LIST OF PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

A list of 'effects' that have been noticed within the field of Psychology.
Effects Descriptions
1 Audience effect Audience effect or Social facilitation is the
tendency for people to perform differently when in
the presence of others than when alone. Compared
to their performance when alone, when in the
presence of others, they tend to perform better on
simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on
complex or new ones.
2 Ambiguity effect The ambiguity effect was first described by Daniel
Ellsberg in 1961. It is a cognitive
bias where decision making is affected by a lack of
information, or "ambiguity".[1] The effect implies
that people tend to select options for which
the probability of a favorable outcome is known,
over an option for which the probability of a
favorable outcome is unknown. Missing
information makes the probability of the outcome
“unknown,” and people tend to avoid it.
3 Assembly bonus effect Assembly bonus effect is a term, first proposed in
1965, which means producing an outcome as
a group that is superior to the results that could
have been achieved by a simple aggregation or
accumulation of group members’ individual efforts.
It is explained as a gain in performance that is
caused by the way the members fit together to form
the work group.
4 Baader-Meinhof effect Originally, this concept was called frequency
illusion—a term coined by Stanford linguistics
professor Arnold Zwicky. In this illusion, a word, a
name, or other thing that has recently come to one's
attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable
frequency shortly afterwards. This illusion is
sometimes referred to as the Baader-Meinhof
phenomenon.
5 Barnum effect Barnum Effect, also called Forer Effect, is the
phenomenon that occurs when individuals believe
that personality descriptions apply specifically to
them (more so than to other people), despite the fact
that the description is actually filled with
information that applies to everyone. This effect
can provide a partial explanation for the widespread
acceptance of some paranormal beliefs and
practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, aura
reading, and some types of personality tests.
The term "Barnum effect" was coined in 1956 by
psychologist Paul Meehl in his essay Wanted – A
Good Cookbook.
6 Bezold effect The Bezold effect is an optical illusion, named after
a German professor of meteorology, Wilhelm von
Bezold (1837–1907), who discovered that a color
 may appear different depending on its relation to
adjacent colors.
7 Birthday-number effect The birthday-number effect is the subconscious
tendency of people to prefer the numbers in the date
of their birthday over other numbers. First reported
in 1997 by Japanese psychologists Shinobu
Kitayama and Mayumi Karasawa, the birthday-
number effect has been replicated in various
countries. It holds across age and gender. The effect
is most prominent for numbers over 12.
8 Boomerang effect The Boomerang effect describes a social
psychology situation in which a person who is
presented with a persuasive message and then
adopts the opposite stance as a result. 
9 Bouba/kiki effect
10 Bystander effect The bystander effect, or bystander apathy, is
a social psychological phenomenon in which
individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim
when other people are present.
11 Cinderella effect In evolutionary psychology, the Cinderella
effect is the phenomenon of higher incidence of
different forms of child-abuse and mistreatment
by stepparents than by biological parents. 
12 Cocktail party effect The cocktail party effect is the phenomenon of the
brain's ability to focus one's auditory attention (an
effect of selective attention in the brain) on a
particular stimulus while filtering out a range of
other stimuli, as when a partygoer can focus on a
single conversation in a noisy room. Listeners have
the ability to both segregate different stimuli into
different streams, and subsequently decide which
streams are most pertinent to them.
13 Contrast effect The contrast effect is a magnification or
diminishment of perception as a result of previous
exposure to something of lesser or greater quality,
but of the same base characteristics. For example, a
car salesman shows you a very expensive car first
so that the one he showed you next (the one he
actually was trying to sell you) seemed inexpensive
compared to the first.
14 Coolidge effect The Coolidge effect can be attributed to an increase
in sexual responsiveness, and a decrease in
the refractory period.
15 Cross-race effect The cross-race effect (sometimes called cross-race
bias, other-race bias or own-race bias) is the
tendency to more easily recognize faces of
the race that one is most familiar with (which is
most often one's own race). In social psychology,
the cross-race effect is described as the "ingroup
advantage".
16 Dunning–Kruger effect It is a cognitive bias in which people of low ability
have illusory superiority and mistakenly assess
their cognitive ability as greater than it is. The
 cognitive bias of illusory superiority comes from
the inability of low-ability people to recognize their
lack of ability; without the self-
awareness of metacognition, low-ability people
cannot objectively evaluate their actual competence
or incompetence.
17 Endowment effect In psychology and behavioral economics,
the endowment effect (also known as divestiture
aversion and related to the mere ownership
effect in social psychology) is the hypothesis that
people ascribe more value to things merely because
they own them.
18 False-consensus effect False-consensus effect or false-consensus bias is
an attributional type of cognitive bias whereby
people tend to overestimate the extent to which
their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and
habits are normal and typical of those of others (i.e.,
that others also think the same way that they do).
[1]
 This cognitive bias tends to lead to
the perception of a consensus that does not exist, a
"false consensus".
19 False-uniqueness effect The false-uniqueness effect describes how people
tend to view their qualities, traits and personal
attributes as unique, when in reality they are not.
20 False-fame effect
21 Fan effect The fan effect is a psychological phenomenon
under the branch of cognitive psychology where
recognition times or error rate for a particular
concept increases as more information about the
concept is acquired.
22 Framing effect The framing effect is an example of cognitive bias,
in which people react to a particular choice in
different ways depending on how it is presented;
e.g. as a loss or as a gain. People tend to avoid risk
when a positive frame is presented but seek risks
when a negative frame is presented.
23 Florence Nightingale effect The Florence Nightingale effect is a trope where a
caregiver develops romantic feelings, sexual
feelings, or both for their patient, even if very little
communication or contact takes place outside of
basic care. Feelings may fade once the patient is no
longer in need of care.
24 Flynn effect The Flynn Effect is the tendency of IQ scores to
change over time, and specifically, the apparent
increase in intelligence in the general population
evidenced by a steady increase in IQ scores. It
was first noticed by James Flynn.
25 Focusing effect The focusing effect (or focusing illusion) is
a cognitive bias that occurs when people place too
much importance on one aspect of an event, causing
an error in accurately predicting the utility of a
future outcome.
26 Generation effect The generation effect is a phenomenon where
 information is better remembered if it is generated
from one's own mind rather than simply read.
27 Google effect It is the tendency to forget information that can be
found readily online by using Internet search
engines such as Google.
28 Halo effect The halo effect is a type of immediate judgement
discrepancy, or cognitive bias, where a person
making an initial assessment of another person,
place, or thing will assume ambiguous information
based upon concrete information.
29 Hawthorne effect The Hawthorne effect (also referred to as
the observer effect is a type of reactivity in which
individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in
response to their awareness of being observed.
30 Hedonic treadmill The hedonic treadmill, also known as hedonic
adaptation, is the observed tendency of humans to
quickly return to a relatively stable level
of happiness despite major positive or negative
events or life changes.
31 Hostile media effect The hostile media effect/ hostile media
phenomenon and sometimes called hostile media
perception, is a perceptual theory of mass
communication that refers to the tendency for
individuals with a strong preexisting attitude on an
issue to perceive media coverage as biased against
their side and in favor of their antagonists' point of
view.
32 Hypersonic effect The hypersonic effect is a term coined to describe
a phenomenon reported in a controversial scientific
study by Tsutomu Oohashi et al., which claims that,
although humans cannot consciously
hear ultrasound (sounds at frequencies above
approximately 20 kHz), the presence or absence of
those frequencies has a measurable effect on their
physiological and psychological reactions.
33 Irrelevant speech effect The irrelevant speech effect refers to the
degradation of serial recall when speech sounds are
presented, even if the list items are presented
visually. The sounds need not be a language the
participant understands, nor even a real language;
human speech sounds are sufficient to produce this
effect.
34 Kappa effect The kappa effect or perceptual time dilation is
a temporal perceptual illusion that can arise when
observers judge the elapsed time between
sensory stimuli applied sequentially at different
locations. In perceiving a sequence of consecutive
stimuli, subjects tend to overestimate the elapsed
time between two successive stimuli when the
distance between the stimuli is sufficiently large,
and to underestimate the elapsed time when the
distance is sufficiently small.
35 Kinetic depth effect kinetic depth effect refers to the phenomenon
whereby the three-dimensional structural form of an
object can be perceived when the object is moving.
In the absence of other visual depth cues, this might
be the only perception mechanism available to infer
the object's shape. Being able to identify a structure
from a motion stimulus through the human visual
system was shown by Wallachand O'Connell in the
1950s through their experiments.
36 Kuleshov Effect The Kuleshov effect is a film editing (montage)
effect demonstrated by Soviet filmmaker Lev
Kuleshov in the 1910s and 1920s. It is a mental
phenomenon by which viewers derive more
meaning from the interaction of two sequential
shots than from a single shot in isolation.
37 Lady Macbeth effect Lady Macbeth effect or Macbeth effect is
a priming effect said to occur when response to
a cleaning cue is increased after having been
induced by a feeling of shame. The effect is
apparently localized enough that those who had
been asked to lie verbally preferred an oral cleaning
product and those asked to lie in writing preferred a
hand cleaning product over the other kind of
cleanser and other control items.
38 Lake Wobegon effect Illusory superiority is a condition of cognitive
bias whereby a person overestimates their own
qualities and abilities, in relation to the same
qualities and abilities of other persons.
39 Lawn dart effect Lawn dart effect occurs when fighter
aircraft pilots accelerate horizontally at more than
1 standard gravity. The effect occurs when such
extreme stimulation to the vestibular system leads
to the perception that the aircraft is climbing,
prompting the pilot to lower the aircraft's pitch
attitude, or drop the nose.
40 Levels-of-processing effect levels-of-processing effect, identified by Fergus I.
M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972,
describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of
the depth of mental processing. Deeper levels of
analysis produce more elaborate, longer-lasting, and
stronger memory traces than shallow levels of
analysis.
41 Less-is-better effect The less-is-better effect is a type of preference
reversal that occurs when the lesser or smaller
alternative of a proposition is preferred when
evaluated separately, but not evaluated together.
The term was first proposed by Christopher Hsee.
42 Martha Mitchell effect Martha Mitchell effect is the process by which a
psychiatrist, psychologist, or other mental
health clinician labels the patient's accurate
perception of real events
as delusionaland misdiagnoses accordingly.
43 Matthew effect (education) The Matthew Effect is social phenomenon often
 linked to the idea that the rich get richer and the
poor get poorer. In essence, this refers to a common
concept that those who already have status are often
placed in situations where they gain more, and
those that do not have status typically struggle to
achieve more. This phrase has been attributed to
sociologist Robert K. Merton and based it off a
biblical verse in the Gospel of Matthew.
44 McCollough effect The McCollough effect is a phenomenon of
human visual perception in which
colorless gratings appear colored contingent on
the orientation of the gratings. It is an aftereffect
requiring a period of induction to produce it. For
example, if someone alternately looks at a red
horizontal grating and a green vertical grating for a
few minutes, a black-and-white horizontal grating
will then look greenish and a black-and-white
vertical grating will then look pinkish. The effect is
remarkable because, under certain circumstances, it
can last up to three months or more.
The effect was discovered by American
psychologist Celeste McCollough in 1965.
45 McGurk effect
McGurk effect is a cross-modal effect and illusion
that results from conflicting information coming
from different senses, namely sight and hearing.The
effect was discovered by Harry McGurk and John
MacDonald, and was published in Nature in 1976.
The illusion can be observed when one is asked to
watch a video of lip movements alongside listening
to sounds uttered, apparently by the same person
whose lip movements one is watching. If the lip
movements and the sounds do not match—for
example, if the lip movements indicate a “ba-ba”
sound, whereas the auditory information is that of
“ga-ga”—one typically experiences an illusory third
sound—for example “da-da”. McGurk and
MacDonald hypothesise that the effect is due to the
fact that the brain is trying to make a “best guess”,
given the information that is coming from different
senses is contradictory.

46 Mere-exposure effect The mere-exposure effect is

a psychological phenomenon by which people tend
to develop a preference for things merely because
they are familiar with them. In social psychology,
this effect is sometimes called the familiarity
principle.
47 Microwave auditory effect The microwave auditory effect, also known as
the microwave hearing effect or the Frey effect,
consists of the human perception of audible clicks,
or even speech, induced by pulsed or modulated
 radio frequencies. The communications are
generated directly inside the human head without
the need of any receiving electronic device.
48 Misinformation effect misinformation effect happens when a
person's recall of episodic memories becomes less
accurate because of post-event information.
49 Missing letter effect In cognitive psychology, the missing letter
effect refers to the finding that, when people are
asked to consciously detect target letters while
reading text, they miss more letters in frequent,
function words (e.g. the letter "h" in "the") than in
less frequent, content words.The missing letter
effect has also been referred to as the reverse word
superiority effect, since it describes a phenomenon
where letters in more frequent words fail to be
identified, instead of letter identification benefitting
from increased word frequency.
50 Modality effect The modality effect is a term used in experimental
psychology, most often in the fields dealing
with memory and learning, to refer to how learner
performance depends on the presentation mode of
studied items.
51 Mozart effect The Mozart effect can refer to:

 A set of research results indicating that listening

to Mozart's music may induce a short-term
improvement on the performance of certain
kinds of mental tasks known as "spatial-
temporal reasoning".
 Popularized versions of the hypothesis, which
suggest that "listening to Mozart makes you
smarter, or that early childhood exposure to
classical music has a beneficial effect on mental
development.
The term was first coined by Alfred A.
Tomatis who used Mozart's music as the listening
stimulus in his work attempting to cure a variety of
disorders. The approach has been popularized in
Don Campbell's book, The Mozart Effect, which is
based on an experiment published
in Nature suggesting that listening to Mozart
temporarily boosted scores on one portion of
the IQ test. As a result, the United States' Governor
of Georgia, Zell Miller, proposed a budget to
provide every child born in Georgia with a CD
of classical music.
52 Munchausen syndrome Factitious disorder imposed on self, also known
as Munchausen syndrome, is a factitious
disorder wherein those affected feign disease,
illness, or psychological trauma to draw
attention, sympathy, or reassurance to them.
Munchausen syndrome fits within the subclass of
 factitious disorder with predominantly physical
signs and symptoms, but patients also have a
history of recurrent hospitalization, travelling, and
dramatic, extremely improbable tales of their past
experiences.The condition derives its name
from Baron Munchausen.
53 Name-letter effect The name-letter effect is the tendency of people to
prefer the letters in their name over other letters in
the alphabet. Whether subjects are asked to rank all
letters of the alphabet, rate each of the letters,
choose the letter they prefer out of a set of two, or
pick a small set of letters they most prefer, on
average people consistently like the letters in their
own name the most. Crucially, subjects are not
aware that they are choosing letters from their
name. Discovered in 1985 by the
Belgian psychologist JozefNuttin, the name-letter
effect has been replicated in dozens of studies,
involving subjects from over 15 countries, using
four different alphabets. It holds across age and
gender.
54 Negativity effect The negativity bias, also known as the negativity
effect, refers to the notion that, even when of equal
intensity, things of a more negative nature (e.g.
unpleasant thoughts, emotions, or social
interactions; harmful/traumatic events) have a
greater effect on one's psychological state and
processes than neutral or positive things. In other
words, something very positive will generally have
less of an impact on a person's behavior and
cognition than something equally emotional but
negative. The negativity bias has been investigated
within many different domains, including
the formation of impressions and general
evaluations; attention, learning, and memory;
and decision-making and risk considerations.
55 Novelty effect The novelty effect, in the context of human
performance, is the tendency for performance to
initially improve when new technology is instituted,
not because of any actual improvement in learning
or achievement, but in response to increased
interest in the new technology.
56 Numerosity adaptation effect The numerosity adaptation effect is a perceptual
phenomenon in numerical cognition which
demonstrates non-symbolic numerical intuition and
exemplifies how numerical percepts can impose
themselves upon the human brain automatically.
This effect was first described in 2008.
57 Observer-expectancy effect The observer-expectancy effect (also called
the experimenter-expectancy effect, expectancy
bias, observer effect, or experimenter effect) is a
form of reactivityin which a researcher's cognitive
 biascauses them to subconsciously influence the
participants of an experiment. Confirmation
bias can lead to the experimenter interpreting
results incorrectly because of the tendency to look
for information that conforms to their hypothesis,
and overlook information that argues against it. It is
a significant threat to a study's internal validity, and
is therefore typically controlled using a double-
blind experimental design.
58 Out-group homogeneity The Out-group Homogeneity Effect is the tendency
effect to view an out-groupas homogenous, or as “all the
same,” whereas the in-group is seen as more
heterogeneous or varied. For example, a woman
who lives in a big city might believe that everyone
from the country or a small town is stupid, whereas
she thinks that people from the city can be smart,
stupid, or something in between. When the woman
meets a small town person who is very intelligent,
she considers him or her an exception to the norm.
Overgeneralizing in this way about outgroup traits
contributes to stereotyping.
59 Overconfidence effect The overconfidence effect is a well-
established bias in which a person's
subjective confidence in his or her judgments is
reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those
judgments, especially when confidence is relatively
high. Overconfidence is one example of a
miscalibration of subjective probabilities.
Throughout the research literature, overconfidence
has been defined in three distinct ways:
(1) overestimation of one's actual performance;
(2) overplacement of one's performance relative to
others; and (3) overprecision in expressing
unwarranted certainty in the accuracy of one's
beliefs.
60 Over-justification effect The over-justification effect occurs when an
expected external incentive such as money or prizes
decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform
a task. The overall effect of offering a reward for a
previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic
motivation and the undermining of pre-existing
intrinsic motivation. Once rewards are no longer
offered, interest in the activity is lost; prior intrinsic
motivation does not return, and extrinsic rewards
must be continuously offered as motivation to
sustain the activity.
61 Partial report superiority
effect
62 Peltzman effect
63 Perruchet effect The Perruchet effect is a psychological
phenomenon in which dissociation is shown
between conscious expectation of an event and the
strength or speed of a response to the event.
64 Picture superiority effect The picture superiority effect refers to the
phenomenon in which pictures and images are more
likely to be remembered than words.This effect has
been demonstrated in numerous experiments using
different methods. It is based on the notion that
"human memory is extremely sensitive to the
symbolic modality of presentation of event
information"
65 Placebo effect
66 Positivity effect In psychologyand cognitive science, the positivity
effect is the ability to constructively analyze a
situation where the desired results are not achieved;
but still obtain positive feedback that assists our
future progression. When a person is considering
people they like (including themselves), the person
tends to make situational attributions about their
negative behaviors and dispositional attributions
about their positive behaviors. The reverse may be
true for people that the person dislikes. This may
well be because of the dissonance between liking a
person and seeing them behave negatively.
Example: If a friend hits someone, one would tell
them the other guy deserved it or that he had to
defend himself.
67 Pratfall effect The concept originally described in 1966 by Elliot
Aronson. In social psychology, the pratfall effect is
the tendency for attractiveness to increase or
decrease after an individual makes a mistake,
depending on the individual's perceived ability to
perform well in a general sense. A perceived
highly-competent individual would be, on average,
more likable after committing a blunder, while the
opposite would occur if a perceived average person
makes a mistake.
68 Precedence effect The precedence effect or law of the first
wavefront is a binaural psychoacoustic effect.
When a sound is followed by another sound
separated by a sufficiently short time delay (below
the listener's echo threshold), listeners perceive a
single auditory event; it’s perceivedspatial location
is dominated by the location of the first-arriving
sound (the first wave front). The lagging sound also
affects the perceived location. However, its effect is
suppressed by the first-arriving sound.
69 Primacy effect The primacy effect, in psychology and sociology, is
a cognitive biasthat results in a subject recalling
primary information presented better than
information presented later on. For example, a
subject who reads a sufficiently long list of words is
more likely to remember words toward the
beginning than words in the middle.
70 Prominence effect
71 Pseudocertainty effect In prospect theory, the pseudocertainty effect is
 the tendency for people to perceive an outcome as
certain while it is actually uncertain. It can be
observed in multi-stage decision making, in which
evaluation of the certainty of the outcome in a
previous stage of decisions is disregarded when
selecting an option in subsequent stages. Not to be
confused with certainty effect, the pseudocertainty
effect was discovered from an attempt at providing
a normative use of decision theory for the certainty
effect by relaxing the cancellation rule.
72 Purkinje effect The Purkinje effect (sometimes called
the Purkinje shift) is the tendency for the
peak luminance sensitivity of the human eye to shift
toward the blue end of the color spectrumat
low illumination levels as part of dark
adaptation. The effect is named after
the Czechanatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně.
73 Pygmalion effect The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, is the
phenomenon whereby higher expectations lead to
an increase in performance.The effect is named
after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who
fell in love with a statue he had carved, or
alternately, after the Rosenthal–Jacobson study
74 Rashomon effect
75 Recency effect Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to
recall the first and last items in a series best, and the
middle items worst. The term was coined
by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he
performed on himself, and refers to the finding
that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's
position within a study list. When asked to recall a
list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to
begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those
items best (the recency effect). Among earlier list
items, the first few items are recalled more
frequently than the middle items (the primacy
effect)
76 Rhyme-as-reason effect
77 Ringelmanneffect The Ringelmann effect is the tendency for
individual members of a group to become
increasingly less productive as the size of their
group increases This effect, discovered by French
agricultural
engineer MaximilienRingelmann(1861–1931),
illustrates the inverse relationship that exists
between the size of a group and the magnitude of
group members’ individual contribution to the
completion of a task.
78 Rumpelstiltskin effect
79 Self-reference effect The self-reference effect is a tendency for people
to encode information differently depending on the
level on which they are implicated in the
 information. When people are asked to remember
information when it is related in some way to
themselves, the recall rate can be improved.
80 Serial position effect Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to
recall the first and last items in a series best, and the
middle items worst. The term was coined
by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he
performed on himself, and refers to the finding
that recallaccuracy varies as a function of an item's
position within a study list.When asked to recall a
list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall
with the end of the list, recalling those items best
(the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the
first few items are recalled more frequently than the
middle items (the primacy effect).
81 Simon effect The Simon task and the Simon effectare named after
J. R. Simon. Together with his colleague, he first
described this effect in 1963. In essence, it shows
that people respond faster and more accurately if
there is a match between stimulus and response
features (e.g., location, when for example stimulus
and response are both located on the left side of
one’s body).

The effect is also known as a stimulus-response

compatibility effect. There are many variants of the
stimulus-response compatibility available. Like the
Stroop effect, it is easy to notice consciously how
difficult a mismatch between a stimulus and
response can be.
82 Sleeper effect The sleeper effect was discovered by Carl Hovland,
Arthur Lumsdaine, and Fred Sheffield in 1949, in
the course of their study that examined the impact
of a World War II propaganda movie on American
soldiers. Normally, the persuasiveness of
information gradually decreases over a period of
time. Often, this information is associated with cues
such as source credibility and morality. Some of
these cues are positive, while some are negative.
Messages accompanied by positive cues are usually
readily accepted and believed by people, while
those associated with negative cues (discounting
cues) are viewed suspiciously and sometimes even
dismissed.
83 Spacing effect The phenomenon was first identified by Hermann
Ebbinghaus, and his detailed study of it was
published in the 1885 boo (Memory: A
Contribution to Experimental Psychology). This
robust finding has been supported by studies of
many explicit memory tasks such as free
recall, recognition, cued-recall, and frequency
estimation . The spacing effect is the phenomenon
whereby learning is greater when studying is spread
 out over time, as opposed to studying the same
amount of content in a single session. That is, it is
better to use spaced presentation rather than massed
presentation. Practically, this effect suggests that
"cramming" (intense, last-minute studying) the
night before an exam is not likely to be as effective
as studying at intervals in a longer time frame. It is
important to note, however, that the benefit of
spaced presentations does not appear at short
retention intervals, in which massed presentations
tend to lead to better memory performance. This
effect is a desirable difficulty; it challenges the
learner but leads to better learning in the long-run.
84 Spotlight effect The spotlight effect is a very common
psychological phenomenon that psychologists
define as a person’s tendency to overestimate the
extent to which others notice, judge, and remember
his or her appearance and behavior
85 Stockholm syndrome The name of the syndrome is derived from a
botched bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden.
Stockholm syndrome, psychological response
wherein a captive begins to identify closely with his
or her captors, as well as with their agenda and
demands.
86 Stroop effect "Stroop Effect" is named after J. Ridley Stroop who
discovered this strange phenomenon in the 1930s.
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon that occurs
when you must say the color of a word but not the
name of the word. For example, blue might be
printed in red and you must say the color rather
than the word. 
87 Subadditivity effect
88 Subject-expectancy effect An expectancy effect occurs when an incorrect
belief held by one person, the perceiver, about
another person, the target, leads the perceiver to act
in such a manner as to elicit the expected behavior
from the target. Expectancy effects are thus a
subcategory of self-fulfilling prophecies that occur
in an interpersonal context.
s89 Tamagotchi effect The Tamagotchi effect is the development
of emotionalattachment with machines, robots or so
ftware agents. It has been noticed that humans tend
to attach emotionally to things which otherwise do
not have any emotions. For example, there are
instances when people feel emotional about using
their car keys, or with virtual pets. It is more
prominent in applications which reflect some
aspects of human behavior or characteristics,
especially levels of artificial intelligence and
automated knowledge processing.
90 Telescoping effect In cognitive psychology, the telescoping
effect (or telescoping bias) refers to the temporal
 displacement of an event whereby people perceive
recent events as being more remote than they are
and distant events as being more recent than they
are.[1] The former is known as backward
telescoping or time expansion, and the latter as is
known as forward telescoping.Three years is
approximately the time frame in which events
switch from being displaced backward in time to
forward in time, with events occurring three years
in the past being equally likely to be reported with
forward telescoping bias as with backward
telescoping bias.
91 Testing effect The testing effect is the finding that long-term
memory is increased when some of the learning
period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-
remembered information through testing with
proper feedback.  The effect is also sometimes
referred to as retrieval practice, practice testing,
or test-enhanced learning
92 Tetris effect The Tetris effect (also known as Tetris Syndrome)
occurs when people devote so much time and
attention to an activity that it begins to pattern
their thoughts, mental images, and dreams. It takes
its name from the video gameTetris.
93 Thatcher effect The Thatcher effect or Thatcher illusion is a
phenomenon where it becomes more difficult to
detect local feature changes in an upside-down face,
despite identical changes being obvious in an
upright face. It is named after the late British Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher, on whose photograph
the effect was first and most famously
demonstrated. The effect was originally created in
1980 by Peter Thompson, Professor of Psychology
at the University of York.
94 Ventriloquism effect n psychology, visual capture is the dominance
of vision over other sensemodalities in creating
a percept. Visual capture is known as the
"ventriloquism effect," which refers to the
perception of speech sounds as coming from a
direction other than their true direction, due to the
influence of visual stimuli from an apparent
speaker. Thus, when the ventriloquism illusion
occurs, the speaker's voice is visually captured at
the location of the dummy's moving mouth.
95 Venus effect The Venus effect is a phenomenon in
the psychology of perception, named after various
paintings of Venus gazing into a mirror, such
as Diego Velázquez's Rokeby Venus, Titian's Venus
with a Mirror, and Veronese's Venus with a Mirror.
Viewers of such paintings assume that Venus is
admiring her own reflection in the mirror; however,
since the viewer sees her eyes in the mirror, Venus
is actually looking at the reflection of the painter.
96 Von Restorff effect The von Restorff effect, also known as the
"isolation effect", predicts that when multiple
homogeneous stimuli are presented, the stimulus
that differs from the rest is more likely to be
remembered.[1] The theory was coined by German
psychiatrist and pediatrician Hedwig von
Restorff (1906–1962), who, in her 1933 study,
found that when participants were presented with a
list of categorically similar items with one
distinctive, isolated item on the list, memory for the
item was improved.
97 Wagon-wheel effect The wagon-wheel
effect (alternatively, stagecoach-wheel
effect, stroboscopic effect) is an optical illusion in
which a spoked wheelappears to rotate differently
from its true rotation. The wheel can appear to
rotate more slowly than the true rotation, it can
appear stationary, or it can appear to rotate in the
opposite direction from the true rotation. This last
form of the effect is sometimes called the reverse
rotation effect.
98 Well travelled road effect The well travelled road effect is a cognitive bias in
which travellers will estimate the time taken to
traverse routes differently depending on their
familiarity with the route. Frequently travelled
routes are assessed as taking a shorter time than
unfamiliar routesThe effect has been observed for
centuries but was first studied scientifically in the
1980s and 1990s following from earlier "heuristics
and biases" work undertaken
by DanielKahneman and Amos Tversky
99 Werther effect The term was coined by researcher David
Phillips in (1974), the term "Werther-effect" is used
as a synonym for media induced imitation effects of
suicidal behaviour. It is also known as copycat
suicide- defined as an emulation of another suicide
that the person attempting suicide knows about
either from local knowledge or due to accounts or
depictions of the original suicide on television and
in other media.
100 Word frequency effect The word frequency effect is a psychological
phenomenon where recognition times are faster for
words seen more frequently than for words seen
less frequently.It depends on individual awareness
of the tested language. The phenomenon can be
extended to different characters of the word in non-
alphabetic languages such as Chinese.
101 Word superiority effect The word superiority effect (WSE) refers to a
phenomenon where it can be demonstrated that
people can more easily recognize letters presented
within words as compared to isolated letters and to
letters presented within non-word (orthographically
illegal, unpronounceable letter array) strings. The
 effect was first described by Cattell (1886), and
later contributions came from Reicher (1969) and
Wheeler (1970).
102 Worse-than-average effect The worse-than-average effect (WTA)or below-
average effect is the human tendency to
underestimate one's achievements and capabilities
in relation to others
103 Zeigarnik effect Zeigarnik effect states that people remember
uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than
completed tasks. In Gestalt Psychology, the
Zeigarnik effect has been used to demonstrate the
general presence of Gestalt phenomena: not just
appearing as perceptual effects, but also present in
cognition.