Genetically Modified Crops

The Genetically Modified Crops are the foods that have a gene extracted from a living thing and
placed in a different food by a scientist or an expert. The main aim of Genetically Modified
Crops is to create a food that is able to survive even if any harmful chemicals or pesticides or
herbicides are sprayed. Another purpose of genetically modified crops is to make food stay fresh
for a long time.

Gene technology is a type of modern biotechnology that makes use of living things to make or
change product.Some of genetically modified crops and food are corn, tomato, beets, potatoes,
sprouts, aldalfa, soyabeans.canola oil, rice, wheat, meat, poultry, Processed Foods like
Convenience Foods, Condiments, Salad Dressings, Juice, Soda, Vitamins, Chocolate including
many frozen meals, heatand serve meals.

Meal Mixes
 Frozen Pizza, Canned Foods, Food in Jars, Soups, Baby Foods, Bread, Cereal, Breakfast Foods,
Soy Lecithin, Soy Protein, Soy Oil, Cotton, Cottonseed Oil, Energy Bars

Advantages

 The agricultural process is kinder to the environment, by using less pesticides, fertilizers
and water.
 Gene technology is one of the best solutions to the problem of world hunger. It can
increase production and lower the cost of food.
 Gene modification can boost immunity and develop inbuilt vaccines for livestock and
poultry.
 Gene technology can remove lactose, so that lactose-intolerant people can eat dairy
products.
 Crops could be grown in areas suffering from drought and salt.
 Genetically Modified crops are faster and cheaper.
 Genetically Modified Foods are often thought to be more nutritious, tasting better and last
longer.
 Many people rely on genetically modified foods for medicines, e.g.,insulin for diabetics.
 Genetically Modified Foods are safe.

Disadvantages

 Most food manafacturers are unable or unwilling to provide information on whether or

not their products contain Genetically Modified ingredients
 Genetically Modified Crops can contaminate other crops simply by pollen being blown
by wind from one field to another.
 World starvation has more to do with wealth distribution rather than the inadequate
production of foods.
 Sometimes genetically modified crops have allergenic effects.
 New viruses could evolve from the mass production of GM crops.
 The more that gene technology is used, the worse the environment will become.
 Pests may develop resistance to GM crops that have been designed to kill them.
 GM crops produce religious complications.
 GM crops may produce ecological side effects (Monarch butterfiles).

 Genetically modified foods (or GM foods) are foods derived from genetically modified
organisms. Genetically modified organisms have had specific changes introduced into
their DNA by genetic engineering techniques. These techniques are much more precise[1]
than mutagenesis (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or
chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which humans
modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal breeding,
and somaclonal variation.

 GM foods were first put on the market in the early 1990s. Typically, genetically modified
foods are transgenic plant products: soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. Animal
products have also been developed, although as of July 2010 none are currently on the
market.[2] In 2006 a pig was controversially[3][4] engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids
through the expression of a roundworm gene.[5] Researchers have also developed a
genetically-modified breed of pigs that are able to absorb plant phosphorus more
efficiently, and as a consequence the phosphorus content of their manure is reduced by as
much as 60%.[6]

 Critics have objected to GM foods on several grounds, including safety issues,[7]

ecological concerns, and economic concerns raised by the fact that these organisms are
subject to intellectual property
 Method
 Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. In the process of
cisgenesis, genes are artificially transferred between organisms that could be
conventionally bred. In the process of transgenesis, genes from a different species are
inserted, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when
exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may
require transferring genes as part of an attenuated virus genome or physically inserting
the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host using a microsyringe, or as a coating
on gold nanoparticles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural
forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to
plants, and the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells.
 [edit] Development
 The first commercially grown genetically modified whole food crop was a tomato (called
FlavrSavr), which was modified to ripen without softening, by Calgene, later a subsidiary
of Monsanto.[8] Calgene took the initiative to obtain FDA approval for its release in 1994
without any special labeling, although legally no such approval was required.[9] It was
welcomed by consumers who purchased the fruit at a substantial premium over the price
of regular tomatoes. However, production problems[8] and competition from a
conventionally bred, longer shelf-life variety prevented the product from becoming
profitable. A tomato produced using similar technology to the Flavr Savr was used by
Zeneca to produce tomato paste which was sold in Europe during the summer of 1996.[10]
 [11]
The labeling and pricing were designed as a marketing experiment, which proved, at
the time, that European consumers would accept genetically engineered foods. Currently,
there are a number of food species in which a genetically modified version exists (percent
modified are mostly 2009/2010 data[12][13][14][15][16][17]).

Percent Percent
Properties of the genetically
Food Modification Modified in Modified
modified variety
US in world
Herbicide resistant
Resistant to glyphosate or gene taken from
Soybeans 93% 77%
glufosinate herbicides bacteria inserted into
soybean
Resistant to glyphosate or
glufosinate herbicides. Insect
resistance via producing Bt
proteins, some previously New genes, some
used as pesticides in organic from the bacterium
crop production. Vitamin- Bacillus
Corn, field 86% 26%
enriched corn derived from thuringiensis,
South African white corn added/transferred
variety M37W has bright into plant genome.
orange kernels, with 169x
increase in beta carotene, 6x
the vitamin C and 2x folate.[18]
Bt crystal protein
Cotton
gene
(cottonseed Pest-resistant cotton 93% 49%
added/transferred
oil)
into plant genome
Planted in the
US from
New genes 2005–2007;
Resistant to glyphosate or
Alfalfa added/transferred banned until
glufosinate herbicides
into plant genome. January 2011
and presently
legal
New gene
Hawaiian Variety is resistant to the
added/transferred 80%
papaya papaya ringspot virus.[19]
into plant genome
Tomatoes Variety in which the A reverse copy (an Taken off the Small
production of the enzyme antisense gene) of the market due to quantities
polygalacturonase (PG) is gene responsible for commercial grown in
suppressed, retarding fruit the production of PG failure. China
softening after harvesting.[20] enzyme added into
 plant genome
Resistance to herbicides New genes
Rapeseed
(glyphosate or glufosinate), added/transferred 93% 21%
(Canola)
high laurate canola[21] into plant genome
Resistance to certain New genes
Sugar cane pesticides, high sucrose added/transferred
content. into plant genome
95% (2010);
New genes planting in
Resistance to glyphosate,
Sugar beet added/transferred 2011 under 9%
glufosinate herbicides
into plant genome controlled
conditions
"Golden rice" Three
Genetically modified to new genes implanted: Forecast to be
Rice contain high amounts of two from daffodils on the market
Vitamin A (beta-carotene) and the third from a in 2013[22]
bacterium
Resistance to watermelon,
Squash Contains coat protein
cucumber and zucchini yellow 13%
(Zucchini) genes of viruses.
mosaic viruses[23][24]
Small
Sweet Contains coat protein quantities
Resistance to virus[25]
Peppers genes of the virus. grown in
China

 In addition, various genetically engineered micro-organisms are routinely used as sources

of enzymes for the manufacture of a variety of processed foods. These include alpha-
amylase from bacteria, which converts starch to simple sugars, chymosin from bacteria or
fungi that clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase from fungi which
improves fruit juice clarity.[26]

RFLP Method - Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

RFLP (often pronounced "rif lip", as if it were a word) is a method used by molecular
biologists to follow a particular sequence of DNA as it is passed on to other cells.
RFLPs can be used in many different settings to accomplish different objectives.
RFLPs can be used in paternity cases or criminal cases to determine the source of a
DNA sample. RFLPs can be used determine the disease status of an individual.
RFLPs can be used to measure recombination rates which can lead to a genetic map
with the distance between RFLP loci measured in centiMorgans.

On this web page, you can see how RFLPs are produced and then three examples of
applying RFLP analysis: paternity, disease status, and genetic mapping.

RFLP Production

Each organism inherits its DNA from its parents. Since DNA is replicated with each
generation, any given sequence can be passed on to the next generation. An RFLP is a
sequence of DNA that has a restriction site on each end with a "target" sequence in
between. A target sequence is any segment of DNA that bind to a probe by forming
complementary base pairs. A probe is a sequence of single-stranded DNA that has
been tagged with radioactivity or an enzyme so that the probe can be detected. When a
probe base pairs to its target, the investigator can detect this binding and know where
the target sequence is since the probe is detectable. RFLP produces a series of bands
when a Southern blot is performed with a particular combination of restriction enzyme
and probe sequence.

For example, let's follow a particular RFLP that is defined by the restriction enzyme
EcoR I and the target sequence of 20 bases GCATGCATGCATGCATGCAT. EcoR I
binds to its recognition seuqence GAATTC and cuts the double-stranded DNA as
shown:

In the segement of DNA shown below, you can see the elements of an RFLP; a target
sequence flanked by a pair of restriction sites. When this segment of DNA is cut by
EcoR I, three restriction fragments are produced, but only one contains the target
sequence which can be bound by the complementary probe sequence (purple).
Let's look at two people and the segments of DNA they carry that contain this RFLP
(for clarity, we will only see one of the two stands of DNA). Since Jack and Jill are
both diploid organisms, they have two copies of this RFLP. When we examine one
copy from Jack and one copy from Jill, we see that they are identical:
Jack 1: -GAATTC---(8.2 kb)---GCATGCATGCATGCATGCAT---(4.2 kb)---GAATTC-

Jill 1: -GAATTC---(8.2 kb)---GCATGCATGCATGCATGCAT---(4.2 kb)---GAATTC-

When we examine their second copies of this RFLP, we see that they are not identical.
Jack 2 lacks an EcoR I restriction site that Jill has 1.2 kb upstream of the target
sequence (difference in italics).
Jack 2: -GAATTC--(1.8 kb)-CCCTTT--(1.2 kb)--GCATGCATGCATGCATGCAT--(1.3 kb)-
GAATTC-

Jill 2: -GAATTC--(1.8 kb)-GAATTC--(1.2 kb)--GCATGCATGCATGCATGCAT--(1.3 kb)-

GAATTC-

Therefore, when Jack and Jill have their DNA subject to RFLP analysis, they will
have one band in common and one band that does not match the other's in molecular
weight:
paternity Case
Let's use RFLP technology to determine if Jack is the father of Jill's child named
Payle.

In this scenario, DNA was extracted from white blood cells from all three individuals
and subjected to RFLP analysis. The results are shown below:

In this case, it appears that Jack could be the father, since Payle inherited the 12.4 kb
fragment from Jill and the 4.3 fragment from Jack. However, it is possible that
another man with similar RFLP pattern could be as well.To be certain, several more
RFLP loci would be tested. It would be highly unlikely that two men (other than
identical twins) would share multiple RFLP patterns and so paternity could be
confirmed.

In a different scenario, DNA was extracted from white blood cells from all three
individuals and subjected to RFLP analysis. The results are shown below:
This time, it can be determined that Jack is NOT the father of Payle since Payle has a
band of about 6 kb and Jack does not. Therefore, it is very probable that Payle's father
is not Jack, though it is possible that Payle carries a new mutation at this locus and a
different sized band was produced. What could you do as an investigator to be more
certain that Jack was not the father of Payle?

Disease Status
In this example, we want to know if a person carries any cystic fibrosis (CF) alleles
and if so, how many. Because CF is a recessive disease, anyonne with CF must be
homozygous for disease alleles. From pedigree information, we can often determine
who in this family is a carrier. However, if a couple comes to a genetic counselor,
often an RFLP analysis is performed on the couple's DNA.

RFLPs are known for CF and so it would be easy to determine if a person were
homozygous wild-type (wt), heterozygous "carrier", or homozygous disease alleles
and thus have CF.

For couples expecting a child, it would be simple to test both parents and make a
prediction about the eventual disease status of their fetus. For example, if both parents
were homozygous wt, then all of their children would also be homozygous wt:
However, if both parents were heterozygous, they could have children with any of the
three genotypes, though heterozygous children would be twice as likely as either of
the homozygous genotypes.
With increasing genomic sequence information, increasing numbers of genetic disease
can be predicted from RFLP analyses.

Genetic Mapping
To calculate the genetic distance between to loci, you need to be able to observe
recombination. Traditionally, this was performed by observing phenotypes but with
RFLP analysis, it is possible to measure the genetic distance between two RFLP loci
whether they are a part of genes or not.

Let's look at a simple example in fruit flies. Two RFLP loci with two RFLP bands
possible at each locus:

These loci are located on the same chromosome for the female (left) and the male
(right). The upper locus can produce two different bands called 1 and 3. The lower
locus can produce bands called 2 or 4. The male is homozygous for band 1 at the
upper locus and 2 for the lower locus. The female is heterozygous at both loci. Thier
RFLP banding patterns can be seen on the Southern blot below:
The male can only produce one type of gamete (1 and 2) but the female can produce
four different gametes. Two of the possible four are called parental because they carry
both RFLP bands from the same chromosome; 1 and 2 from the left chromosome or 3
and 4 from the right chromosome. The other two chromosomes are recombinant
because recombination has occurred between the two loci and thus the RFLP bands
are mixed so that 1 is now linked to 4 and 3 is linked to 2.

When these two flies mate, the frequency of the four possible progeny can be
measured and from this information, the genetic distance between the two RFLP loci
(upper and lower) can be determined.

In this example, 70% of the progeny were produce from parental genotype eggs and
30% were produced by recombinant genotype eggs. Therefore, these two RFLP loci
are 30 centiMorgans apart from each other.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

Introduction
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a difference in homologous DNA
sequences that can be detected by the presence of fragments of different lengths after digestion
of the DNA samples in question with specific restriction endonucleases. RFLP, as a molecular
marker, is specific to a single clone/restriction enzyme combination.

Most RFLP markers are co-dominant (both alleles in heterozygous sample will be detected) and
highly locus-specific.

An RFLP probe is a labeled DNA sequence that hybridizes with one or more fragments of the
digested DNA sample after they were separated by gel electrophoresis, thus revealing a unique
blotting pattern characteristic to a specific genotype at a specific locus. Short, single- or low-
copy genomic DNA or cDNA clones are typically used as RFLP probes.

The RFLP probes are frequently used in genome mapping and in variation analysis (genotyping,
forensics, paternity tests, hereditary disease diagnostics, etc.).

How It Works

SNPs
or

INDELs can create or abolish restriction endonuclease (RE) recognition sites, thus affecting
quantities and length of DNA fragments resulting from RE digestion.

Genotyping
 Developing RFLP probes

 Total DNA is digested

with a methylation-
sensitive enzyme (for
example, PstI),
thereby enriching the
library for single- or
low-copy expressed
sequences (PstI
clones are based on
the suggestion that
expressed genes are
not methylated).
 The digested DNA is
size-fractionated on a preparative agarose gel, and fragments ranging from 500 to 2000 bp are
excised, eluted and cloned into a plasmid vector (for example, pUC18).
 Digests of the plasmids are screened to check for inserts.
 Southern blots of the inserts can be probed with total sheared DNA to select clones that
hybridize to single- and low-copy sequences.
 The probes are screened for RFLPs using genomic DNA of different genotypes digested with
restriction endonucleases. Typically, in species with moderate to high polymorphism rates, two
to four restriction endonucleases are used such as EcoRI

, EcoRV, and HindIII. In species with low polymorphism rates, additional restriction
endonucleases can be tested to increase the chance of finding polymorphism.

PCR-RFLP

Isolation of sufficient DNA for RFLP analysis is time consuming and labor intensive. However,
PCR can be used to amplify very small amounts of DNA, usually in 2-3 hours, to the levels
required for RFLP analysis. Therefore, more samples can be analyzed in a shorter time. An
alternative name for the technique is Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence (CAPS) assay.

RAPD (pronounced "rapid") stands for Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type
of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random. The scientist
performing RAPD creates several arbitrary, short primers (8-12 nucleotides), then proceeds with
the PCR using a large template of genomic DNA, hoping that fragments will amplify. By
resolving the resulting patterns, a semi-unique profile can be gleaned from a RAPD reaction.

No knowledge of the DNA sequence for the targeted gene is required, as the primers will bind
somewhere in the sequence, but it is not certain exactly where. This makes the method popular
for comparing the DNA of biological systems that have not had the attention of the scientific
community, or in a system in which relatively few DNA sequences are compared (it is not
suitable for forming a DNA databank). Because it relies on a large, intact DNA template
sequence, it has some limitations in the use of degraded DNA samples. Its resolving power is
much lower than targeted, species specific DNA comparison methods, such as short tandem
repeats. In recent years, RAPD has been used to characterize, and trace, the phylogeny of diverse
plant and animal species.

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers are DNA fragments from PCR
amplification of random segments of genomic DNA with single primer of arbitrary nucleotide
sequence.

How It Works

Unlike traditional PCR analysis, RAPD (pronounced "rapid") does not require any specific
knowledge of the DNA sequence of the target organism: the identical 10-mer primers will or will
not amplify a segment of DNA, depending on positions that are complementary to the primers'
sequence. For example, no fragment is produced if primers annealed too far apart or 3' ends of
the primers are not facing each other. Therefore, if a mutation has occurred in the template DNA
at the site that was previously complementary to the primer, a PCR product will not be produced,
resulting in a different pattern of amplified DNA segments on the gel.

Example

RAPD is an inexpensive yet powerful typing method for many bacterial species.

Silver-stained
polyacrylamide gel showing
three distinct RAPD profiles
generated by primer OPE15
for Haemophilus ducreyi
isolates from Tanzania,
Senegal, Thailand, Europe, and North America.

Selecting the right sequence for the primer is very important because different sequences will
produce different band patterns and possibly allow for a more specific recognition of individual
strains.

Limitations of RAPD

 Nearly all RAPD markers are dominant, i.e. it is not possible to distinguish whether a
DNA segment is amplified from a locus that is heterozygous (1 copy) or homozygous (2
copies). Co-dominant RAPD markers, observed as different-sized DNA segments
amplified from the same locus, are detected only rarely.
 PCR is an enzymatic reaction, therefore the quality and concentration of template DNA,
concentrations of PCR components, and the PCR cycling conditions may greatly
 influence the outcome. Thus, the RAPD technique is notoriously laboratory dependent
and needs carefully developed laboratory protocols to be reproducible.
 Mismatches between the primer and the template may result in the total absence of PCR
product as well as in a merely decreased amount of the product. Thus, the RAPD results
can be difficult to interpret.

Developing Locus-specific, Co-Dominant Markers from RAPDs

 The polymorphic RAPD marker band is isolated from the gel.

 It is amplified in the PCR reaction.
 The PCR product is cloned and sequenced.
 New longer and specific primers are designed for the DNA sequence, which is called the
Sequenced Characterized Amplified Region Marker (SCAR).

 Evolution of Microsatellites

 Function of Microsatellites

 Microsatellites and Disease

  

microsatellite

 DEFINITION: 

       A microsatellite consists of a specific sequence of DNA bases or nucleotides which

contains mono, di, tri, or tetra tandem repeats.  For example,

 AAAAAAAAAAA would be referred to as (A)11

 GTGTGTGTGTGT would be referred to as (GT)6

 CTGCTGCTGCTG  would be referred to as (CTG)4

 ACTCACTCACTCACTC would be referred to as (ACTC)4

  In the literature they can also be called simple sequence repeats (SSR), short tandem
repeats (STR), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTR).  Alleles at a specific location
(locus) can differ in the number of repeats.  Microsastellites are inherited in a Mendelian
fashion.

     

 APPLICATIONS:
 

       Because microsatellites are widely dispersed in eukaryotic genomes,  are highly
variable, and are PCR based (requiring only minute amounts of starting template)  they
have been used in many different areas of research such as:

 Forensics- Microsatellite loci, generally known in forensic applications as Short Tandem

Repeat (STR) loci, are widely used for forensic identification and relatedness testing, and
are a predominant genetic marker in this area of application.  In forensic identification
cases, the goal is typically to link a suspect with a sample of blood, semen or hair taken
from a crime.  Alternatively, the goal may be to link a sample found on a suspect's
clothing with a victim. Relatedness testing in criminal work may involve investigating
paternity in order to establish rape or incest.  Another application involves linking DNA
samples with relatives of a missing person.  Because the lengths of microsatellites may
vary from one person to the next, scientists have begun to use them to identify criminals
and to determine paternity, a procedure known as DNA profiling or "fingerprinting". The
features that have made use of microsatellites attractive are due to their relative ease of
use, accuracy of typing and high levels of polymorphism.  The ability to employ PCR to
amplify small samples is particularly valuable in this setting, since in criminal casework
only minute samples of DNA may be available. 

 Diagnosis and Identification of Human Diseases- Because microsatellites change in

length early in the development of some cancers, they are useful markers for early cancer
detection.  Because they are polymorphic they are useful in linkage studies which attempt
to locate genes responsible for various genetic disorders.

 Population Studies- By looking at the variation of microsatellites in populations,

inferences can be made about population structures and differences, genetic drift, genetic
bottlenecks and even the date of a last common ancestor.

 Conservation Biology- Microsatellites can be used to detect sudden changes in

population, effects of population fragmentation and interaction of different populations. 
Microsatellites are useful in identification of new and incipient populations.

Advertising
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the form of communication. For the British musician, see Gaye Advert. For other
uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation).

For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam. For a
proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements.

A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • Pricing
Distribution • Service • Retail
Brand management
Account-based marketing
Marketing ethics
Marketing effectiveness
Market research
Market segmentation
Marketing strategy
Marketing management
Market dominance
Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • Underwriting

Direct marketing • Personal Sales
Product placement • Publicity
 Sales promotion • Sex in advertising
Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes
Promotional media

Printing • Publication
Broadcasting • Out-of-home
Internet marketing • Point of sale
Promotional merchandise
Digital marketing • In-game
In-store demonstration
Word-of-mouth marketing
Brand Ambassador • Drip Marketing
This box: view · talk · edit

Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or

listeners) to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the
desired result is drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although
political and ideological advertising is also common. Advertising messages are usually paid for
by sponsors and viewed via various media; including traditional media such as newspapers,
magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text
messages.

Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or

services through "branding," which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an
effort to associate certain qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial
advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include
political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit
organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement.

Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $300 billion in the United
States[1] and $500 billion worldwide[citation needed].

Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom,
Publicis, and WPP.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Definition
 2 History
o 2.1 Public service advertising
  3 Marketing mix
 4 Advertising theory
 5 Types of advertising
o 5.1 Digital advertising
o 5.2 Physical advertising
 6 Sales promotions
 7 Media and advertising approaches
 8 Current trends
o 8.1 Rise in new media
o 8.2 Niche marketing
o 8.3 Crowdsourcing
o 8.4 Global advertising
o 8.5 Foreign public messaging
o 8.6 Diversification
o 8.7 New technology
o 8.8 Advertising education
 9 Criticisms
 10 Regulation
 11 Advertising research
 12 Semiotics
 13 See also
 14 References
 15 Bibliography
 16 External links

[edit] Definition
1.The non-personal communication of information usually paid for & usually persuasive in
nature, about products (goods & services) or ideas by identified sponsor through various media.
(Arenes (1996) 2.Any paid form of non-personal communication about an organisation,
product ,service, or idea from an identified sponsor.( Blech & Blech (1998) 3.Paid non -personal
communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade influence an audience.
(Wells , burnett, & Moriaty (1998) 4. The element of the marketing communication mix that is
non personal paid for an identified sponsor, & disseminated through mass channels of
communication to promote the adoption of oods, services, person or ideas.( bearden, Ingram, &
Laforge (1998) 5.An informative or persuasive message carried by a non personal medium &
paid for by an identified sponsor whose organisation or product is identified in some way.
( Zikmund & d'amico (1999) 6. Impersonal , one way communication about a product or
organisation that is paid by marketer. ( Lamb, Hair & Mc. Daniel (2000)

[edit] History
Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan

Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and
political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and
found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock
painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form,
which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of
wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[2] History
tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.

As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable
to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image
associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle
or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts
and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts
for the convenience of the customers.

As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising
expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly
newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books
and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and
medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false
advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the
regulation of advertising content.

As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United
States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order
advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages,
allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula
was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the
modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in
various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The
actual ad- the copy, layout, and artwork- was stilled prepared by the company wishing to
advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century
when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan,
create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising
agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established
as a profession. [3] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services
of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group
to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer
& Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W.
Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[3]

An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.

At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however,
advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done
in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the
creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a
woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a
couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[4]
Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.

In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and
retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many
non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included:
schools, clubs and civic groups.[5] When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised,
each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief
mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio
station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small
time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than
selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.

A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica

This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was
fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio
spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and
for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC,
originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public
body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to
persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the
passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications
Commission.[5] However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in
the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".[6] Public broadcasting now exists in the United
States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and
National Public Radio.

In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling
advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for
many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several
businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the
United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as
The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the
content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the
show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the
Hallmark Hall of Fame.

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV.
Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the
consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought.
As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged,
including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and
ShopTV Canada.

Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-
com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering
everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of
websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by
emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users.
This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles
Times on May 6, 1930

The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in
media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines,
signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9
percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless,
advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.[7]

A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such
as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with
brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the
advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of
companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to
buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such
as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations
utilizing social network services such as Facebook.

[edit] Public service advertising

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,
political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.

Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—
it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard
Gossage by David Ogilvy.

Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause

marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated
advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial
enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.

In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon
the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these
requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service
announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers
are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying
advertisers.

Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of
more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The
War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer
of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the
longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.

[edit] Marketing mix

Main article: Marketing mix

The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested
by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic
elements called the four P’s Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents
the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the
product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization.
The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and
convincing them to go out and buy the product.

[edit] Advertising theory

 Hierarchy of effects model[8]

It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The
model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through when
making a purchase. The steps are:

1. Awareness
2. Knowledge
3. Liking
4. Preference
 5. Conviction
6. Purchase

 Means-End Theory

This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the
consumer to a desired end state.

 Leverage Points

It is designed to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those
benefits with personal values.

 Verbal and Visual Images

[edit] Types of advertising

Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human billboard
pictured above

A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular mediums for
advertisers.
A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include
wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio,
cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web
popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers,
sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on
seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens,
musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of
bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the
opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and
supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a
medium is advertising.

[edit] Digital advertising

Television advertising / Music in advertising

The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format,
as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV
events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most
prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot
during this game has reached US$3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television commercials
feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be
inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted
into otherwise blank backdrops[9] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the
remote broadcast audience.[10] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the
background[11] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised
sporting events.[12][13] Virtual product placement is also possible. [14][15] Infomercials: An
infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word
"infomercial" combining the words "information" & "commercial". The main objective in an
infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and
then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or
website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and
commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.
Radio advertising

Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are
broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving
device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials.
While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often
cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but
also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or
more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.

Online advertising

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the
expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Examples of online
advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in
text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising
networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.

Product placements

Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand is embedded
in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other
of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John
Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch
engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main
character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them
"classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase
futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the
vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result
contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for
Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond
films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main
transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the
most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.

[edit] Physical advertising

Press advertising

Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or

trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such
as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local
newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is
classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small,
 narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press
advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article
section of a newspaper.

Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which display
advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main
roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed
in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in
shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard
on Lake Michigan.

Mobile billboard advertising

Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on
dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients,
they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from
planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights.
Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or
periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various
situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day,
and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional
events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.

In-store advertising
 In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a
product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near
checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in
such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.

Coffee cup advertising

Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of
an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first popularized in
Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and parts of the
Middle East.[citation needed]

Street advertising

This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to
create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as
Reverse Graffiti and 3d pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective
tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces.

Celebrity branding

This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain
recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often
advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear
clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns
such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities
to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be
detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight
gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract
with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was
photographed smoking marijuana.

[edit] Sales promotions

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because
they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where they
are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games,
sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The
ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.[16]

[edit] Media and advertising approaches

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio
and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as
well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.

Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising
space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the
website receives.

Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger
audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience
where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to
control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant
to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the
advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets.[17] Another
successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.[18] and malls.[19]

E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known
as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for email users for many years.

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster
rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal
advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).

Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal
cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat
of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier",
"Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, "Nintendo" (often
used by those exposed to many video games) = video games, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive
bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some
companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a
common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a
generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.

As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable
content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile
advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile
advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile
ads.

More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture
and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular
feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web
addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web
content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.
A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online
advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it
has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic
information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise
advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using
social network service.

From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content
Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW
pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero
II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota.

Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented

Reality technology.

[edit] Current trends

[edit] Rise in new media

With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner,
Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now
commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an
advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising
community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute
their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and
internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines:
−10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]

[edit] Niche marketing

Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche
market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The
Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the
most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience
possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche
content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers
with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to
viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast
Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These
advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out
more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the
viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[20]

[edit] Crowdsourcing
Main article: Crowdsourcing

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements.
User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the
company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions.
For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl
contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[21] Chevrolet held a similar
competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[21] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads
in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super
Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact,
the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad
Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were
found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[22][23]

This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising
competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions
for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey’s, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio,
and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost
effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it
remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[24]

[edit] Global advertising

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international,
multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business
objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while
speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising
local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the
evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different
approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing
local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[25]

Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The
ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how
economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can
be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of
Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or
region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[26]

[edit] Foreign public messaging

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services,
often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the
target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign messaging but
also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from
advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing
by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising
campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services
may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel
campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or
improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is
common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the
tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or
depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a
wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the
destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though
are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways
(Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China).
By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,
countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public
impressions. See: Soft Power

 See also: International Travel Advertising

[edit] Diversification

In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note
that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.[27] This is reflected by the
growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI
and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[28]

[edit] New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the
programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as
more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people
watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will
receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers
have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.

[edit] Advertising education

Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees
becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the
strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance
of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run
advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[29]
Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established
companies with students to create these campaigns.

[edit] Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising

While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs.
Unsolicited Commercial Email and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have
become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on
internet service providers.[30] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools,
which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[31] In addition, advertising frequently
uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended
consumer, which may be harmful.

[edit] Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation

In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public
realm.[32] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in
the open countryside.[33] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban[34] with London
also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.

There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the
influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed
in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish
government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within
the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that
Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries
or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, “banning advertisements for
children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[35]

In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to
children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser
Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children
was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.

In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry
operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a
code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to
ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory
organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding
the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.

In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the
UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without
consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence.
All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.
Many advertisers employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g.
printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120
of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in French advertising).[36] The advertisement
of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in
many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display
warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is
often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.

[edit] Advertising research

Main article: Advertising research

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness
and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different
methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-
testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will
perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or
campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing
examples of post-testing advertising research types.

[edit] Semiotics
Main article: Advertising research

The goal of semiotics in the study of advertising is to unmask the arrays of hidden meanings.
Brand names, logos, package designs, advertisements, and television advertisements are
interpreted at a surface level and an underlying one. The surface level involves the use of
specific types of signs in highly creative manner to create a personality for the product such as
images, words, colors, and repeating stories. The underlying level is the concealed meaning of
the text lies. It is where the surface elements cohere into a textuality that conjures up an array of
meanings embedded in the underlying level. Semiotics allows us to filter the meanings and
images that we are in contact with every day[37].

When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories.
Certain characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the
product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can
affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender-role
orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the
message[38].

There are two types of marketing communication claims know as objective and subjective [39].
Objective is related to the extent to which it associates the brand with a tangible product or
service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features. Subjective claims convey
emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-
physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no
physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design (Holbrook, 1978; Edell
&Staelin, 1983). Males tend to respond better to objective marketing communications claims
while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims[40].

When advertising to different genders it is important to remember how men and women process
information. Females process information comprehensively. Males process information through
heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems[41] . Men prefer
to have available and apparent cures to interpret the message where females engage in more
creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation.

One of the most powerful tools in advertising is that it is better to use less than more words
(Vintean, 2010). One of the most basic ways to advertise is by using a logo. Logos put an image
to a name. The number one rule of logo design is to keep it simple. Logos are beneficial to
advertising because they won’t look dated after a couple of years. There are two strategies that
are beneficial to build a brand: distinctiveness and consistency.

When creating a logo, the design must be unique to the business, product, or event they are
representing. It isn’t always necessary to create a new graphic when text will suffice. It is
important to keep consistency when designing a logo. The use of color in a logo is powerful
because they evoke specific emotions.

A typeface must be chosen that can be used consistently in the body of related text documents.
This typeface should set the product apart from other products. For instance if competitors use 12
point Times New Roman it would be helpful to use a different typeface to stand out.