Research

Methodology
 SYLLABUS
• UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
Meaning, Nature, Type of Research,
Experiment-Laboratory Experiments, Field
Experiments, Field Study, Survey Research,
Major steps in Research, Problem-
Formulation & Kinds, Hypothesis-its kinds,
Variables and Controls, Survey of related
Literature, Ethical Issues.
 SYLLABUS
• UNIT 2: DATA COLLECTION I
• Sampling-Meaning & needs of sampling,
requirement of a good sample, Sampling
Techniques Probability & Non-Probability
 SYLLABUS
UNIT 3: DATA COLLECTION II
Research Tools-Observation, Interviews,
Questionnaire, Rating Scales, Content
Analysis, Case Study, Schedules
 SYLLABUS
UNIT 4: ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
OF DATA Analysis & Interpretation of Data,
Establishment of Categories, Coding,
Tabulation, Statistical Analysis of Data,
Inferring Casual relations.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT 5: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

(a) Format of the synopsis (b) Format of
Project/Dissertation (c) Format of Abstract
(d) Format of Research Paper.
 Objectives
• Real world examples
– Videocon and VMS
– Cadbury vs Perk
– Lakme
– Nano – (failure reaons)
– P&G- ambi Pur
– Sanofi-Avantis
– TVS keyboard
– Unilever in frozen foods (France)
– Japan – cereals breakfast
– Coca Cola and Parle
– Pepsi in India
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Science and Scientific Research
„Research‟ is “a careful study of a subject
especially to discover new facts or information
about it .”
Science and commonsense differ in a variety
of ways in fixing beliefs

• Commonsense observes and relates variables

in an unsystematic i.e. unorganized &
unplanned way.
• It often generalizes behavior of phenomena
in an uncontrolled way.
• It tests hypotheses in a selective way i.e .it
selects evidences and gives explanation simply
because it is consistent with his hypothesis.
 But the Scientist's approach is different in
fixing beliefs on the behavior of phenomena

• Scientific approach is a systematically built

theoretical structure (with a proper design and
a plan of investigation).
• It tests beliefs/theories empirically and in a
controlled condition (where ever necessary.
• A scientist carefully guards his research
against his own preconception on the
behaviour of variables.
 A Definition of Scientific Research

• Scientific research is a systematic study of the

hypothetical propositions on presumed behaviour
of and relationship or interrelationship between
the observed phenomena in any discipline.
This definition emphasizes „systematic study‟. The
word systematic may include various aspects,
such as controlled condition, if possible, in a
discipline, point out empirical analysis with a
priori reasoning and logic of relationship.
The Scientific Method

Direct observation

Clearly defined variables

Clearly defined methods

Empirically testable

Elimination of alternatives

Statistical justification

Self-correcting process
 Researchers

•Encounter problems
•State problems
•Propose hypotheses
•Deduce outcomes
•Formulate rival
hypotheses
•Devise and conduct
empirical tests
•Draw conclusions
 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning works from the more

general to the more specific.

Informally called a "top-down" approach.

 Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning works the other way,

moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories.

Informally, a "bottom up" approach

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Complementary to Each Other
 Generalization

• A social scientist begins to explain a limited range of

social behavior or behavior of a limited sub-set of
population and then normally extends his/her findings to
explain the behavior of other sub-sets (i.e. S/he
generalizes the behavior of variables ).
• The process of induction is useful in generalization.
• The scientist is not interested in specific observation . He
generalizes the behavior of phenomena and frames theory.
 Parsimony
• Multiple causation suggests that social/economic phenomena are explained
using multivariate models where several variables are used.
• Additional variables increase explanatory power of a model (in a dependency
relationship), but it also complicates the relationship (model) and makes
estimation difficult.
• Use of more variables decreases generalizability since different variables may
have different impact on different population sub-set.
• One has to identify the more or less relevant variables with “a priori”
reasoning.
• A judicious decision is warranted in explaining socio-economic behavior.

Parsimony in social science refers to “more understanding from least variables”

 Categories of Research

Applied Basic (Pure)

Applied - discovering solutions for immediate problems or

opportunities.

Basic (or pure) - aims to solve perplexing questions or obtain

new knowledge of an experimental or theoretical nature that
has little direct or immediate impact on action, performance,
or policy decisions.
 Types of Studies

Reporting Descriptive

Explanatory Predictive

 Reporting – recasting / summarising data to

achieve a deeper understanding or comparison
 Descriptive - who, what, when, where…
 Explanatory - explain the reasons for the
descriptive phenomenon
 Predictive – predict occurrence of an event
Mode of operation of these research
activities
• The modes could broadly be divided into four
categories
• 1.Laboratory Experiments
• 2. Field experiments
• 3. Field studies
• a) Ethnographic studies-participatory, observation
• b) Socio-economic study (Survey)
• c) Evaluation studies
• d) Case Studies
 1.LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
• Complete control or control to a great extent of
extraneous variables not pertinent to the immediate
issue of research.
• Absolute precision and replicability are possible.
• Such experiments are not possible in social sciences
(with exception such as in psychology or educational
research).
• However, laboratory experiments in social sciences
are not as exact as in case of the physical sciences.
 2. Field Experiment
These are studies in the realistic situation.
• They are known as research studies with a holistic
approach. ( No “Ceteris paribus” assumption )
• Unlike Laboratory Experiment, these studies are
conducted in natural condition with no control or
little control over other variables, but the researcher
intervenes in one or more variables.
• Action research is a form of field experiments.
 3. Field Studies
• Field studies are post facto study aimed at
discovering existing behavior/ relations amongst
variables.
• The researcher does not intervene in any variable(s).
• Expl: Behavior and relationship between various
socio-political and socio-economic and market
related variables.
• Decisions are taken on the basis of the observed
relationships for explanation and prediction.
 a) Ethnographic Studies

Studies relating to ethnography, social and

anthropological studies etc are conducted by the
researchers.
• In this types of studies the researcher does
not intervene in any of the variables.
• He simply observes ,analyses,compares and
prepares the report.
 b. Socioeconomic studies (Surveys)
(A type of field study)

• Survey could be
a) Census Survey and b) Sample survey.
• Depends on factors like population size, time
available, feasibility etc.
• Sample surveys are considered to be an important
branch of social scientific enquiry to arrive at
conclusions about the population using statistical
techniques.
• Socio-economic studies,
 c) Evaluation Studies
• Evaluation studies are very useful in accessing
the effectiveness of any intervention done
earlier.
• The are also known as social audits of
programs.
• It uses sample surveys
 d) Case Studies

• Case study is an in depth, descriptive or explanatory study of

a person, group, event, organization, industry, firm,
community etc.
• It can also be exploratory study.
• A case study can be used as an explanatory study to explore
cause-and-effect relationship amongst the phenomena under
study.
• Such exploratory and explanatory studies are used to identify
the underlying principles. It uses the existing information on
the phenomena or historical data in the analysis.
 Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y " will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.

____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the

(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).

It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a

that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.

____________________________________________________
 Conditions for Causality

• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a

cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary
together in the way predicted by the hypothesis
under consideration.
• The time order of occurrence condition states that
the causing event must occur either before or
simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur
afterwards.
• The absence of other possible causal factors means
that the factor or variable being investigated should
be the only possible causal explanation.
 Definitions and Concepts

• Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are

manipulated and whose effects are measured and compared,
e.g., price levels.
• Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities
whose response to the independent variables or treatments is
being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
• Dependent variables are the variables which measure the
effect of the independent variables on the test units, e.g.,
sales, profits, and market shares.
• Extraneous variables are all variables other than the
independent variables that affect the response of the test
units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort.
 Experimental Design

An experimental design is a set of procedures

specifying

– the test units and how these units are to be

divided into homogeneous subsamples,
– what independent variables or treatments are to
be manipulated,
– what dependent variables are to be measured,
and
– how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.
 Validity in Experimentation

• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation

of the independent variables or treatments actually
caused the observed effects on the dependent
variables. Control of extraneous variables is a
necessary condition for establishing internal validity.
• External validity refers to whether the cause-and-
effect relationships found in the experiment can be
generalized. To what populations, settings, times,
independent variables and dependent variables can
the results be projected?
 Extraneous Variables

• History refers to specific events that are external to the

experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment.
• Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units
themselves that occur with the passage of time.
• Testing effects are caused by the process of experimentation.
Typically, these are the effects on the experiment of taking a
measure on the dependent variable before and after the
presentation of the treatment.
• The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior observation
affects a latter observation.
 Extraneous Variables

• In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior measurement

affects the test unit's response to the independent variable.
• Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the measuring
instrument, in the observers or in the scores themselves.
• Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test units with
extreme scores move closer to the average score during the
course of the experiment.
• Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper assignment of test
units to treatment conditions.
• Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while the
experiment is in progress.
 Controlling Extraneous Variables

• Randomization refers to the random assignment of test units

to experimental groups by using random numbers. Treatment
conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental
groups.
• Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key
background variables before assigning them to the treatment
conditions.
• Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous
variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical
analysis.
• Design control involves the use of experiments designed to
control specific extraneous variables.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

• Pre-experimental designs do not employ

randomization procedures to control for extraneous
factors: the one-shot case study, the one-group
pretest-posttest design, and the static-group.
• In true experimental designs, the researcher can
randomly assign test units to experimental groups
and treatments to experimental groups: the pretest-
posttest control group design, the posttest-only
control group design
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

• Quasi-experimental designs result when the

researcher is unable to achieve full manipulation of
scheduling or allocation of treatments to test units
but can still apply part of the apparatus of true
experimentation: time series and multiple time
series designs.
• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments
that allows for statistical control and analysis of
external variables: randomized block design, Latin
square design, and factorial designs.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental True Quasi Statistical

Experimental Experimental

One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Blocks

One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Series

Static Group Factorial

Design
 One-Shot Case Study

X 01

• A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment

X.
• A single measurement on the dependent variable is
taken (01).
• There is no random assignment of test units.
• The one-shot case study is more appropriate for
exploratory than for conclusive research.
 One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

01 X 02

• A group of test units is measured twice.

• There is no control group.
• The treatment effect is computed as
02 – 01.
• The validity of this conclusion is questionable
since extraneous variables are largely
uncontrolled.
 Static Group Design

EG: X 01
CG: 02

• A two-group experimental design.

• The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the
treatment, and the control group (CG) is not.
• Measurements on both groups are made only after
the treatment.
• Test units are not assigned at random.
• The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.
 True Experimental Designs:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

EG: R 01 X 02
CG: R 03 04

• Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control
group.
• A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
• The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:(02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
• Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
• The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows:
02 – 01= TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
04 – 03= H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO
= EV (Extraneous Variables)
• The experimental result is obtained by:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03) = TE + IT
• Interactive testing effect is not controlled.
 Posttest-Only Control Group Design

EG : R X 01
CG : R 02

• The treatment effect is obtained by

TE = 01 - 02
• Except for pre-measurement, the implementation
of this design is very similar to that of the pretest-
posttest control group design.
 Quasi-Experimental Designs:
Time Series Design

01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010

• There is no randomization of test units to

treatments.
• The timing of treatment presentation, as well
as which test units are exposed to the
treatment, may not be within the researcher's
control.
 Multiple Time Series Design

EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010

• If the control group is carefully selected, this

design can be an improvement over the
simple time series experiment.
• Can test the treatment effect twice: against
the pretreatment measurements in the
experimental group and against the control
group.
 Laboratory versus Field Experiments

Factor Laboratory Field

Environment Artificial Realistic

Control High Low
Reactive Error High Low
Demand Artifacts High Low
Internal Validity High Low
External Validity Low High
Time Short Long
Number of Units Small Large
Ease of Implementation High Low
Cost Low High
 Limitations of Experimentation

• Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the

researcher is interested in measuring the long-term
effects.
• Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of
experimental group, control group, and multiple
measurements significantly add to the cost of research.
• Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be
impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous
variables, particularly in a field environment.
• Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of
a field experiment.
Business Research Process
Research Process

Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Step 4: Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing and Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing and Presenting the Report

 Research Process Steps
Problem Definition
Purpose, background information
Information requirements
Discussion Expert Interviews, secondary data
Qualitative analysis

Approach to the Problem

Theoretical Framework
Analytical Model
Research questions
Hypothesis
Relevant Features

Research Design
Method of data collection
Measurement and Scaling
Questionnaire design
Sampling Plan
Data Analysis
Research Process Steps
Data Collection
Personal Interview
Telephone
Mail
Electronic

Data preparation and Analysis

Editing
Coding
Transaction/Verification
Univariate/Multivariate data Analysis

Report Preparation and Presentation

Documentation of Research project
Results, major findings
Oral presentation
Problem Formulation, Types of Hypothesis

Research Topic
Objectives/Research Problems
Research Questions/Hypotheses
Meaning of Research Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is an assumption or
proposition to be proved or disproved.

• Predictive or declarative statement

capable of being tested by scientific
methods.

• Tentative answer to research problem.

55
 Features of a Good Hypothesis
• Clear and precise.

• Capable of being tested.

• Based on objectives.

• Impartial framing.
56
 Relevance of Hypothesis

• Pivot of scientific research.

• Gives direction to research.

• Linking pin.

• Focused study.
57
 Development of Research
Questions and Hypotheses

Components of the
Marketing Research Problem
Objective/
Theoretical
Framework Research Questions
Analytical
Model
Hypotheses
 Research Questions and Hypotheses

 Research questions (RQs) are refined

statements of the specific components of the
problem.
 A hypothesis (H) is an unproven statement or
proposition about a factor or phenomenon
that is of interest to the researcher. Often, a
hypothesis is a possible answer to the
research question.
 Hypothesis Formats

Descriptive Research Question

• In Detroit, our potato • What is the market
chip market share share for our potato
stands at 13.7%. chips in Detroit?
• American cities are • Are American cities
experiencing budget experiencing budget
difficulties. difficulties?

2-60
 Relational Hypotheses

Correlational Causal
• Young women (under 35) • An increase in family
purchase fewer units of our income leads to an increase
product than women who in the percentage of income
are older than 35. saved.
• The number of suits sold • Loyalty to a grocery store
varies directly with the level increases the probability of
of the business cycle. purchasing that store’s
private brand products.

2-61
 Variables

• Dichotomous and Polytomous

• Qualitative and Quantitative
• Independent, Dependent, Moderating,
Intervening and Extraneous Variables
• Manifest and Latent Variables
• Dummy Variables
• Proxy Variables
 Ethics in Research
Ethics
 Whether a particular action is right
or wrong, good/bad
 Business functions close to public
scrutiny
 Mistaken perception – business
unethical
 Complex Subject
Major Characteristics of
Ethical Decisions

 Extended / long term effect

 Grey area – multiple interpretations
 Both positive / negative outcomes
 Outcome uncertain / unpredictable
 Personal implications
 Stakeholder Concepts

 Stakeholder - Who is / can be affected by the

process under scrutiny
 In Research, four major types
i) PUBLIC – as recipients of incomplete,
misleading, or biased research
ii) RESPONDENT - Informed Consent +
debriefing should be there
- Survey disguised for selling
- Invasion of privacy
 Stakeholder Concepts

(iii) CLIENTS – Research agency not

conducting high quality research
- Redundant research
- Unqualified researcher
- Violation of confidentiality clause
in contract - Disclosure of
identity
 Stakeholder Concepts

(iv) RESEACHER
- Improper solicitation by the
client for information
- Use of its proprietary techniques
by client
- Misrepresentation of findings
 Ethics and Research Process

 Problem Definition - Secondary data

sufficient?
Approach - Preliminary finding
conclusive?
Research Design - Reveal nature of true
problem to focus group participants?
Field work - Field worker unethical,
validation checks?
Ethics and Research Process

 Data Analysis - Throwing away

“undesirable” data?
 Report
i) Limitations?
ii) Misrepresentation?
Ethical Treatment of Participants

Explain study benefits

Explain participant rights

and protections

Obtain informed
consent
Components of Informed Consent

• Identify researchers • Give “good-faith”

• Describe survey topic estimate of required
• Describe target sample time commitment
• Identify sponsor • State participation is
voluntary
• Describe purpose of
research • State item-non
response is acceptable
• Promise anonymity and
confidentiality • Ask for permission
 Debriefing

Explain any deception

Describe purpose

Share results

Provide follow-up
 Right to Privacy

Right to refuse

Prior permission to
interview

Limit time required

 74
Source: Business Research Methods: Cooper and Schindler, McGrawHill
 Ethical Issue – Students-
Academicians
• NOT Identifying the REAL problem
• Over-Simplifying the SIMPLE problems
• NOT doing Enough RoL
• Target respondent represents TRUE pop?
• Generating biased Results
• No understanding of Analytical Tech applied
• Referencing
• Plagiarism
75
 References
• Business Research Methods: Cooper and
Schindler, McGrawHill
• Marketing Research: Naresh Malhotra,
Pearson
• Business Research Methods: CK Mishra,
Oxford