The Babcock & Wilcox Company

The Babcock & Wilcox Company

iv Steam 41
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Preface
Dear Reader:

The founders of our company, George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox, invented
the safety water tube boiler. This invention resulted in the commercialization
of large-scale utility generating stations. Rapid increases in generation of safe,
dependable and economic electricity literally fueled the Industrial Revolution
and dramatically increased the standard of living in the United States and
industrialized economies worldwide throughout the twentieth century.

Advancements in technology to improve efficiency and reduce environmen-

tal emissions have continued for nearly 140 years, creating a unique and valu-
able body of applied engineering that represents the individual and collective
contributions of several generations of employees. As in other areas of science
and engineering, our field has continued to evolve, resulting in an extensive
amount of new material that has been incorporated into our 41st edition of
Steam/its generation and use. This edition required an extensive amount of
personal time and energy from hundreds of employees and reflects our com-
mitment to both our industry and our future.

Today it is clear that the challenge to generate power more efficiently from
fossil fuels, while minimizing impacts to our environment and global climate,
will require significant technological advancements. These advances will re-
quire creativity, perseverance and ingenuity on the part of our employees and
our customers. For inspiration, we can recall the relentless drive and imagi-
nation of one of our first customers, Mr. Thomas Alva Edison. For strength,
we will continue to embrace our Core Values of Quality, Integrity, Service and
People which have served us well over our long history as a company.

I thank our shareholders, our employees, our customers, our partners and
our suppliers for their continued dedication, cooperation and support as we move
forward into what will prove to be a challenging and rewarding century.

To help guide us all along the way, I am very pleased to present Edition: 41.

David L. Keller
President and Chief Operating Officer
The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Steam 41 v
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii to ix
System of Units: English and Système International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Editors’ Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction to Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intro-1 to 17
Selected Color Plates, Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plates 1 to 8
Section I – Steam Fundamentals
Chapter 1 Steam Generation – An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-17
2 Thermodynamics of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 to 2-27
3 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 to 3-17
4 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 to 4-33
5 Boiling Heat Transfer, Two-Phase Flow and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 to 5-21
6 Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion . . . . 6-1 to 6-25
7 Metallurgy, Materials and Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 to 7-25
8 Structural Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 to 8-17
Section II – Steam Generation from Chemical Energy
Chapter 9 Sources of Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 to 9-19
10 Principles of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 to 10-31
11 Oil and Gas Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 to 11-17
12 Solid Fuel Processing and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 to 12-19
13 Coal Pulverization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 to 13-15
14 Burners and Combustion Systems for Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1 to 14-21
15 Cyclone Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1 to 15-13
16 Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1 to 16-11
17 Fluidized-Bed Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1 to 17-15
18 Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1 to 18-17
19 Boilers, Superheaters and Reheaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1 to 19-21
20 Economizers and Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1 to 20-17
21 Fuel Ash Effects on Boiler Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1 to 21-27
22 Performance Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1 to 22-21
23 Boiler Enclosures, Casing and Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1 to 23-9
24 Boiler Cleaning and Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1 to 24-21
25 Boiler Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1 to 25-23
Section Ill – Applications of Steam
Chapter 26 Fossil Fuel Boilers for Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1 to 26-17
27 Boilers for Industry and Small Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1 to 27-21
28 Chemical and Heat Recovery in the Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1 to 28-29
29 Waste-to-Energy Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1 to 29-23
30 Wood and Biomass Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1 to 30-11
31 Marine Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1 to 31-13

vi Steam 41
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Section IV – Environmental Protection

Chapter 32 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1 to 32-17
33 Particulate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1 to 33-13
34 Nitrogen Oxides Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1 to 34-15
35 Sulfur Dioxide Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1 to 35-19
36 Environmental Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1 to 36-15
Section V – Specification, Manufacturing and Construction
Chapter 37 Equipment Specification, Economics and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1 to 37-17
38 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1 to 38-13
39 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1 to 39-19
Section VI – Operations
Chapter 40 Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1 to 40-25
41 Controls for Fossil Fuel-Fired Steam Generating Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1 to 41-21
42 Water and Steam Chemistry, Deposits and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1 to 42-29
43 Boiler Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1 to 43-17
Section VII – Service and Maintenance
Chapter 44 Maintaining Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1 to 44-21
45 Condition Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1 to 45-21
Section VIII – Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy
Chapter 46 Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1 to 46-25
47 Fundamentals of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1 to 47-15
48 Nuclear Steam Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1 to 48-15
49 Nuclear Services and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1 to 49-21
50 Nuclear Equipment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1 to 50-13
Appendices
Appendix 1 Conversion Factors, SI Steam Properties and Useful Tables . . . . . . . . . . . T-1 to T-16
2 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 to C-6
Symbols, Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S-1 to S-10
B&W Trademarks in Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1 to I-22

Steam 41 vii
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Editors’ Foreword
When we completed the 40th edition of Steam in 1992, we had a sense that
perhaps our industry was stabilizing. But activity has again accelerated. To-
day, efficiencies are being driven even higher. Emissions are being driven even
lower. Many current technologies are being stretched, and new technologies
are being developed, tested and installed. We have once again changed much
of Steam to reflect our industry’s activity and anticipated developments.
Recognizing the rich history of this publication, we previously drew words
from an 1883 edition’s preface to say that “we have revised the whole, and
added much new and valuable matter.” For this new 41st edition we can draw
from the 1885 edition to say “Having again revised Steam, and enlarged it by
the addition of new and useful information, not published heretofore, we shall
feel repaid for the labor if it shall prove of value to our customers.”
We hope this new edition is of equal value to our partners and suppliers,
government personnel, students and educators, and all present and future em-
ployees of The Babcock & Wilcox Company.

Steam 41 xi
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Introduction to Steam

Throughout history, mankind has reached beyond Intimately related to steam generation is the steam
the acceptable to pursue a challenge, achieving sig- turbine, a device that changes the energy of steam
nificant accomplishments and developing new tech- into mechanical work. In the early 1600s, an Italian
nology. This process is both scientific and creative. En- named Giovanni Branca produced a unique invention
tire civilizations, organizations, and most notably, in- (Fig. 2). He first produced steam, based on Hero’s
dividuals have succeeded by simply doing what has aeolipile. By channeling the steam to a wheel that
never been done before. A prime example is the safe rotated, the steam pressure caused the wheel to turn.
and efficient use of steam. Thus began the development of the steam turbine.
One of the most significant series of events shap- The primary use of steam turbines today is for elec-
ing today’s world is the industrial revolution that be- tric power production. In one of the most complex sys-
gan in the late seventeenth century. The desire to gen- tems ever designed by mankind, superheated high-
erate steam on demand sparked this revolution, and pressure steam is produced in a boiler and channeled
technical advances in steam generation allowed it to to turbine-generators to produce electricity.
continue. Without these developments, the industrial
revolution as we know it would not have taken place.
It is therefore appropriate to say that few technolo-
gies developed through human ingenuity have done
so much to advance mankind as the safe and depend-
able generation of steam.

Steam as a resource
In 200 B.C., a Greek named Hero designed a simple
machine that used steam as a power source (Fig. 1).
He began with a cauldron of water, placed above an
open fire. As the fire heated the cauldron, the caul-
dron shell transferred the heat to the water. When the
water reached the boiling point of 212F (100C), it
changed form and turned into steam. The steam
passed through two pipes into a hollow sphere, which
was pivoted at both sides. As the steam escaped
through two tubes attached to the sphere, each bent
at an angle, the sphere moved, rotating on its axis.
Hero, a mathematician and scientist, labeled the
device aeolipile, meaning rotary steam engine. Al-
though the invention was only a novelty, and Hero
made no suggestion for its use, the idea of generating
steam to do useful work was born. Even today, the basic
idea has remained the same – generate heat, trans-
fer the heat to water, and produce steam. Fig. 1 Hero’s aeolipile.

Steam 41 / Introduction to Steam Intro-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 15 Thomas Edison’s endorsement, 1888.

Intro-8 Steam 41 / Introduction to Steam

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Vertical
Steam Separators

Platen
Superheater

Intermediate Primary Superheater

Superheater

Final
Superheater Primary Reheater

Final
Reheater
Economizer

Furnace
Overfire
Air Ports

SCR

Low NOX
Burners

Trisector
Air Heater

B&W Roll Wheel Circulation Axial Forced Primary Air

Pulverizers Pump Draft Fan Fan

B&W supercritical boiler with spiral wound Universal Pressure (SWUP™) furnace.

Steam 41 / Selected Color Plates Plate 1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 6
Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow,
Heat Transfer, and Combustion

Numerical modeling – an overview The term numerical modeling usually refers to the
use of numerical methods on high-powered computers
Continuous and steady advances in computer tech- to solve a complex system of mathematical models based
nology have changed the way engineering design and on the fundamental physics of the system. In this re-
analyses are performed. These advances allow engi- spect, it describes the second approach identified above.
neers to deal with larger-scale problems and more com- As an example, consider analysis of hot air moving
plex systems, or to look in more detail at a specific through a length of duct composed of several differ-
process. Indeed, through the use of advanced com- ent components all in a cold environment.
puter technology to perform engineering analysis, nu- The first type of analysis would involve a network
merical modeling has emerged as an important field model. This model would describe the pressure drop
in engineering. While this chapter focuses on fluid and heat loss along the duct based on the length,
flow and heat transfer, Chapter 8 provides a brief dis- shape, number of turns, etc. This model is based on
cussion of numerical modeling for structural analysis. extensive flow measurements taken on the individual
In general, the term numerical method describes components (i.e., straight sections, turns, reductions,
solving a mathematical description of a physical pro- etc.) that make up the duct. A set of empirical and fun-
cess using a numerical rather than an analytical ap- damental correlations is used to analyze the flow rate
proach. This may be done for a number of reasons, through the duct. The computation can be set up quickly
including the following: and with minimal effort. Results and multiple variations
can be rapidly obtained. While results are reasonably
1. An analytical means of solving the equations that accurate, they are limited to the components for which
describe the system may not exist. a flow correlation already exists. A unique component
2. Even though an analytical method is available, it design that has not been described by a correlation may
may be necessary to repeat the calculation many not be accurately evaluated with this type of model.
times, and a numerical method can be used to ac- The second type of analysis would involve a CFD
celerate the overall process. model of the same duct. The detailed behavior of the
A small-scale replica of an apparatus is considered flow through the entire duct is modeled. From this
a physical model because it describes the full-size ap- information, pressure drop and heat loss along the
paratus on a smaller scale. This model can incorpo- length of the duct may be determined. However, un-
rate varying levels of detail depending on need and like the first analysis, this type of model provides ad-
circumstances. A mathematical description of a physi- ditional details. For example, the first model does not
cal system (referred to as a mathematical model) can consider how the flow through a bend differs if it is
also incorporate varying levels of detail. Similar to a followed by another bend or a straight section; the first
physical model, the amount of detail is often deter- model may result in the same pressure drop regard-
mined by the accuracy required and the resources less of how the components are arranged. The second
available to use the model. This creates a need to analysis would account for these differences. In addi-
strike a balance between accuracy, complexity and tion, variation in heat loss from one side of the duct to
efficiency. the other can be determined. Most importantly, this
There are two basic approaches to mathematical model is not restricted to duct components where ex-
modeling. tensive experimental data is available. New concepts
can easily be evaluated.
1. Model the behavior of a system. Network flow mod- These two approaches have both benefits and limi-
els and heat exchanger heat transfer correlations tations. The appropriate use of each is determined by
are examples of a system model. the information needed and the information available.
2. Model the fundamental physics of a system to de- While both approaches are important engineering tools,
termine the behavior. Computational fluid dynam- the remaining discussion here will focus on the second,
ics (CFD) and chemical reaction models fall into specifically on CFD and combustion modeling, and how
this category. they relate to furnaces, boilers and accessory equipment.

Steam 41 / Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion 6-1
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

through the unit. Fig. 5a shows the case without the is light, porous, irregularly shaped, and often forms
tray. The lowest profile shows how non-uniform flow in the upper boiler furnace or on the convective heat
develops as the high velocity flue gas is introduced into transfer surface. This ash can plug the top catalyst
the tower, is decelerated, and makes a sharp right- layer in selective catalyst reduction (SCR) NOx con-
angle turn to flow up the tower. In the absence of a trol systems, increasing pressure drop and decreasing
tray, the high velocity (red) and low velocity (blue) catalyst performance. Modifications to both the econo-
regions persist as the flue gas moves through the mizer outlet hoppers and the ash removal systems can
middle of the tower (middle velocity profile) entering increase ash capture to address this situation.
the first level of spray headers. Some of the non-uni- Accurately predicting how the popcorn ash behaves
formity persists even up to the mist eliminators. With within the economizer gas outlet requires detailed
the addition of the tray (Fig. 5b), the large high and knowledge of the aerodynamic properties of the ash
low velocity regions are effectively eliminated. The re- particles and sophisticated modeling techniques. Key
sulting more-uniform velocity profile and the gas/re- ash properties include the particle density, drag coef-
agent mixing on top of the tray permit higher levels ficient, coefficients of restitution, and its coefficient of
of SO2 control at reduced slurry recirculation rates. friction with a steel plate. CFD models involve solv-
This model has also been used to explore design ing the gas flow solution, then calculating the particle
changes to meet site-specific new and retrofit require- trajectories using B&W’s proprietary CFD software.
ments.25 These have included alternate flue gas exit Analysis Most CFD programs that handle particle-
geometries, flue gas inlet conditions, tower diameter to-wall interactions are not adequate to accurately
transitions, header locations, slurry recirculation rates predict the complex behavior seen in the popcorn ash
or other factors while still achieving the desired per- physical experiments. These deficiencies have been
formance. It has also been used to investigate inter- remedied by adding capabilities to B&W’s proprietary
nal design alternatives to boost performance and re- CFD software. First, the coefficient of restitution is
duce pressure drop. separated into its normal and tangential components.
Next, a particle-to-wall friction model is used for par-
Popcorn ash ticles sliding along the wall and experiencing a fric-
Situation Popcorn, or large particle, ash forms un- tion force proportional to the coefficient of friction
der certain conditions from the combustion of coal and measured in the physical tests. Also, the ability to set

Fig. 5 Effect of B&W’s tray design on gas velocities through a wet flue gas desulfurization system – numerical model results on a 650 MW absorber.

6-12 Steam 41 / Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 23 Detailed numerical model evaluation grid for an advanced coal burner.

Fig. 24 Gas velocity model for the coal burner shown in Fig. 23.

6-24 Steam 41 / Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 26
Fossil Fuel Boilers for Electric Power

Most of the electric power generated in the United Achieving this requires close cooperation between the
States (U.S.) is produced in steam plants using fossil equipment designers and the owner’s engineering
fuels and high speed turbines. These plants deliver a staff or consultants. The designers, owner and engi-
kilowatt hour of electricity for each 8500 to 9500 Btu neering group must identify those equipment features
(8968 to 10,023 kJ) supplied from the fuel, for a net and characteristics that will reliably produce low cost
thermal efficiency of 36 to 40%. They use steam driven electricity. The primary costs of electricity include: 1)
turbine-generators of up to 1300 MW capacity with capital equipment, 2) financing charges, 3) fuel, and
boilers generating from one million to ten million 4) operation and maintenance. The owner, prior to
pounds of steam per hour. A typical coal-fired facility issuing equipment specifications, reviews and surveys
is shown on the facing page. all cost factors. (See Chapter 37.)
Modern fossil fuel steam plants use reheat cycles The capital cost survey must include all direct costs
with nominal steam conditions of 3500 psi/1050F/ such as the boiler, steam turbine and electric genera-
1050F (24.1 MPa/566C/566C) for supercritical pres- tor, emissions control equipment, condenser, feedwater
sure systems, and 2400 psi (16.5 MPa) with superheat heaters and pumps, fuel handling facilities, buildings,
and reheat steam temperatures ranging from 1000 to and real estate. In addition, finance charges, includ-
1050F (538 to 566C) for subcritical pressure systems. ing interest rates, loan periods, source of funds and
For some very small units, lower steam conditions may tax considerations must be added. Fuel and emission
be applied. In selected global locations where higher control reagent costs need to be evaluated based on
cycle efficiencies are required, supercritical pressure the initial costs, plant capacity variations expected dur-
steam conditions on the order of 4300 psi/1075F/1110F ing the life of the plant, and forecasts of cost changes
(29.6 MPa/579C/599C) and 3626 psi/1112F/1130F during plant lifetime. The operation and maintenance
(25.0 MPa/600C/610C) have been used. costs should be estimated based on other current
Most power plants in the U.S. and around the world plants with similar equipment, fuels and operating
are owned and operated by: 1) investor owned elec- characteristics. Operating and maintenance costs are
tric companies, 2) federal, state or local governments, heavily affected by personnel requirements, and con-
or 3) finance companies. sideration should be given to the availability of skilled
These owners, whether public or private, have been labor as well as to the cost of retaining the skilled staff
generally known as utilities. During the 1980s and during the plant lifetime.
1990s, there was a trend toward new types of compa- Plant efficiency, fuel use and capital cost are criti-
nies supplying significant portions of new generation. cally related. Higher plant thermal efficiency obvi-
However, the fundamental approach to selecting ously reduces annual fuel costs; however, fuel savings
power generation equipment will remain unchanged. are partially offset by the associated higher capital
costs. Therefore, selection of the desired plant effi-
ciency should carefully consider the economic tradeoffs
Selection of steam generating equipment between capital and operating costs.
The owner has several technologies to choose from Other important criteria are the location of the elec-
based upon fuel availability, emissions requirements, tric generating plant with respect to fuel supply and
reliability, and project timing. One of the common the areas where electricity is used. In some cases, it is
choices for modern electric power generation is the more economical to transport electricity than fuel.
high pressure, high temperature steam cycle with a Some large steam generating stations have been built
fossil fuel-fired boiler. at the coal mine mouth to generate electricity which
Each new electric generating unit must satisfy the is then used several hundred miles away. If the user
user’s specific needs in the most economical manner. is a member of a broader grid of interconnected util-

Steam 41 / Fossil Fuel Boilers for Electric Power 26-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 27
Boilers for Industry and Small Power

Most manufacturing industries require steam for Industrial boiler design

a variety of uses. Basic plant heating and air condi-
tioning, prime movers such as turbine drives for blow- Industrial boilers generally have different perfor-
ers and compressors, drying, constant temperature re- mance characteristics than utility boilers. These are
action processes, large presses, soaking pits, water most apparent in steam pressures and temperatures
heating, cooking and cleaning are all examples of how as well as the fuel burning equipment.
steam is used. Industrial units are built in a wide range of sizes,
Steam produced by industrial boilers can also be pressures and temperatures – from 2 psig (13.8 kPa)
used to generate electricity in a cogeneration mode and 218F (103C) saturated steam for heating to 1800
which uses a conventional steam turbine for electric psig (12.4 MPa) and 1000F (538C) steam for plant
power generation and low pressure extraction steam power production.
for the process. The electricity is then used by the plant In addition, industrial units often supply steam for
or sold to a local electric utility company. As an alter- more than one application. For some applications, steam
nate cogenerating system, a gas turbine can be used demand may be cyclic or fluctuating, thereby complicat-
for power generation with a heat recovery steam gen- ing unit operation and control of the equipment.
erator for steam. The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) industrial
Thousands of boilers are installed in industrial and boilers, such as the unit shown in Fig. 1, are water
municipal plants, providing lower pressure and tem- tube design and generally rely upon natural circula-
perature steam than utility boilers dedicated to large, tion for steam-water circulation.
central station electric power generation. In an indus- Most utility boilers are designed to burn pulverized
trial plant, the dependability of steam generating or crushed coal, oil, gas, or a combination of oil or gas
equipment is critical. Most often, the industrial opera- with a solid fuel. Industrial boilers can be designed for
tion has a single steam plant with one or more boil- the above fuels as well as coarsely crushed coal for stoker
ers. If the steam flow is interrupted, production can firing and a wide range of biomass or byproduct fuels.
be seriously impacted. Accordingly, industrial boilers
must be very reliable because plant productivity relies
Table 1
so heavily on their availability. Loss of a boiler for a short Typical Industrial Boiler Specification Factors
time can stop production for days if, for example, mate-
rials cool and solidify in process lines. For this reason, 1. Steam pressure
some industries prefer multiple smaller units. 2. Steam temperature and control range
The principles governing the selection of boilers and 3. Steam flow
related equipment are discussed in Chapter 37. Peak
Minimum
Proper equipment selection can be accomplished only Load patterns
in the framework of a sound technical and cost evalu- 4. Feedwater temperature and quality
ation. This requires a working knowledge and under- 5. Standby capacity and number of units
standing of the performance of the different steam 6. Fuels and their properties
generating unit components under various conditions, 7. Ash properties
including the significance of the many different ar- 8. Firing method preferences
rangements of heat absorbing surfaces, the charac- 9. Environmental emission limitations  sulfur
teristics of available fuels, combustion methods and dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
ash handling. The owner must also establish the particulate, other compounds
10. Site space and access limitations
present and future steam conditions and require-
11. Auxiliaries
ments. All pertinent environmental regulations must 12. Operator requirements
also be considered. A brief summary of boiler specifi- 13. Evaluation basis
cations is provided in Table 1.

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 28
Chemical and Heat Recovery
in the Paper Industry

In the United States (U.S.), the forest products in- ing its name from the use of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
dustry is the third largest industrial consumer of en- as the makeup chemical. The paper produced from this
ergy, accounting for more than 11% of the total U.S. process was originally so strong in comparison with
manufacturing energy expenditures. In 2002, 57% of alternative processes that it was given the name kraft,
the pulp and paper industry relied on cogeneration which is the Swedish and German translation for
for their electric power requirements. strong. Kraft is an alkaline pulping process, as is the
Approximately one-half of the steam and power con- soda process which derives its name from the use of
sumed by this industry is generated from fuels that sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (soda ash), as the makeup
are byproducts of the pulping process. The main chemical. The soda process has limited use in the U.S.
source of self-generated fuel is the spent pulping li- and is more prominent in countries pulping nonwood
quor, followed by wood and bark. The energy required fiber. Recovery of chemicals and the production of
to produce pulp and paper products has been signifi- steam from waste liquor are well established in the
cantly reduced. Process improvements have allowed U.S. kraft and soda processes. The soda process accounts
pulp and paper manufacturers to reduce energy con- for less than 1% of alkaline pulp production and its
sumption to 2.66 × 1012 Btu (2806.5 × 1012 J), a signifi- importance is now largely historic.
cant reduction.
Pulp and paper mill electric power requirements
have increased disproportionately to process steam Kraft pulping and recovery process
requirements. This factor, coupled with steadily ris-
ing fuel costs, has led to the greater cycle efficiencies Kraft process
afforded by higher steam pressures and temperatures The kraft process flow diagram (Fig. 2) shows the
in paper mill boilers. The increased value of steam has typical relationship of the recovery boiler to the over-
produced a demand for more reliable and efficient heat all pulp and paper mill.1 The kraft process starts with
and chemical recovery boilers. feeding wood chips, or alternatively a nonwood fi-
The heat value of the spent pulping liquor solids is brous material, to the digester. Chips are cooked un-
a reliable fuel source for producing steam for power der pressure in a steam heated aqueous solution of
generation and process use. A large portion of the
steam required for the pulp mills is produced in highly All Other USA
specialized heat and chemical recovery boilers. The Countries
30%
31%

balance of the steam demand is supplied by boilers

designed to burn coal, oil, natural gas and biomass.

Major pulping processes

The U.S. and Canada have the highest combined
consumption of paper and paperboard in the world
(Fig. 1), consuming 105.6 million tons each year. With
a base of more than 800 pulp, paper and paperboard
mills, the U.S. and Canada are also the leader in the
production of paper and paperboard. North America Canada
2%
accounts for 32% of the total world output; pulp pro- Italy
duction is nearly 43%. 3%
Peoples Republic
Total pulp production in the U.S. is divided among France
3%
of China
11%
the following principal processes: 85% chemical, United Kingdom 4%
groundwood and thermomechanical; 6% semi-chemi- Germany Japan
cal; and 9% mechanical pulping. The dominant North 6% 10%
America pulping process is the sulfate process, deriv- Fig. 1 World paper and board consumption by country, 2000.

Steam 41 / Chemical and Heat Recovery in the Paper Industry 28-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 32
Environmental Considerations

Since the early 1960s, there has been an increas- byproducts of the combustion process (SO2, NOx, par-
ing worldwide awareness that industrial growth and ticulate flyash, and some trace quantities of other
energy production from fossil fuels are accompanied materials) and are exhausted from the stack. A sec-
by the release of potentially harmful pollutants into ond source of particulate is fugitive dust from coal piles
the environment. Studies to characterize emissions, and related fuel handling equipment. This is especially
sources and effects of various pollutants on human significant for highly dusting western U.S. subbitu-
health and the environment have led to increasingly minous coals. Some low temperature devolatilization
stringent legislation to control air emissions, waterway of the coal can also emit other organic compounds. A
discharges and solids disposal. final source of air emissions is the cooling tower and
Comparable concern for environmental quality has the associated thermal rise plume which contains
been manifest worldwide. Since the 1970s, countries water vapor.
of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Solid wastes arise primarily from collection of the
Development have reduced sulfur dioxide (SO2) and coal ash from the bottom of the boiler, economizer and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from power plants in air heater hoppers, as well as from the electrostatic pre-
relation to energy consumption. In at least the fore- cipitators and fabric filters. Pyrite collected in the pul-
seeable future, emission trends are expected to con- verizers (see Chapter 13) is usually also included. Most
tinue downward due to a combination of factors: change of the ash is either transported wet to an ash settling
in fuel mix to less polluting fuels, use of advanced tech- pond where it settles out or is transported dry to silos
nologies, and new and more strict regulations. In Japan, from which it is taken by truck for beneficial use (e.g.,
the reductions in SO2 emissions were particularly pro- cement additive). The chemical composition and char-
nounced due to strong environmental measures taken acteristics of various ashes are discussed in Chapter 21.
in the 1970s. As an example, in the United States (U.S.) The second major source of solids is the byproduct from
between 1980 and 2001, electricity generation increased the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbing process.
by 56%, while SO2 emissions declined 38%. Most frequently, this is a mixture containing primarily
Environmental control is primarily driven by gov- calcium sulfate for wet systems and calcium sulfite for
ernment legislation and the resulting regulations at dry systems. After dewatering, the wet system byproduct
the local, national and international levels. These have may be sold as gypsum or landfilled. Additional sources
evolved out of a public consensus that the real costs of solids include the sludge from cooling tower basins,
of environmental protection are worth the tangible wastes from the water treatment system and wastes from
and intangible benefits now and in the future. To periodic boiler chemical cleaning.
address this growing awareness, the design philoso- Aqueous discharges arise from a number of sources.
phy of energy conversion systems such as steam gen- These include once-through cooling water (if used),
erators has evolved from providing the lowest cost cooling tower blowdown (if used), sluice water from the
energy to providing low cost energy with an accept- ash handling system (via the settling pond), FGD waste
able impact on the environment. Air pollution control water (frequently minimal), coal pile runoff from rain-
with emphasis on particulate, NOx, SO2, and mercury fall, boiler chemical cleaning solutions, gas-side water
emissions is perhaps the most significant environmen- washing waste solutions, as well as a variety of low vol-
tal concern for fired systems and is the subject of Chap- ume wastes including ion exchange regeneration ef-
ters 33 through 36. However, minimizing aqueous dis- fluent, evaporator blowdown (if used), boiler blowdown
charges and safely disposing of solid byproducts are and power plant floor drains. Many of these streams
also key issues for modern power systems. are chemically characterized in Chapter 42. Additional
discussions of these systems as well as the controlling
regulations are provided in References 1 and 2.
Sources of plant emissions
and discharges
Air pollution control
Fig. 1 identifies most of the significant waste
streams from a modern coal-fired power plant. Typi-
cal discharge rates for the primary emissions from a U.S. legislation – Clean Air Act
new, modern 615 MW coal-fired supercritical pressure The Federal Clean Air Act (CAA) is the core driv-
boiler are summarized in Table 1. ing force for all air pollution control legislation in the
Atmospheric emissions arise primarily from the United States (U.S.). The original CAA was first en-

Steam 41 / Environmental Considerations 32-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Heat- Fugitive Dust Flue Gas

Thermal Rise
Plume SO2
NOX
Particulate
Coal Pile VOC
CO
CO2
Coal Pile Other
Water Runoff

Boiler
Turbine
WESP
Fabric Filter
SCR or
Precipitator FGD
Condenser Stack
Cooling Air
Tower Hopper Heater
Ash
Cooling
Tower Bottom
Blowdown Ash

Noise FGD Waste

Saleable Treatment FGD
Ash and Waste
Dewatering Water
Sludge / Landfill Blowdown
Water Note: SCR-Selective Catalytic
Reduction System
Chemical Cleaning
Waste Liquid FGD-Flue Gas FGD Byproduct
Gas Side Washing Desulfurization System Gypsum or
Waste Water WESP-Wet Electrostatic Precipitator Landfill Sludge

Fig. 1 Typical bituminous coal-fired power plant effluents and emissions.

acted in 1963, and since that time the Act has evolved attainment areas for that pollutant, and regions that fail
through five significant amendment cycles in 1965, to meet the NAAQS are classified as nonattainment ar-
1967, 1970, 1977, and 1990. eas for that pollutant.
The primary objective of the CAA is to protect and New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) Federal
enhance the quality of the nation’s air resources to New Source Performance Standards were established
promote the public health and welfare and the pro- for more than 70 categories of industrial processes and/
ductive capacity of its population.3 The legislation gen- or stationary sources. The NSPS rules set source-spe-
erally provides for the U.S. Environmental Protection cific emission limitations and corresponding monitor-
Agency (EPA) to set national air quality standards and ing, recordkeeping and reporting requirements that
other minimum regulatory requirements through fed- must be met by new sources constructed on or after
eral regulations and guidance to state and local regu- the effective date of an applicable standard. Sources
latory agencies. The individual states are required to constructed prior to the promulgation of an applicable
develop state implementation plans (SIPs) to define how NSPS are generally grandfathered and are not sub-
they will meet the minimum federal requirements. How- ject to the standards until such time that the source
ever, state and local government agencies may also de- undergoes major modification or reconstruction. The
velop and implement more stringent air pollution con- EPA’s NSPS regulations are published under Title 40,
trol requirements. The CAA as amended prior to 1990 Part 60 of the Code of Federal Regulations.4 Table 2
included the following regulatory elements of potential provides reference to select Subparts of 40 CFR 60
interest to boiler owners and operators. applicable to a variety of industrial and utility boil-
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Fed- ers. The various NSPS rules governing fossil fuel-fired
eral standards were developed to define acceptable air boilers include emission limitations for NOx, SO2, par-
quality levels necessary to protect public health and ticulate and opacity. The NSPS emission limits are
welfare. The EPA promulgated National Ambient Air based on the EPA’s evaluation of best demonstrated
Quality Standards for six Criteria Pollutants: sulfur technology, and these limits are subject to periodic
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monox- review and revision. Finally, the NSPS rules gener-
ide (CO), ozone (O3), particulate matter and lead. Two ally establish the least stringent emission limitation a
levels of standards have been established: primary new source would have to meet. Typically, more strin-
standards aimed at prevention of adverse impacts on gent emission limitations are necessary to meet other
human health and secondary standards to prevent federal, state or local permitting requirements. For
damage to property and the environment. All geo- example, any significant new source or major modifi-
graphic areas of the country are divided into a num- cation to an existing source of emissions may be subject
ber of identifiable areas known as air quality control to the federal New Source Review rules discussed below.
regions which are classified according to their air qual- New Source Review (NSR) New Source Review regu-
ity. Air quality control regions that meet or better the lations were established to: 1) preserve existing air
NAAQS for a designated pollutant are classified as quality in areas of the U.S. that are in compliance with

32-2 Steam 41 / Environmental Considerations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 44
Maintaining Availability

The design of boiler systems involves the balanc- headers and drums can cause major, prolonged forced
ing of near-term and long-term capital costs to maxi- outages. Significant capital expenditures are normally
mize the availability and useful life of the equipment. required to replace such components.
Fossil fuel-fired boilers operate in a very aggressive A strategic availability improvement program that
environment where: 1) materials and technology are includes capital expenditures to replace or repair this
pushed to their economic limits to optimize efficiency equipment before major forced outages occur can
and availability, and 2) the erosive and corrosive na- smooth out and raise the availability curve. Higher
ture of the fuels and combustion products result in availabilities usually require higher maintenance,
continuous and expected degradation of the boiler and higher capital expenditures, and better strategic plan-
fuel handling components over time. As a result, the ning. The large expenditures needed for high avail-
original boiler design is optimized to balance the ini- ability in older plants require a strategic plan to yield
tial customer capital requirement and the long-term the best balance of expenditures and availability.
expected maintenance, component replacement, and
service costs for a possible operating life of many decades.
When a new power plant is started up, there is a Strategic plan for high availability
relatively short learning period when the operators Mature boilers represent important resources in
and maintenance crews learn to work with the new meeting energy production needs. A systematic stra-
system and resolve minor issues. This period may be tegic approach is required to assure that these units
marked by a high forced outage rate, but this quickly remain a viable and productive resource. The more
declines as the system is broken in and operating pro- efficient, but older boilers in the system can be the
cedures are refined. backbone of the commercially available power for a
As the plant matures, the personnel adapt to the utility.
new system, and any limitations in the plant design
are either overcome or better understood. During this Emphasis on high availability
phase, the forced outage rate remains low, availabil- Today, the need for high commercial availability is
ity is high, and the operating and maintenance costs of prime importance to the financial livelihood of a
are minimal. The power plant is usually operated near power supplier. This means that the low- cost units
rated capacity with high availability. in a system must be available for full capacity power
As the plant continues to operate, a number of the production during critical peak periods, such as hot
major boiler pressure part components reach the point summer days. Competition in the electrical supply in-
where they are expected to be replaced because of ero- dustry requires that low-cost units be available so that
sion, corrosion, creep, and fatigue. Without this the system can supply power to the grid at low over-
planned replacement, increasingly frequent compo- all costs. Usually, the large fossil powered units are
nent failures occur resulting in reduced availability. the lowest cost units in the system. Lost revenue as-
In some instances such as waste-to-energy systems, sociated with having a large, low-cost unit out of ser-
this period can be as short as one to three years for vice for repairs can be in excess of one million U.S.
superheaters because of the very corrosive flue gas com- dollars per day. Owners are attempting to maintain
position. However, for most fossil fuel-fired utility boil- availability levels of 90% or more on these large work-
ers operating on their design fuels, major pressure part horses in the system.
components are economically designed for more than two The emphasis on maintaining or even improving
decades of operation before economic replacement. Fail- availability means that a strategic plan must be put
ures of major components such as steam lines, steam in place. Times between planned outages have been

Steam 41 / Maintaining Availability 44-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 46
Steam Generation from
Nuclear Energy

Since the early 1950s, nuclear fission technology In 1953, the Navy canceled Captain Rickover’s
has been explored on a large scale for electric power plans to develop a larger nuclear power plant to be
generation and has evolved into the modern nuclear used in an aircraft carrier. However, he subsequently
power plants. (See frontispiece and Fig. 1.) Many ad- transformed this project into a design for the first U.S.
vantages of nuclear energy are not well understood civilian power stations. Duquesne Light Company of
by the general public, but this safe, environmentally Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania agreed to build and oper-
benign source of electricity is still likely to play a ma- ate the conventional portion of the plant and to buy
jor role in the future world energy picture. Nuclear steam from the nuclear facility to offset its cost of op-
electric power generation is ideally suited to provide eration. On December 2, 1957, the Shippingport,
large amounts of power while minimizing the overall Pennsylvania reactor plant was placed in service with
environmental impact. a power output of 60 MW. This event marked the be-
ginning of the first generation U.S. commercial
nuclear plants.
First generation power plants Several basic concepts were being explored, devel-
The concept of an energy generating plant using oped and demonstrated throughout the world during
nuclear fission was first considered by nuclear physi- this period. The U.S. submarine and Shippingport
cists in the 1930s. However, peaceful use of the atom plants were pressurized water reactors (PWR) that
was delayed until after World War II. The United used subcooled water as the fuel coolant and modera-
States (U.S.) had a head start on nuclear technology tor. The FSU developed enriched uranium, graphite-
because of its work in the atomic weapons program.
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) took the
lead in research and development for a controlled
chain reaction application to energy generation. Many
concepts were hypothesized and several promising
paths were explored, but the real momentum devel-
oped when U.S. Navy Captain Hyman G. Rickover
established a division in the AEC to develop a nuclear
power plant for a submarine. This program, established
in 1949, was to become the forerunner of commercial
generating stations in the U.S. and the world.
Rickover’s design succeeded in 1953. Technology and
materials developed by his team became the corner-
stone of future U.S. nuclear plants. Concurrently, the
AEC established a large testing site in Arco, Idaho
where, in 1951, the fast neutron reactor produced the
first electricity (100 kW) generated by controlled fission.
The world’s first civil nuclear power station became
operational in Obninsk in the former Soviet Union
(FSU) in mid-1954, with a generating capability of 5
MW. This was about the same energy level produced
in the U.S. submarine design. Fig. 1 Indian Point Station, New York.

Steam 41 / Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy 46-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Index
Abrasiveness index, 9-9 condition assessment of, 45-5, 45-11 Allowances, 32-4
Absorber (FGD), 35-2 corrosion, 20-13 Alloying elements, 7-5
Absorption, 35-5 environmental, 20-15 interstitial, 7-2
Absorptivity erosion, 20-3, 20-14 substitutional, 7-2
definition, 4-3 fires, 20-14 Alpha
of gases, 4-12, 4-31 industrial, 20-15 emitters, 47-4
Access doors, 20-6, 23-9 leakage, 20-12 particle, 47-3
Acid mist, 35-18 Ljungström, 20-9 Alumina ceramics, 13-11, 44-10
Acid rain, 32-4, 34-2, 35-1 marine, 31-12 Aluminizing, 7-15
Acidity, 36-1 operation, 20-13 American Boiler Manufacturers
Acoustics performance, 20-12 Association (ABMA), 23-6, C-1
electromagnetic, 45-4 plate, 20-8 American Society for Testing and
emissions, 45-5 plugging, 20-14 Materials (ASTM), 9-5, 9-7
leak detection, 45-16 recuperative, 20-7 American Society of Mechanical
Adiabatic, 3-4 regenerative, 20-9 Engineers (ASME), 1-14, 2-1
Adiabatic flame temperature, 2-26, Rothemühle, 20-10 Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
10-11 seal(s), 20-10, 20-11 8-1, 19-8, 20-6, C-1
Adipic acid, 35-12 steam allowable stresses, 7-20, 8-3, C-4
Aging (degradation) mechanisms coil, 20-9, 29-12, 29-21 calculations, 8-5
corrosion, 44-6 marine, 31-10 design criteria, 8-2, 8-14
erosion, 44-6 testing, 20-12 strength theories, 8-2
fatigue, 44-6 tubular, 20-7, 29-21 stress classifications, 8-2,
stress, 44-6 Air pollution, Chapter 32 8-9, 8-10
Air air toxics, 32-5, 32-8 Performance Test Code, 10-10,
combustion, 10-5, 10-16 carbon dioxide, 32-8 10-18, 10-21, 40-1
composition, 10-4 carbon monoxide, 32-2, 32-7 Pressure Piping (B31), C-1, C-6
control, 41-10 greenhouse gas, 32-8 Ammonia, 34-3, 35-2, 35-18
distributor, fluidized-bed, 17-1, 17-3 international regulations, 32-6 anhydrous, 34-6
enthalpy, 10-19 mercury, 32-8 aqueous, 34-7
flow measurement, 40-20, 41-13 nitrogen oxides (NOx), 32-1, 32-4, flow control, 34-8, 41-17
infiltration, leakage, 10-16, 10-23, 32-7 (see also NOx control) injection, 34-6
23-7 particulate matter, 32-7 reagent systems, 34-6
moisture, 10-5, 10-6 (see also Particulate control) Ammonia sulfates, 20-15, 34-6
properties of, 4-11 sources, 32-1 Annealing, 7-8
theoretical, 10-5, 10-7, 10-9, 10-16 sulfur oxides (SOx), 32-1, 32-4, Anticipatory reactor trip system
Air, quaternary, 28-4 32-7 (see also SO2 control) (ARTS), 46-15
Air flow-steam flow control, 41-13 technologies, 32-8 API gravity, fuel oil, 9-14, 10-20
Air heater, Chapter 20 U.S. legislation, 32-1 Approach temperature
applications, 20-15 Air swept spout, 16-7, 29-17 flue gas desulfurization, 35-14
calculations, 22-15 Air testing, 39-18 As-received, coal, 9-5, 9-7
cast iron, 20-8 Albacore hull, 46-24 Ash, black liquor, 28-8 (see also
cold end minimum metal Alkalinity, 35-1, 36-1 Recovery boiler, Kraft process)
temperatures, 20-13 Allowable stress, 7-20, 8-3, C-4 carryover, 28-9

Steam 41 / Index I-1