuous. Layers with same rocks but separated by a valley or erosion
are initially continuous.
Absolute Age
Since change is the only thing that is permanent, the measurement of absolute
age or exact date became a challenging task to the scientists. But they found a
natural process that occurs at constant rate and accumulates its record of the
radioactive decay of elements in rocks.
Radioactive elements decay because they are composed of unstable isotopes
that decompose spontaneously. Each atom has a certain probability of decaying
at any time. It has half-life or time for it to decompose into half.
Radioactivity is not affected by geologic process and easily measured in the
laboratory. Aside from those, daughter isotopes accumulate in rocks. The
longer the rock exists, the more daughter isotopes accumulate. The process of
determining the absolute ages of rocks and minerals by measuring the relative
amounts of parent and daughter isotopes is called radioactive dating.
e.g. a form of uranium changes (decays) to lead
In the above example, the parent element is uranium (U) and the daughter
element is lead (Pb).
Again, the process of radioactive decay can be used for dating rocks because:
Radioactive decay proceeds at a constant, regardless of changes in conditions
such as temperature, pressure, or the chemical environment.
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Here are the commonly used radioactive isotopes in radioactive dating.
Table 1.1 Some Used Isotopes for Radiometric Dating
Parent Daughter Half-life Effective Materials that
Isotope Isotope (Years) Dating Can be Dated
Range Using this
(Years) Isotope
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 100-50000 Wood, shells, or
anything that
was once alive,
Trapped Carbon
dioxide
Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion 40,000-4.6 Muscovite
Calcium-40 billion Biotite
Volcanic rock
Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.5 billion 10 million- Zircon
4.6 billion
Uranium 235 Lead 207 710 million 10 million- Uranite
4.6 billion
Half-Life
It is almost impossible to say when the last of the parent atoms will decay, but
the time taken for half the atoms to decay is comparatively easy to predict. The
half-life of a radioactive decay process is the time taken for half the original
parent atoms to decay.
The length of half-life is a unique feature of each decay process. The half-life
of the uranium is 713 million years. This means that if an igneous rock
contained 1000 atoms of U-235 when it solidified:
After 713 million years, it would contain 500 atoms of U-235 and 500 atoms
of the daughter element for the decay process, Pb-207.
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The proportion of parent atoms/daughter atoms present in an igneous rock
gives the age of the rock — or the number of million years since the rock
solidified
What I Can Do
Activity 1: Venn Diagram
Directions. Fill in the Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences
between absolute dating and relative dating. Use the words inside the word
pool to complete the diagram.
Word Pool
use of numeric value used to tell the age of rocks
quantitative method give an idea of the order of geologic events
use the position of rocks does not give the true age of rocks
radiometric method qualitative method
stratigraphic method use sedimentary rocks
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Prepared by: Checked by: Concurred by:
Melanie G. Tabobo Rosendo C. Bernabe, Jr. PhD Jose Ramil A. Sibun
Teacher I Master Teacher II, Subject Group Head OIC-Asst. Principal II, Academics
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