BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR TEXTILE, GARMENT AND

FASHION DESIGN (iOTEX)

Fiber and Yarn Properties Testing

Teachers and Students Guide

Prepared by:

Getnet Belay

(BSc in Textile Engineering)

(M-Tech in Textile Engineering)

Tiliksew Addis

(BSc in Textile Engineering)

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September 2011

Table of Contents
Pages
Part I Fibre Properties Testing .............................................................................6

1. Sampling & interpretation of test results ..........................................................................6

Sampling .............................................................................................................6

Sampling from bales (bulk samples) ..................................................................6

Laboratory sample ..............................................................................................7

2. Fiber length measurement ..........................................................................................................8

Introduction ........................................................................................................8

Zoning technique for sampling raw cotton used to measure fibre length,
maturity and strength. .........................................................................................8

Measurement of individual fibre length ...........................................................10

Staple method ...................................................................................................11

3. Determination of fineness ........................................................................................................13

Introduction ......................................................................................................13

Air flow method for cotton fiber ......................................................................14

Testing procedure .............................................................................................14

Determination of fiber fineness by vibroscope method ...................................17

Introduction ......................................................................................................17

Testing procedure .............................................................................................19

4. Estimation of maturity of cotton fiber ..............................................................................22

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Introduction ......................................................................................................22

Estimation of maturity by projection microscope ............................................24

Testing Procedure .............................................................................................26

5. Determination of trash content of cotton fiber.............................................................27

Introduction ......................................................................................................27

Determination of trash content by Shirley Analyzer MK II ............................28

Experimental procedure....................................................................................30

Testing procedure .............................................................................................30

Calculation and expression of test results ........................................................32

6. Determination of cotton fiber stickiness..........................................................................33

Introduction ......................................................................................................33

Testing of honeydew by thermo detector .........................................................36

Testing procedure .............................................................................................37

Counting the sticky points ................................................................................38

7. Determination of regain and moisture content ............................................................40

Introduction ......................................................................................................40

Features of ETADRY moisture tester ..............................................................41

Digital timer ......................................................................................................42

Part II Yarn Properties Testing ..........................................................................45

8. Sampling and Interpretation of Test Results .................................................................45

Introduction ......................................................................................................45

Sampling of Yarn .............................................................................................45

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Sampling Procedure..........................................................................................45

Lot Sample........................................................................................................46

Laboratory Sample ...........................................................................................47

Interpretation and Application of Test Results ................................................47

Critical Difference ............................................................................................48

Meaning of Critical Difference ........................................................................48

Number of Tests and Critical Difference .........................................................48

9. Fineness of Yarn ............................................................................................................................53

Yarn Count .......................................................................................................53

Indirect System .................................................................................................53

Direct System ...................................................................................................54

Procedures for preparing test samples using wrap reel ....................................57

Testing procedure .............................................................................................58

10. Tensile Properties of Yarn .......................................................................................................63

Tenacity or specific strength ............................................................................63

Yarn strength testing.........................................................................................63

Testing procedure .............................................................................................63

Using dynamometer single yarn strength tester ...............................................65

Test procedure ..................................................................................................68

Using universal tensile strength tester ..............................................................69

Sample preparation ...........................................................................................78

11. Yarn twist measurements .........................................................................................................80

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Twist direction ..................................................................................................81

12. Yarn Hairiness testing ................................................................................................................86

Use of Software ................................................................................................88

13. Yarn friction testing .....................................................................................................................88

How to use the software ...................................................................................89

14. Yarn Abrasion Testing ...............................................................................................................91

Measurement of yarn abrasion by SDL yarn abrasion resistance tester ..........91

15. Yarn Appearance Testing.........................................................................................................94

The basis for gradation: ....................................................................................95

Yarn appearance testing by Zweigle yarn examination winder .......................96

Test procedure ..................................................................................................96

16. Neps and trash testing.................................................................................................................97

Function of top tester III ...................................................................................97

Nep testing using top tester III ........................................................................99

Preparation for the test....................................................................................100

Evaluation of the test results ..........................................................................103

Nep testing using Top Lab ............................................................................104

Procedure for test ............................................................................................104

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PART I

FIBRE PROPERTIES TESTING

1. SAMPLING & INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

Sampling

The selection of a small quantity of the material to be tested is known as sampling.

As textile testing is both time consuming and destructive in nature in many cases,
it is necessary that we select samples for conducting tests for various quality
characteristics.

Sampling procedure

Since only a small sample from a lot is tested for estimating the properties of the
lot, it is essential that the sample so drawn should be truly representative of the
lot. For the textile industry, sampling of cotton has to be carried out at three
distinct stages, viz. (i) the bulk samples, (ii) basic samples, and (iii) the laboratory
samples.

Sampling from bales (bulk samples)

When a large number of bales of cotton belonging to a variety is purchased, a few

bales may be chosen at random as representing the bulk. Table 1 gives the
number of bales to be chosen from a given lot.

Table1. Sampling procedure for selection of bales from lot

Bulk size (total bales) Sample size (bales) be

considered)
Up to 50 2
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51 to 100 4
101 to 150 7
151 to 300 13
301 to 500 20
501 to 1000 32
1001 and above 40
From the bales so chosen, the basic sample will be prepared as follows:
Draw from each bale handful of cotton from different places of the bale so that a
representative sample is drawn. These tufts of fibres may be mixed up thoroughly
so as to form a homogenous representative sample. Similarly, prepare
homogenous sample from all the bales chosen at random these samples may be
tested separately, if bale to bale variation is required. Otherwise, they can be
pooled together to form one sample representative of the whole bulk. The total
quantity of the sample prepared should be about one kg.

Laboratory sample

The final sample on which the tests are to be carried out is called the laboratory
sample. Laboratory sample is drawn from the basic sample. For this purpose, the
basic sample is divided into 32 equal parts. From each part, a small tuft of fibres is
drawn and all these tufts are mixed together to form a small sample weighing 200
to 500 mg. This is then opened, doubled and drafted several times so that the
resultant sample is representative of the basic sample. Care must be taken not to
discard any fibres during this process. Only foreign matter and entangled fibres
may be discarded. The sample so prepared is to be used for Baer Sorter, Maturity
and Gravimetric fineness tests. The sampling procedures to be adopted for other
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tests, viz., Pressley, Stelometer, Micronaire, Fibrograph and Trash Analyser,

should conform to the methods suggested in the respective instruction manuals.
The total quantity of the sample required for these tests may be prepared from the
basic sample in the very same way as suggested earlier for the preparation of the
small sample. The only difference is that a larger quantity may be drawn from
each part so that the total quantity drawn will be equal to the weight suggested in
the respective instrument's instruction manuals.

2. FIBER LENGTH MEASUREMENT

Introduction

The single fiber, from which many complicated structures are assembled, is a
small beam characterized by great length relative to, its cross-section. Length of
staple fiber is one of the most important characteristics. The length and fineness
are sometimes related for natural fibers whereas for man - made fibers length and
fineness can be controlled separately. In general both fibers are processed using
the same machineries and often the cut length of man-made fibers is influenced by
the fibre length of natural fibres. The measurement of natural fibres is a task
which is not made easier by the fact that the variation exists not only between
different types of the same material but also within the same type. The properties
of cotton fiber vary for different varieties of cotton, for different growth areas, for
different climatic conditions, and from year to year. Another major problem is to
express the length of cotton or other natural fibers in single value while there is
high variation.

Zoning technique for sampling raw cotton used to measure fiber

length, maturity and strength.
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Ideally, when sampling from the bulk, say, for example a bale of raw cotton, the
required number of fibers should be taken one by one from different parts of the
bale. Obviously this is impractical! Therefore the method that is used should have
the aim of drawing fibers from as many parts of the bulk as possible or as below.

A procedure that illustrates the silent points of drawing samples is described

below the sample that is drawn can be used for length, maturity and strength
measurement.

Step1: from the bulk sample of about 28g is prepared by selecting about 80 large
tufts (flocks; small) collection of fibers more or less tightly packed together from
all over the bulk from as many places as possible or described above.
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Figure1. Sampling procedure

Step 2: Divide this samples in to four quarters.

Steps 3: Take sixteen tufts at random from each quarter – size approximately 20
mg (about the

Size of the final sample

Step 4: Each tuft is divided in to two haves – repeat this step four times –
discarded alternately

With right and left hands turning the tuft through a right angle between
Successive

Halving sixteen small tufts are thus produced

Steps 5: Combine each set of tufts in to a small tuft.

Steps 6: Mix each tuft in turn by doubling and drawing between the figures.

Step 7: Divide each tuft in to four parts.

Step 8: Obtain four new tufts by combining apart of the former (four) tufts.

Steps 9: Mix each tuft again by doubling and drafting between figures

Steps 10: Take quarter from each tuft to make the final sample.

Measurement of individual fiber length

A representative sample of fibers is taken and the individual fiber length is

measured. These values are arranged accordingly and the statistical methods are
applied to calculate mean, coefficient of variation etc. This method is widely used
in the case of man-made fibres, where fibres are cut at a particular length. The
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fibres are straightened (by removing the crimp) and placed on an oil plate. While
removing the crimp by hand, care should be taken so that fibres should not be
extended. The length of individual fibres is measured. Generally 300 - 500
samples are measured and mean and coefficient of variation are calculated. Like
cotton fibers frequency distribution is not used.
For cotton fibers, as the length variation is much higher, a large number of fibers
have to be considered to get a reliable result. Commonly this method is not
followed for cotton fiber length measurement.

Staple method
Stapling was a system of length measurement used by classers in earlier days, to
class the fibers. The length obtained by this method is called' Staple Length'. This
concept is still in use in some places for the rough estimation of fiber length.

Staple length: Is defined as a quantity estimated by personal judgment by which a

sample of fibrous raw material is characterized as regards its technically most
important fiber length. Never the less, staple length remains an important fiber
parameter, both as a technical as well as commercial characteristic. The hand
staple (spinners‟ staple) is an informative to the spinner.

Table 2 Fiber length classification

Short staple 1”or less 25.4mm

Medium staple 1 1/32”----1 1/8‟‟ 25.43-25.53

Long staple 1 5/32‟‟-----1 3/8‟‟ 25.56-25.78

Extra long staple 1 3/32‟‟and above 25.49

The staple length is measured in the following manner:

 The method is called hand stapling method

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 A fiber sample is selected , doubling , and drafting between fingers is

carried out till a well straightened tuft of about ½ inch (12 mm) width is
obtained
 This tuft is laid on black velvet bared and the staple length is measured.
 While measuring the staple length, the extreme tips of the tuft are not
considered. At the tips, the thickness of the tuft is observed and where
there is sadden increase in the thickness the point is considered as an end
point. The distance b/n the two end points (one on each end tuft) is
measured and it is termed as staple length.
 Hand – stapling experts can measure length up to accuracy of 1/16 inch
and sometimes even up to 1/32 of an inch.
 The time taken to carry out the hand stapling is of the order of few
minutes possibly with the exception of HV instruments, this method still
remains the fastest.
 Along with staple length, the classer also can judge other characteristics
such as fineness, strength, maturity and so on.
 To reduce variation between classers, standard samples are also issued by
institutions working in this field.

Materials used

 Velvet board

 Tape measure which has a scale division 1 32 of an inch

 standard samples

Take ten samples each from at least three different lots available in the lab
and compare the results of each lot and classify your result as short
medium or long staple cotton fiber.
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Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment
2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results: mean , standard deviation and coefficient of variation
5. conclusion

3. DETERMINATION OF FINENESS

Introduction

By fineness of a fiber, we mean the thickness of fibers, in case of natural fiber, the
thickness of the fiber varies with in a given fiber from root to tip and also this
dimension vary between fibers. in view of the difficulty of measuring the traverse
dimensions of the fiber the fineness of cotton fibers is expressed , indirectly , in
terms of linear density –or the mass for a given unit length. The usual unit
measurement in case of cotton fibers is microgram per inch of the fiber (also
called „micronaire value of the fiber when the method of measurement is based on
air-flow principle). Micronaire value is used worldwide for cotton fineness
measurement.

Table 3 the fineness scale

Micronaire value Fineness

Up to 3.1 Very fine
3.1 – 3.9 Fine
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4.0 – 4.9 Medium

5.0 & above Course

Fiber fineness affects, spinning limit, yarn strength, yarn evenness, yarn fullness
drape of fabric, luster, handle and productivity.

Air flow method for cotton fiber

Principle of measurement

There are many methods of measuring the linear density of fibers; out of the
various methods, air flow method has established itself as the most favorite
method, in view of its simplicity and quickness.
A sample of given constant mass is packed in a chamber of a fixed volume
through which air is passed at a given constant pressure. For a given mass of
fibers, there will be more number of finer fibers than coarser fibers; the larger the
number of fibers has more surface area and offer more resistance to the flow of
air. Thus, the flow of air is the measure of the fineness of fibers the instrument is
calibrated with known linear densities of fibers and the readings are expressed
directly in terms of ‟micronaire value„. This equipment works on the constant –
pressure air flow principle. Air is drawn through the sample by a vacuum pump
and a constant pressure is set up across the sample as indicated by the level of
liquid in a manometer gauge tube. A Rota meter type flow meter measures the
velocity of air through the sample .the scale reading directly gives the micronaire
value of the fiber.
Testing procedure
1. Level the equipment with the sprite level and the screws at the bottom of the
instrument. Ensure the level of the liquid is at 180 mm on the manometer tube;
if necessary, add a few drops of the colored liquid if the level is below the
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180mm mark. (The water may have evaporated over time). Replace the
manometer dust cup after the topping of the liquid .the measurements should
be made at the upper meniscus; remember also that the correctness of the
liquid level should be judged at the eye level.
2. Use the standards non-hygroscopic plug for checking the correctness of the
instrument setting. With the standards plug in place of the fiber sample, the
instrument is operated and the reading on the micronaire scale should be 6 (if
not, check for the problems in the instrument.
3. Prepare the sample by first opening the fiber using a fiber analyzer or other
suitable machine to ensure that the fiber is clean and free from other impurities.
The fiber should be left for conditioning in the standard testing atmosphere.
(Conditioning in the standard testing atmosphere is essential for obtaining
accurate results, as any difference in the mass would mean differ the number of
fibers and hence difference in the air flow).

Figure 2 Details of the Wira fineness meter

4. From this sample of conditioned fiber, take 2 grams to an accuracy of +_ 0.002

grams.
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5. Release the plunger by unscrewing the screw cap. Lift the plunger out. Ensure
that there is no fibers remaining inside the chamber using short end of the
packing rod to hold it , carefully feed the fibers in to the chamber a small
portion at a time , fluffing the fibers with the fingers in order to break up any
lumps and taking care to transfer all the fibers in to the chamber . Do not
force – pack the fibers with the packing rod .Replace the plunger, pressing
down it with the palm of the hand. Replace the screw cup holding the plunger
and screw it down. Ensure that no fibers are trapped between the plunger and
the walls of the plunger. (It is good practice to use a pair of gloves to handle
the fibers, instead of using bare hands, as oil present in the hands could alter
the surface characteristics of the fibers leading to difference in the fractional
properties and thus the air flow).
6. Ensure that the valve is in fully closed position (fully turned clockwise).
Connect the vacuum pump to the main supply. Switch on the vacuum pump by
pressing the foot pedal. turn the knob of the valve slowly anti clock wise until
the liquid in the manometer falls to the lower a180 mm mark( again check the
water level at the eye level and ensuring that it carried out with the upper
meniscus of the liquid ).the turning of the valve should not be done roughly.
7. Read at eye level the position of the spinner on the flow meter scale .the
reading that coincides with the top line of the spinner on the flow meter scale is
the microniar value of the sample. Recorded the reading to the nearest 0.1
micronaire value.
8. Close the valve fully by turning the valve fully anti – clockwise
9. Take out the sample outside and repack the sample once again and take another
reading following the earlier steps. Ensure that no fiber is lost while the sample
is repacked again.
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10.Close the valve fully by turning it fully clockwise.

11.similarly , take more readings on the sample
12.Calculate the average of the readings and take the result to the nearest 0.1
microniare value.
Note: The drawback of this equipment is it is affected by maturity
Content of the laboratory recorded
1. Name and objective of the experiment
2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results; Mean, Standard deviation, and coefficient of variation
5. conclusion

Determination of fiber fineness by vibroscope method

Introduction
This is an indirect method of measurement of fineness of staple fibers. This is
based on the theory of vibrating strings. In the musical instruments where strings
are used, such as Violin, Guitar, Sitar etc., the musicians tighten or loosen the
tension of string until the sound generated by that pleases them. In fact they
control the frequency by changing the tension:

Vibroscope is a precise technique for determining denier of a fiber. Sample fiber

hung in acceleration. A transducer is to excite the fiber. The sample length is
changed until the fundamental frequency is matched with the forced frequency of
the transducer.

The amplitude of vibration is seen due to the resonance and the resonance
vibration is seen as shown in the figure below.
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Fig. 3 Fundamental frequency Higher frequency

(At resonance) (Not at resonance)

The natural fundamental frequency of vibration (f ) of the fiber is auction of the

tension in the fiber (T)the mass per unit length (m1)and the test length L:

f= (1/2L) (T/m1)1/2

Solving for m

m1 =T (1/2Lf) 2

A string or fibre of length L is clamped at one end, led over a knife edge support,
loaded by a weight W, and is induced to vibrate at its natural fundamental
frequency f.

The wave length of the oscillation, ... , is 2L, and the equation may be rewritten as

To express m1 in terms of denier

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In the instrument working in this principle fibre fineness is determined from the
characteristic frequency of a transverse fibre oscillation. This frequency is
measured opto-electronically, and the fineness value is displayed.

Thus, for a known values T,L and f. The vibroscope can determine the value of
m1

(Mass per unit length and so the linear density of the fiber).

Equipments used

 Tweezers
 velvet bored
 Fiber samples

Testing procedure
 Select a suitable tension weight according to the nominal linear density and
set

Switch (10).

 Fit fiber (4) at one end with suitable tension weight (50). in case of short
staple length, the weight must be clamped at the out most end of the fiber.
 Pick up the fiber with tweezers at its other end.
 Pushes push-button (8) the fiber clamp (2) will open insert the end of the
fiber between the jaws of the clamp and let go button (8). Take care the
fiber is correctly inserted over the edge. (3). this can be seen from the sharp
silhouette appearing on the ground –glass plate (1).
 Adjust lamp brightness by means of control knob.
 Turn control knob for amplitude of vibration (7) roughly in to mid position.

Adjust control knob (9) watching the ground glass plate until resonance of
vibration occurs. Resonance is visible as a maximum width of the fiber contours
on the ground glass plate.
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Fig 4 the vibroscope

ATTENTION! Choose amplitude of vibration by means of control knob (7) in

such away that resonance of only 4--5 millimeters width of fiber contours on
ground glass plate. Too large amplitude of resonance- vibration may cause
measuring errors up to 15%.

Correct resonance adjustment again. If necessary, read titer from digital

display (11) in dtex (den)

Selection of the tension weight

The weight selected considerably affects the Thus accuracy of titre determination.

Too heavy a weight elongates the fiber, the fiber titre is reduced during
measurement and too low attire is obtained. However, this fault is noticeable only,
if the optimum weight for the nominal titre is exceeded by at least twice value.

If too low a weight is used, the crimp may not remove incompletely. Mass per
length unit is not determined in stretched condition, which is contradiction to the
definition of titre. Such faults may be relatively large. There for, the use of too
low weight must be avoided on all accounts.

Weights frequent in use can be allowed for by adjusting a switch (10) on the
digital display (11), the linear density can be read directly in dtex , if the actually
used weight corresponds to the position of the switch.

Table 4 tension weight selection range

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Position of the selector Recommended range of Max. measuring range of

switch (10) operation instrument
10 mg 0.100-0.250 0.085-0.350dtex
0.090-0.225 0.077-0.315den
15mg 0.150-0.375 0.127-0.525dtex
0.135-0.338 0.114-0.473den
20mg 0.200-0.500 0.170-700dtex
0,180-0.450 0.153-0.630den
30mg 0.300-0.750 0.255-1.050dtex
0.270-0.675 0.230-0.945den
50mg 0.50-1.25 0.42-1.75dtex
0.45-1.12 0.38-1.57den
70mg 0.70-1.75 0.59-2.45dtex
0.63-1.58 0.53-2.21den
100mg 1.00-2.50 0.85-3.50dtex
0.90-2.25 0.77-3.15den
150mg 1.50-3.75 1.27-5.25dtex
1.35-3.38 1.14-4.73den
200mg 2.00-5.00 1.70-7.00dtex
1.80-4.50 1.53-6.30den
3.00-7.50 2.55-10.50dtex
300mg 2.70-6.75 2.30-9.45den
500mg 5.0-12.5 4.2-17.5dtex
4.5-11.3 3.8-15.8den
700mg 7.0-17.5 5.9-24.5dtex
6.3-15.8 5.3-22.1den
100mg 10.0-25.0 8.5-35.0dtex
9.0-22.5 7.7-31.5den
1500mg 15.0-37.5 12.7-52.5dtex
13.5-33.8 11.4-47.3den
2000mg 20.0-50.0 17.0-70.0dtex
18.0-45.0 15.3-63.0den
3000mg 30.0-75.0 26.0-105.0dtex
27.067.5 23.4-94.5den
5000mg 50-125 42-175dtex
45-113 38-158den
7000mg 70-175 59-245dtex
63-158 53-221den
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Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment
2. Necessary theoretical information
3. Experimental procedure
4. Test results; Mean, Standard deviation, and coefficient of variation;
5. Conclusion

3. ESTIMATION OF MATURITY OF COTTON FIBER

Introduction

A mature cotton fiber has a high degree of secondary wall thickening with
cellulose packed tightly An immature cotton fiber , the lumen is quite large where
as in immature cotton fiber , the lumen is quite narrow, have limp feel when
handled by fingers , they stick to the fingers and springiness is absent thus
immature fibers are also called dead fibers.

Immature cotton fibers cause various problems such as nippiness in processing,

shade variation in dying, showing up as specks in apices of dyed cloth, high level
of end breakage at various stages of yarn processing and so on.
Discolor fibers (yellow/red things) are often indicators of poor maturity and
should be avoided. Even in a fully ripened ball, 5% of the fibers are immature /
dead. Therefore cotton without immature fiber is impossible to obtain; we need to
consider the quantity or how much of immature fibers only.
Principle of estimation of maturity
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When cotton fiber is treated with a small amount of 18 % caustic soda solution,
mature cotton fibers behave in different way. Mature cotton fibers absorb the
caustic soda solution, and they become, under microscope, glass – rod like in
appearance without any visible convolutions. Immature fibers retain the
convolutions and they look like twisted deflated bicycle tube. Fibers that are half
mature tend to show an appearance between these limits.

A sample of cotton fiber is classified into mature and immature employing the
above principle and maturity ratio is calculated.
Let;
M =Maturity ratio

N = Percent number of dead fibers

D = Percent no of dead fibers

M = (N-D)/200+0.7

The above formula is based on the empirical observation that in pure strains of
cotton grown under highly favorable growth (ideal) conditions, 67% of fibers are
normal and 7percent of the fiber are dead and the rest are half mature. The
formula will lead a value of 1 for a good group of cotton fibers with the highest
possible number of dead fibers.

Table5. Classification of maturity

Classification of maturity ratio

Maturity Ratio Category

1.00 and above Very Mature

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0.95 - 1.0 Above Average

0.85 - 0.95 Mature

0.80 - 0.85 Below Average

Less than 0.80 Immature

Estimation of maturity by projection microscope

Projection microscope is a device of universal application designed mainly for
textile industry, for measuring diameters of fibers and visualizes the longitudinal
view of fibers.

Table 6 Technical characteristics

Magnification Resolving Value of scale

of the Magnification power interval
objectives (micrometer)
of ( micrometer )
microscope
5x 125x 7.4 8
10x 250x 4.6 4
20x 500x 2.8 2
40x 1000x 1.8 1
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Figure 5 Optical diagram

1- bulb, 2 spherical mirror , 3- collector , 4-field diaphragm, 5- mirror, 5a- lens

in mounting, 6- aperture diaphragm, 7

Illumination adjustment
Illumination adjustment consists mainly in adequate projection of the field
diaphragm on the screen and the bulb filament on the aperture diaphragm, in order
to set correct illumination;

- Take the objectives out of the drawer and screw them in the sets of the nose
pieces
- Place the stage micrometer with scale on the micrometer stage.
- connect the microscope to the mains of the variable
- take the cap off by means of the hand wheel
- switch the illumination on with use of the lever
- By rotating the nose piece set the objective, which is to be applied for
observation. Above the preparation.
 26

- Focus the preparation. I.e. attain sharp image of the object on the screen
using the hand wheels of macro and micro focusing movement.
Equipments and materials used
 Cotton fiber
 Caustic soda
 Beaker
 Glass slid
 Pipit
 Water
 Velvet board
Testing Procedure
1. a sample of cotton fibers( preferably taken from comb sorter ;if it is not
possible , select a sample by hand drawing and doubling after the removal of
neps, trash and other impurities is taken and placed over a glass slide . Ensure
that the fibers are parallel and separate from each other.
2. place a drop of 18 percent caustic soda solution over the fibers and place the
cover plate over the irrigated fibers so that the solution is distributed uniformly
over all the fibers .it is also become easy to observe the fibers with the cover
plate over the parallel fibers. do not add too much of caustic soda solution
which will form droplets , but at the same time not too less
3. Switch on the projection microscope and select a suitable set of magnifying
lens by adjusting the knob provided for both longitudinal and traverse
direction. Adjust the focus of the microscope so that the fibers are clearly
visible on the screen.
4. First count the total number of fibers. Then, count the number of normal fibers
and the number of dead fibers.
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5. Convert the figure to percent of normal fibers N and percent of dead fibers D.
6. Calculate the maturity ratio employing the given formula.
7. ( it is preferable to arrive at the estimate of the maturity ratio on the bases of at
least 500fibers . when the sample is taken from the comb sorter ,all length
classes should be taken
Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results
5. conclusion

4. DETERMINATION OF TRASH CONTENT OF COTTON

FIBER
Introduction
Cotton after harvesting is processed in cotton ginning factories to separate the
seeds and fibers. After the ginning operation, the cotton fiber is packed in the form
of cotton bales. Usually this cotton contains, apart from the fibers, broken seeds,
leaf fragments, sand and similar non- fibrous and non cotton fibers impurities. The
amount of none cotton impurities (which) collectively called trash) need to be
estimated because the amount of trash is an important technical and commercial
factor. Large quantity of trash in general, results in poor quality of yarn, apart
from processing difficulties.

Table 7 Amount of trash

Trash% Degree
 28

Up to 1.2% Very clean

1.2----2 Clean
2-------4 Medium
4-------7 Dirty
7% and above very dirty( very difficult to
process )

Determination of trash content by Shirley Analyzer MK II

The main uses of this instrument are:

 To enable the buyer and seller of cotton and cotton waste to determine
accurately the relative proportion of clean cotton and trash.
 To supply the spinners of cotton and cotton waste with a reliable estimate
of the cleaning efficiency of machinery, irrespective of the material being
processed.
 To determine the cleanliness of cotton at any stage during processing.
 To ascertain the quality of usable cotton
 To determine the loss of good fibers in the cleaning and spinning
processes.
 The following definitions are applied in this section

Table 8 definition fiber and impurities

Fiber Material before passage through the trash separator.

 29

Lint Fiber after passage through the trash separator with the bulk of
the trash removed.

Trash Non- fibrous matter deposited in the front and back trays after
passage through the trash separator.

Lint – bearing Intermingled trash and fiber found in the trash trays after
passage of the fiber through the trash separator.
trash
Dust Fibrous and Non-fibrous matter collected in the micron filter at
the rear of the machine.

the machine operates on the principle of “buoyancy separation” by the use of air
currents as shown in the diagram above the sample is placed in the table (feed
table) and presented to the taker in by the feed roller .owing to its high speed and
large number of teeth, the taker in cylinder opens up the cotton almost to a single
hair state.. Due to the strong centrifugal force, cotton hairs and the trash particles
tend to travel tangentially out wards and enter the air stream. The separation of
cotton and trash takes place as the two travels with the air stream through the
settling chamber, heavy trash particles falling almost straight down to the trash
tray. On the other hand, as the single cotton hairs are entirely controlled by the air
stream they are carried along with it and out of the chamber. The lighter trash
particles tend to fall, but they are taken same way by the air stream, by correct
adjustment they fall into the trash tray at appoint further forwarded than the
heavier particles.

Cotton and light dust are carried out of the chamber and drawn on to the cage
surface, the dust being through the cage perforations. The cotton form analyzer on
the cage and travels forward in its direction of rotation. When the fore most
portion of the layer of cotton arrive over the dampered section of the cage, they
 30

are pushed forward on the delivery plat by the cotton coming up behind , the in
drought from between the delivery plate and the cage helping to strip the layer
from the cage. Ultimately, the cotton falls in to the delivery box. For complete test
two samples are put through the analyzer and the mean is determined.

Experimental procedure
Before switching on the machine

 Clean the trash trays, the filters and the delivery box.
 Spread the sample uniformly over the feed try after hand opening of the
sample in to small tufts. Approximately 100g of sample may be tested.
 When testing sliver, short tufts of sliver should be spread out over the feed
perpendicular to the feed roller.
 Caution! the experiment should be carried out bearing in mind that the
equipment contains fast moving and sharp rotating parts. Opening of the
doors and delivery boxes should never be done while the machine is
running. Ensure that the machine has come to full stop before opening the
doors.

Material/Equipments used
 Cotton fiber
 Electronic balance
 Brush
 Trash try
 Waste collecting basket

Testing procedure
 31

1. Start the machine by pressing the green on buttons. First start the motor of
the fun and then the motor of the opening roller .if the motor doesn‟t start,
check whether the front and the rear doors are firmly closed.
2. Once the front roller start rotating, hand feed the web in to the spacing b/n
the front roller and the figure plate. Continue to open out the hard lumps
and add the web from the remaining cotton until the sample material has
been processed. Once started, the cohesion of the web will normally enable
it to be drawn through the feed roller without the operator‟s attention.
3. When the entire sample has been passed under the feed roller, switch off the
drive motor by pressing the red off button. It takes about 5 seconds for the
motor to come to a stop and during this time .it will not be possible for the
operator to open the doors.
4. Collect the lint (L1) deposited in the delivery box at the rare and sweep in
to a collecting jar or on to a filter paper the fine trash deposited in the rare
tray (TR1).
5. Without disturbing the trash (TF) in the front tray, pass the lint (L1) through
the machine for a second passage, giving lint (L2) in the delivery box, and
trash (TR2) in the rare fine trash tray. Combine TR2and TR1to give total
fine trash (TR).on cleaner growth of cotton, it may not be necessary to use
two passages through the machine.
6. At the conclusion of the second passage, remove the lint (L2) from the
delivery box and keep it aside for conditioning.
7. Remove the lint bearing trash from the front trash tray, spread over a small
central area of the feed tray and pass it through the machine. Collect the lint
deposited in the delivery box.
 32

8. Without disturbing the trash in the tray, pass the lint collected through the
separator and at the conclusion of the passage place aside the lint (L3) for
conditioning.
9. Collect all the trash from the trays the filters from the rare of the machine,
brushed from the sides of the machined. And any seeds which may have
lodged b/n the teeth of the taker in. weigh them to the nearest 0.01gif less
than 10 g, otherwise, weigh to the nearest 0.1g.

If accurate analysis is required of the various components of the trash, it should

be weighed and recorded separately as:

TF – front trash and sides of the front chamber

TR –rear trash and sides of the rare chamber

TM – filtration medium trash

Or as Total Trash=TF+TR+TM

Finally pass the lint bearing from all the portions collected once more through
the separator. At the conclusion of the passage discarded the content of the trash
trays and allow the residual lint in the rear delivery box to come to conclusion.

Calculation and expression of test results

 Trash content (TC)

In order to obtain the final mass of the trash, subtract the lint (L4) from the total
mass of the trash. (TT)

Trash content (TC) =TT-L4

Percentage trash content

 33

TC %=( TC/original mass of fibers) (100)

 Lint content

This is obtained by taking the total mass of the lint, as determined in above step
or as a percentage.

Percentage lint content = (LC/original mass of the sample) (100)

 Lint loss (LL)

This is determined by subtracting the sum of percentage trash content and

percentage lint content from 100.

LL %=( 100-(TC%+LC %))

Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results
5. conclusion

5. DETERMINATION OF COTTON FIBER STICKINESS

Introduction
 34

The cotton stickiness problem in spinning is highly complex as stickiness may be

caused by various types of contamination.

 Kernel, traces of oil ,etc

 Physiological sugars due to the plant
 Honey dew , sugars produced by homoptera, the aphid aphis gossypii and
white fly, bemisia tabaci

The most serious type of stickiness that causes the worst problems in spinning
is cotton contamination by honeydew. It is found on the plant and at various
stages of fiber processing in to yarn. On the cotton plant, aphids and white flies
are mainly found on the outside of leaves and on the leafstalks. They produce
honeydew .which is found on the leaves and on the fiber as soon as the bolls open.
If the climatic conditions are propitious, fungi develop on the honeydew to form
fumagin. This can also be found on non-sticky fibers i.e. in the absence of
honeydew. The ginnin g process sc atters honeydew droplets into the mass
of fibers and this droplet are then very difficult to detect with naked eye.

In spinning industry, honeydew becomes deposited on various machine parts

such as carding feed rollers feed tables and the open- end rotors. Apart from the
frequent down time due to dirt build-up, honeydew causes yarn irregularities.

The relation between the numbers of sticky spots measured with

SCT and the Mini card stickiness degrees.
Studies have been made in the laboratory in standard conditions to show the
relation between the number of sticky spots and the estimate of mini card
 35

stickiness degree. It is admitted that there is a good relation between the

phenomena observed with the mini Card and those occurring in spinning mill.

Table 9 the seven SDL mini card grades

Ca rd Definition of stickiness
Grade
1 No trace of stickiness

2 A few points which could be stickiness

3 Clear traces of stickiness, but the cotton does not necessarily warp
around the delivery rollers; if it warps around, this occurs after more
than one minute.

4 Fairly numerous sticky points, the cotton fiber tends to warp around
the delivery rollers after about one minute.

The delivery rollers after about one minute.

5 Numerous traces of stickiness, the cotton warp around the rollers very
quickly.

6 Numerous traces of stickiness, the cotton warps around the rollers very
quickly.

7 Immediate sticking and warps around the rollers almost instantly.

 36

Figure 6 number of sticky points with SCT

+
Testing of honeydew by thermo detector

Setting up the equipment

1. Plug the thermo detector into the mains; to start up, position the main switch
on the electronics box to ON. To switch off, place the switch off, place the swi
tch to off.
2. Pull forward the slide caring the hot plate as far as it will go , so as to slightly
pre heat the lower platen
3. Soon as the green output indicator lamp goes out, the required temperature has
been reached. Generally wait 45 minutes then the hot plate is established.
4. To start the test, push back the hot plate and draw a length of aluminum foil,
matt side upwards, from the dispenser.
5. The samples should be prepared at a relative humidity of between 55and 65%

Sample preparation with the manual opener

Equipments used
 54*16 cm opener ruler,
 37

 brush,
 Electronic balance
 Needle
 Counting pen
 Fiber sample
 Mechanical opener

The sample is obtained as follows:

1. Before each trial, clean the opener pins with the brush, turn the platen over
between tests to remove foreign matters.
2. Take a ample from the mass of cotton and weigh 2.5+_0.05g
3. Pull apart the 2.5 g sample by hand, then grip the cotton between three fingers
to spread it over the entire width of the opener to obtain uniform web.
4. Raise the cotton web at one end with the needle and lift it off with the wooden
ruler.

Sample preparation with mechanical opener the accessories are as follows opener,
brush and needle.

The sample is obtained as follows:

1. Before each trial, clean the opener pins with the brush, rotating the drum by
hand.every15 tests or so, remove the impurities of the trash box to prevent
them from being picked up.
2. Take the sample apart by hand and place it on the feed table, spread it out over
a length of around 11 cm. start the mechanical opener to obtain uniform web.
3. Detach the cotton web with the needle .take hold of the end of the layer of
cotton web turn the drum using the handle and press down the web towards the
feed table to help separate it from the pins.
Testing procedure
1. Place the cotton web on the sheet of aluminum foil on the thermo detector
 38

2. Place a second sheet of aluminum foil matt side down, over the cotton web.
Flatten with the palm of the hand.
3. Draw forward the trolley with the hot plate. Press it down immediately on the
sample using the 2 levers; press down hard to lock the plate in position in the
catches. This pressure lasts 12 seconds.
4. When the alarm sounds, unblock the 2 levers by releasing the catches and push
the trolley and hot plate right back.
5. Quickly apply the upper wooden pressure board to the prepared sample and
lock into the catch until the second alarm sounds 2 minutes : mark the sample
reference on the top sheet
6. Unblock the upper wooden pressure board by releasing the catch: swing up the
pressure plate.
7. Remove the prepared sample and leave it to stand on a table for at least 60
minutes before reading off the sticky points: this makes the process easier.
8. The waiting time can be used to prepare the next samples.

Counting the sticky points

Sticky points are read of with the following accessories:

 The box containing the spot lamp- the fan can be :

1. Either fixed to the thermo detector when the sample to be examined is
on the lower plate of the equipment.
2. Or set on a table when the sample has been placed on it.
3. in both cases , the light should be just level with the aluminum foil, and
the fan causes the fibers to vibrate for a better read off
 A counter pen to totalize the sticky points:
 39

1. To use. Move the small switch on the black of the pen to the on
position. The display on the front should read 0000.
2. To start counting, press down on the point of the pen. An audio signal
indicates that the sticky points have been recorded. At the end of the
operation, read off the number of pulses on the incorporated screen.
3. To reset the pen, press the reset button on the front of the display.
4. To switch off the pen, turn the switch to the off position.
 The sticky points are read as follows :
1. Remove the top sheet of aluminum foil and place it on a table matt side
up
2. Place the cleaner at one end of the sheet; merely draw it across the
surface once without pressing, then in order direction, to remove the
fibers that are not stuck. This leaves the sheet with large, medium and
small sticky points.
3. count only the sticky points with fibers using the counter pen
4. Sometimes, fibers remain stuck to the aluminum foil: they can be
removed by brushing lightly with the edge of the hand. if they do not
come off, they are sticky points.
5. for the top sheet of aluminum foil , draw the cleaner across the surface in
the same way as for the bottom sheet and count the sticky points
6. Add together the sticky points on the top and bottom sheets.

In order to acquire reliable estimate of the stickiness of the cotton, we recommend

carrying out 3 tests per cotton sample

Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
 40

3. experimental procedure
4. test results
5. conclusion

6. DETERMINATION OF REGAIN AND MOISTURE CONTENT

Introduction
Many textile fibers are hygroscopic; i.e. they have the ability to absorb or give
up moisture. Moisture is picked up or absorbed by a hygroscopic material from
the atmosphere if the relative amount of moisture in the air is greater than in the
material .conversely, the moisture will be given up by the material if the relative
amount of moisture in the air is less than in the material. Under natural conditions
the amount of moisture in the atmosphere is continually changing; this results in
varying the amount of moisture contained by the hygroscopic material exposed to
the atmosphere The result of this is a change in the physical characteristics of the
material In addition to this, the quantity of moisture present in the textile material
is an important commercial factor.

Table 10 Regain values

Fiber Approximate. at standard

conditions (regain %)
Cotton ,raw 8.5
Cotton yarn 7.0-7.5
Silk 11
Wool tops ( with 19
oil)
 41

Polyester 0.4
There are two ways expressing the quantity of moisture in a given textile
fiber .they are

 Regain is defined as the ratio of the mass of moisture to the oven- dry mass of
the material expressed as a percentage. the regain of the material is considered
as the quantity of the moisture at the time of sampling or as received
 Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the mass of moisture to the original
mass of the material expressed as percentage. The original mass is usually the
mass as obtained at the time of sampling or as received.

Regain (as percentage)

Moisture content (as percentage)

Oven dry mass is defined as the constant mass obtained by drying at a

temperature of 105+_30C it may be assumed that constant mass has been reached
when successive weighing sat interval of 20 minutes differ by less than
0.05percent.
Features of ETADRY moisture tester
 The maximum operating temperature of the drying oven is 1300C and the
digital display shows the temperature in the oven drying chamber. The
controller is preset to 1050C.
 42

Digital timer
 The digital timer works i
 Dependently of the heater and fan.
 When ETADRY is connected to the mains supply the time displayed is 0,00
and the clock is stopped.
 Depress and hold on the MODE button. Observe the yellow LEDS while
switching through PRESET, ELAPSED and STOP. When the button is
released, the switches itself into the mode indicated by the illuminated LED.
 Select PRESET. The two buttons marked SLOW and FAST becomes
operative.
 Depress both simultaneously to zero to preset the time.
 Depress FAST to change preset time rapidly in 5 minute increments, depress
SLOW to change the preset time in one minute increments.
 Depress mode button and select ELAPSED to display time elapsed. when the
preset time has elapsed , loud intermittent tone can be heard and the red
ALARMLED flashes
 Unless cancelled, the tone and flashing continue for approximately for an
hour.tto mute the alarm, depress MODE button and select STOP. This also
resets the timer to zero and stops the clock.

Switches
 FAN: depress this button to operate the fan the green LED illuminates.
 HEATER: depress this button to operate the heater. the orange LED
illuminates
 STOP; depress this button to switch off the heater and fan together.

Operation
 43

1. Open the oven drying chamber lid .Remove fibers present in the canister ,
if any,
2. Place the T end of the balance suspension arm in the canister and close the
lids with the sliding disc above the lid tops. Slide the disc down the
suspension arm in the canister and cloth the lid tops. Slide the disc down
the suspension arm until it seals the aperture between the lids when the arm
enters the oven, the suspension arm a hold not hang from the balance hook
during this operation.
3. Switch on the power supply. allow it to reach and maintain the preset
temperature for approximately five minutes to drive away the moisture
from the canister before the tare weight is adjusted
4. Switch off the oven. Set the balance rider weights and the dial zero
position. Using the suspension arm T, lift the canister clear from the
balance.
5. Check whether the right hand side of the balance is correctly aligned with
the datum line. If not, adjust the knurled compensatory know at the left
hand end of the beam of the balance in appropriate direction. by this
procedure the empty canister has been set to tare
6. Place a sample of about 10 grams of the fibrous material in the canister
close the drying chamber and weight the sample accurately and recorded
(original) mass.
7. Remove the suspension arm from the balance and push the sliding weight
down to cover the aperture at the point where the arm enters the oven.
8. Switch on the oven and without opening the oven doors, reweigh the
sample.
 44

9. Further weighing at interval of 30 % of estimated drying time (minimum

interval of time 5 minutes) should be made till there is no progressive
change in the mass of the sample greater than 0.05%.the last recorded is
taken as the dry mass of the sample.
10.errors due to buoyancy and convection currents

When a sample is weighted whilst still in the hot drying chamber, buoyancy and
convection effects can result in errors in the dry weight of the sample. The error
could be as high as up to 1%and more in some cases.

Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results
5. conclusion
 45

PART II

YARN PROPERTIES TESTING

7. SAMPLING AND INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

Introduction
In general, yarn is available in different packages and the problem of sampling is
the selection of a small number of such packages from a large number. For routine
mill trials, the following sampling procedure may be adopted.
Sampling of Yarn
1. Choose 10 cops at random evenly spread over both sides of the frame.
2. Collect such similar cops from the frames running the same mixing.
3. Let each cop be identifies for the spindle and frame.
4. In case between -frame variation is not required, choose at random the
necessary number of frames so that the total number of cops collected is not
less than 10, with at least 2 bobbins from each frame.
Sampling Procedure
Table 11 Sampling Procedure for Yarn Testing

Lot Size Bales or Cases No. of Bales or Cases to be Chosen

2-8 2

9-15 3
 46

16-25 5

26-50 8

51 and above 13

As many of the important properties of a textile material are influenced by the

ambient atmospheric conditions, the following standard atmosphere is adopted for
testing textile materials.

65% ± 2% Relative Humidity, and

27°C ± 2°C Temperature (for tropical countries)

20°C ± 2°C Temperature (for cold countries)

Lot Sample
As a lot sample for acceptance testing unless otherwise asked upon as when
specified in an applicable material specifications. For the lot samples assign each
case or fabric package with consecutive number and take of acceptance testing,
the number of cases fabric packages specified in the following Table.

Table 12 Number of Cases, Bales or Fabric Packages

In Lot In Lot
Sample

1 1
 47

2-4 2

5-9 3

10-19 4

20 or above 5

Laboratory Sample
A total of ten packages from a lot of a sample may be taken or from a lot sample,
randomly two packages from each case may be selected.
Interpretation and Application of Test Results
The results provided by the testing instruments do not serve any purpose unless
the results are interpreted and applied. Often it is observed that many tests are
carried out as a routine but rarely the data are being used. In that case the mills
should ask two questions to themselves, (i) whether we can control our process
better by utilizing the data provided by these tests? And (ii) If the data are useful,
whether the frequency of tests should be reduced so that the effort can be utilized
for more important work?

Based on the answer, the mills should modify their quality control plan. It is
always preferable to control the process than testing the products more often.
While analyzing the results application of statistics can help in process control.
The Table 13 provides the critical difference for various yarn properties.

Table 13 Sample Size and Critical Difference for Yarn Properties

 48

Yarn Property No. of Critical Difference (% of

Samples Mean)

Lea Count 40 2.0

Lea Strength 40 4.0

Single Yarn Strength 100 2.8

Evenness U% 5 7.0

Yarn Twist (Single 50 3.4

Yarn)

Critical Difference
Meaning of Critical Difference
Critical Difference (CD) is a measure of the difference between two values that
arises solely due to natural or unavoidable causes. When the difference between
two values exceeds the critical difference, then the two values are said to be
statistically different.

The critical difference depends upon the co-efficient of variation (CV%) and the
number of tests carried out to determine the quality characteristics.
Number of Tests and Critical Difference
The values of CD for various fibre and yarn properties are given in Table 1 and 2.
These values are based on the recommended number of tests for each fibre or yarn
property as given in the same tables. If however, the number of tests carried out to
 49

determine a specific property differ from the recommended one, then the CD
would vary from the values reported. Under such circumstances, a new CD is to
be computed using the formula,

N1
New CD % = CD% (table __) 
N2

Where, N1 = Number of tests recommended in Table ___.

N2 = Number of tests actually conducted.

It may be noted that i) An increase in CV% would increase CD and

ii) An increase in the number of tests (N2 ) would decrease

CD.

Illustrative Example

1. Mill A produces 40s Ne yarn. While testing two samples from two different
spinning frames P&Q for evenness, the U% values are found to be 13.8 and
15.0 respectively on the basis of 10 observations in each case. It is required
to assess whether the yarns produced on the frame are equally even.

Since 10 tests are done to assess U%, the CD of 7% given in the above table needs
a correction.

Old No.of Observations

New CD  Old CD
New No.of Observations

7 5
Here New CD%   5%
10
The difference in U% between the two samples expressed as % of average
 50

U p Uq
 100
(U p  U q ) / 2

 8.3

Since the actual difference of 8.3% is higher than the CD% of 5% it could be
concluded that the two yarn samples are not equally even.

To analyze properties for which CD values are not stipulated, e.g. hairiness, CV%
of twist etc., special tests are to be applied.

Two such tests are:

i. 't' test: to compare two mean values

ii. 'F' test : to compare two variances (square of standard deviation)

2. Mill 'G' produces 80s P/C yarn. While testing two yarn samples one each
from G 5/1 frame and DJ/5 frame for hairiness, the number of hairs per
1000 meter found to be 8000 and 10,000 and CV of hairiness as 30% and
40% respectively (on the basis of 20 test for each sample). The mill wants
to know whether DJ/5 ring frame is producing a more hairy yarn.

In order to decide whether the two samples differ in terms of hairiness, the 't' of
significance is to be applied as no critical difference value for hairiness is
reported.
 51

( X1  X 2 ) n
t
( S1  S 2 )
2 2

Where, X 1  Average hairiness of sample 1

X 2  Average hairiness of sample 2
n  Number of tests carried out for sample a and sample 2
S1 and S 2 S tan dard deviation for sample 1 and sample 2, respectively
From the value of CV and mean, the values of SD could be deduced.
Thus, S1  2400 and S 2  4000

(10000  8000) 20
t
(24002  40002 )

t  1.9

Then, the calculated value of‟t‟ is to be compared against the standard value of„t‟
which is available in any standard statistics book. For this, one should know the
degrees of freedom in the problem concerned. The degrees of freedom is 2(n-1).

Where' 'n' is the number of tests carried out for Sample 1 and 2.

In the present case,

Degrees of freedom = 2(20-1) = 38

The value of„t‟ for 38 degrees of freedom is 2.0

Since the calculated value of 1.9 is lower than 2.0 it could be concluded that the
yarns from both the frames are similar with regard to hairiness.

Twist Variability among Samples

Mill 'H' produces 40s yarn. On testing two samples drawn from two spindles for
twist, the standard deviation of twist were found to be 1.31 and 2.85 based on 50
 52

and 60 tests respectively. Can it be concluded that the two samples differ in terms
of their twist variation?

As two standard deviations are to be compared, 'F' test is to be conducted.

2
S
F= 1 2
S2

Where
Where,

S1 = Standard deviation of twist for one sample for which the number of tests
conducted is n1

S2= Standard deviation of twist for the other sample for which the number of tests
conducted is n2

S1 and S2 are to be chosen in such a manner that 'F' is always greater than 1.

In the present problem,

S1 = 2.85 S2 = 1.31
n1 = 60 and n2 = 50
(2.85) 2
F=  4.7
(1.31) 2

The value of F (Refer 'F' table in any standard statistics book, for df l = 59 and df2
= 49) is 1.6 where dfl = degrees of freedom for the sample to which standard
deviation is S1 and df2 = degrees of freedom for the sample to which standard
deviation is S2.

Since the calculated value of F (4.7) is higher than 1.6, it is confirmed that the two
yarns differ significantly in their twist variability.
 53

8. FINENESS OF YARN

Yarn Count

Yarn count may be defined as the mass per unit length or length per unit mass of
yarn. Several systems and units are available to express the count of the yarns
Indirect system and Direct system.

Indirect System

In this system, the count is defined as the number of units of length per unit
weight of yarn. In the English system (Ne), the count is expressed as the number
of 840 yards in one pound or 453.6gms. In metric system (Nm) the count is
defined as the number of 1000 meters in one kg and in the French system (Nf) the
count is the number of 1000 meters is 500gms.In other words,
Nm
 N f or N m  2  N f
2
The various units in indirect system and the conversion value to arrive at the value
from the other is provided in table 14

Table 14 Indirect systems for expressing the yarn fineness

System Symbol Length Unit Mass Unit Tex
Equivalent

Cotton Ne 840 yards 1 pound 590.5

(English)

Cotton Nm 1000 meter 1000 g 1000

(Metric)

Linen (Wed or Nec 3000 yards 1 pound 1654

Dry spun)
 54

Spun silk Ns 840 yards 1 pound 590.5

Woolen Ny 256 yards 1 pound 1938

(Yorkshire)

Worsted New 560 yards 1 pound 885.8

Cotton Nf 1000 meter 500 g 500

(French)

Length in Hank of 840 yards

Count ( Ne) :
Weight in pounds

For example a yarn of 30 yards weighs 2.5 gms. To calculate the count value, the
following methodology is adopted.

Count Ne 
453.6 Length in yards

840 Weight in g
453.6 30
 
840 2.5
 6.48

Direct System

In the direct system the yarn count is expressed as Tex, denier, or dice tex and the
units are presented in Table 15.

Table 15 Direct System for Expressing the Yarn Fineness

System Symbol Mass Unit Length Unit Tex
Equivalent
 55

Tex T 1g 1 kilometer 1

Decitex Dt 1g 10 kilometer 0.1

Denier D 1g 9 kilometer 34.45

Linen, Tj 1 lb 14400 yards 34.45

Hemp, jute

Measurement of Yarn Count

Count is measured by preparing the leas of 120 yards. The leas are placed in a
balance and the count of the yarns is automatically measured. The weight signal is
fed to the computers and the software calculates the linear density of the yarn in
terms of count (Ne), tex, denier, decitex etc. The number of readings is
preprogrammed and based upon the number of readings, the mean, standard
deviation 95 % confidence limit and co-efficient of variation (CV %) are
computed and the results are obtained in the form of a report.

Though a yarn can be characterized for many properties like lea strength,
unevenness, imperfections, etc., lea strength continues to be one of the important
properties and practically every mill takes most of the decisions based upon it.
The popularity and confidence placed on yarn CSP can be attributed to the ease of
measurement and the reliability of the test results. Generally, the yarn fineness
changes due to difference in moisture content in the yarn at different R.H. %
levels. Table 16 shows the correction factor for cotton yarn count at different
 56

humidity levels. As the standard atmospheric R.H. % is 65 ± 2% the yarn count at

that R.H.% is considered as standard (1.00 in Table 16).

Table 16 Humidity Correction Factor for Cotton Yarn Count

R.H. (%) Temperature oF

70 80 90

40 0.979 0.973 0.973

45 0.984 0.978 0.974

50 0.989 0.985 0.978

55 0.994 0.991 0.983

60 0.998 0.997 0.989

65 1.003 1.000 0.995

70 1.008 1.007 1.002

75 1.014 1.013 1.010

80 1.021 1.020 1.018

Note: for obtaining the count at standard R.H. % of 65% and 80oF temperature
the actual count should be multiplied by the corresponding factor

For cotton lap and sliver also, the same figures can be used.
 57

Procedures for preparing test samples using wrap reel

1. Take a representative sample of 16 ring bobbins from the bulk and place
each of the bobbins in the creel. Thread the yarn through yarn guild and the
tension rod. Tie the ends of the yarn nails of the creel on one of the arms of
the reel.
2. Set the counter to110 meters( for the determination of count in English
system or tex system using quadrant balance and any length for
computerized fast count analyzer usually 100 meters for tex or metric
system.
3. Start the motor of the reel.
4. Break the yarn as near the nails as possible and tie the ends of the yarn in
each of the skins.
5. Collapse the reel and remove the skeins
6. Take the required number of skins following the same procedure as above.
7. Condition the yarn sample
Note: The coils are wou nd over the circumference of the reel with a small
traverse. The circumference of the reel is 1meter. The length of the yarn
can be preset to the required length (in meters by setting the counter
provided). Tension of yarn winding can be adjusted by sliding weight.

Yarn in short length such as sample of yarn from fabric can also be measured. In
this case two rectangular warp way strips and five weft way stripes are cut from
sample cloth. In lengthwise the stripe should be about 20 inch and wide enough to
allow 50 treads to be removed from each stripe. Yarn removed from fabric is
crimped and hence straightened length should be used for count measurement.

Weight measurement
 58

Weight measurement analytical balances and any other special yarn balances can
be used .the problem of accounting for the presence of moisture should be tackled
in different methods e.g. by using oven dry weight and standard regain method

Determine the oven dry weight and multiply by

Or allow the sample in standard atmospheric condition.

Testing procedure

Using quadrant balance

 prepare lea 120 yard or hank 840 yards using warp reel
 adjust the quadrant balance as shown above after calibration add the sample
in the hook and take the appropriate reading with Tex, and Ne
 Take at least ten data from each group and calculate the mean, standard
deviation and coefficient of variation.
Using fast count analyzer
 re start the computer in MS-DOS mode
 write the following directory briefly
 CD..(ENTER)
 CD(space bar) FISH
 CD(space bar) N265
 FAST
 when you press fast the following menu appear on the screen

short test
yarn number
roving number
sliver number
fabric weight
 59

When you press yarn number the following system parameter display on the
screen.

yarn fabric
length unit : m mass unit area : cm2
test length : 100 size : 100
unit : dtex fabric weight g/m2

roving absolute

Iflength
youunitdon‟t: mwant to change yarn parameters
factor
press: 1.00
control and enter
test length : 10
simultaneously.
unit : ktex
If you press the function key F1 the following display will appear on the monitor.

sliver
length unit : m
test length : 1
unit : Ne

Length unit :m,yd

 Test length : 9000( max)

 Textile unit :dtex, tex, ktex, Nm, Ne. Nc, Td, Nf,g
 60

For example if you proceed with yarn number testing and want to change the
textile unit press the (+,-) key then double press control simultaneously.

After selection follow the instruction on the bottom of the screen to continue your
test.
Yarn Number Testing Example
Write your own data on the following display.

Determination of yarn number

Please enter code : Test

Number of bobbins : 3

Number of tests : 3

In the Please enter code option enter “ring frame machine 2”

In the Number of bobbins option enter “1” (if you choose 2, the program will ask
you to enter 2 sets of data and the total number of testes could be 20).

Number of testes 10

If you want to change parameters press F1

 Add the previously reeled sample in the balance transfer it by pressing the
*key on the balance then automatically the yarn number appear on the screen
of computer continue this by properly put the led of the balance so as to make
it air tight.
 61

value 1 26.00 tex

value 2 26.00 tex yarn number

length unit m
value 3 25.00 tex
test length 100
value 4 26.00 tex
textile unit TEX
value 5 25.00 tex

value 6 26.00 tex

value 7 26.00 tex

value 8 25.00 tex

value 9 25.00 tex

value 10 26.00 tex

 After all test values are collected the program
will ask you whether you want to change any data or not. If yes, you have to
weigh the relevant specimen and manually enter the weight. All test values will
be displayed again. Afterwards bobbin-statistics and total statistics will be
displayed on the monitor. After following the instruction the following total
statistics will be displayed on the screen.
Total statistics

Mean value
…………………………………………25.84

Standard
 62

deviation………………………………… 26.00

Coefficient of
variation……………………………. 6.50

Confidence interval at 95 %confidence

limit……... 10.00

Minimum
value……………………………………...25.00
Pressing “c” will display the
Maximum total statistics graph.
value…………………………………….26.00
Content of the laboratory
F. value recorded

……………………………………………...0.00 6. Name and objective

of the experiment
7. Necessary theoretical information
8. experimental procedure
9. test results: mean , standard deviation and coefficient of variation
10.conclusion
 63

9. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF YARN

Tenacity or specific strength

The „tenacity‟ of a material is the mass stress at break, the units being, of course
grams per denier or grams per tex. An alternative term for tenacity is „specific
strength‟.

By expressing the breaking strengths of different materials in terms of tenacity,

comparison can be made directly between specimens of varying fineness.
Yarn strength testing
The range of instruments which are available for testing the strength of yarns is
quite wide: single thread testers operating on the principles of pendulum lever,
inclined plane, strain gauge, and constant tension hank testers of the pendulum
lever or ballistic types. Some of these instruments are relatively simple, some
complicated, some have recording devices, and some are automatic.
Testing procedure
Using portable single yarn strength tester
Yarn Insertion
Automatic clamps:- The 250 mm test distance is measured between the two inner
sides of the clamps. In the simplified cycle, the clamps are used normally by
inserting the yarn between the two faces if the clamps (see fig. 7).
 64

Fig. 7 Simplified cycle: methods and inserting the yarn in the clamps

How to zero the tests

If there are any tests in the memory, cancel them by pressing Shift + Reset keys
and then Reset again.
Number of tests
To set the number of tests:
1. press Func Key and then Enter key.
2. Press Enter key and then use the UP and DW arrow keys to reach the
required value
3. Then press Enter key Func key and Func key again to return to the main
menu.
Pre-Tension
To set the pre-tension (which varies according to the count of yarn-for example
0.5 cN/tex as suggested by the ISO standards for spun yarns), Press:

1. Func key and then Enter key and UP arrow key to reach the pre-tension
menu
2. Press Enter and then use the UP and DW arrow keys to reach the required
value
3. Then press Enter key and Func key and then Func key again to return to the
main menu.
Test run
 65

Insert the yarn in the two clamps as previously illustrated and press key to
carry out the test.
The Splice Scanner 2 moves at low speed forwards or backwards until reaching
the set pre-tension, then attains a steady speed and carry out the test. When the
yarn breaks, the datum is automatically memorized and the movable clamp returns
to the starting position.

Insert the new yarn and press again to carry out the new test. Repeat the
procedure described above to complete the required tests.
Test Cancellation

If you want to cancel the latest test, press Shift + DW kyes.

Printing of results

Each time the operator wishes, the results can be printed by pressing the Print key.
When the number of set tests or the maximum test number (100) is reached, the
results are printed automatically. To proceed to a new series of tests, zero the tests
in the memory.

Using dynamometer single yarn strength tester

Fig. 8 Dynamometer single yarn strength tester

 66

1. Setting up for use

1.1 mount the tester on its tripod, leveling foot on the right (See
illustration). Screw

the extensometer to the toothed bar and fasten the package holder and
thread guide in

the rear of the apparatus.

1.2 install the apparatus in place of use

2. Zero adjustment

2.1 Tie the pendulum pawls to the pin left of pivot to keep them
disengaged.

2.2 put the additional weight on the pendulum and adjust the screw of the
leveling foot to

set the red pendulum pointer to zero load.

2.3 release the pawls and lock the pendulum notice: once zero is
adjusted, tripod must not

be altered!

3. Breaking load tests

3.1 lock the pendulum and push toothed rack up.

3.2 set the crank lever and push toothed bar and lower clamp up against the
top .shift crank lever to the rear position .
3.3 open both clamps
 67

3.4 seat the package on the holder and run the end through the thread guide,
upper clamp, lower clamp slightly.
3.5 close the upper clamp
3.6 give the specimen slight initial tension and close the lower (pulling)
clamp.
3.7 if standard initial tension is required, ADD 15 pretension of the probable
yarn strength.
3.8 release the pendulum
3.9 turn the crank at even speed lowering the pulling -- clamp until
breakage of specimen. Notice: test duration should be approximately
20 seconds! (Several trials are necessary to ascertain the proper speed)
3.10 The pendulum locks automatically and hence breaking load can be read
at leisure.
(if the pendulum fails to lock, clean the pawls with petroleum or other
suitable product)

3.11 Elongation is read on the extensometer at the upper clamp. As there is

no automatic catch, the crank must be immobilized instantly at breakage
of specimen.
3.12 Return the pendulum by hand to zero after breakage of the specimen.
This is done by lifting the pendulum by the lower pin with
the thumb of the left hand and disengaging the pawls with
the forefinger. Put the additional weight on the pendulum for the upper
range. Specimen ruptures in the vicinity of the clamps are not valid and
should not figure in test report. Operation is the same as for the manual
 68

drive model with the exception of following points: the following

choice of testing speeds: 500 - 375 - 250 mm per minute.
3.13 Put the additional weight on the pendulum for the upper range. Specimen
ruptures in the vicinity of the clamps are not valid and
should not figure in test report.
Test procedure
1. Collect representative yarn sample.
2. condition the sample in standard test atmosphere
3. measure the yarn count, preferably, in tex system
4. guide the yarn through the yaren guide
5. Ensure that the upper jaw (J1) and lower jaw (J2)are in correct position. The
distance b/n the two jaws should be 50 cm:the pointer on the extension scale
should read zero.
6. Guide the yarn through the upper jaw (J1) and tighten it.
7. guide the yarn through the lower jaw(J2) and tighten it with a nominal tension
8. Start the motor and record the breaking load and the breaking extension.
CALCULATE
Mean breaking load

Mean breaking extension

Mean breaking load per tex
Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results: mean , standard deviation and coefficient of variation
5. conclusion
 69

Using universal tensile strength tester

Fig. 9 H5KS tensile strength testing machine

The single column tensile strength testing machine has frame capacities of 5kN
(1,000 lbf). The machine features an easy-to-read backlit liquid crystal display
which can be switched between a numerical and graphical display. All data shown
on this display is obtained in real time, with the auto-ranging graphical display
showing the test curve of the specimen under test. The control unit features
dedicated keys for moving the crosshead up, down, stop, performing the test as
well as keys for load and extension tare and crosshead return. The control panel
also features an alphanumeric keypad to allow the input of test conditions, test
data and the formatting of the test report. The control unit can retain up to five
separate test routines for easy and rapid recall.

The accuracy of the load measurement depends on the capacity of the load cell,
rate of loading and time to break in addition to temperature and relative humidity
also clamping has its own effect.
Test Procedure
Important keys to be familiar with:

 Emergency stop push button

1. pull to deactivate
2. push to activate
 70

 mechanical limit switches ,reduce the travel of the crosshead enabling a safe
working area
Avoid collusion of cross head

Main menu selection

F1 zero FORCE This key will zero the force display channel or perform the

Function described on the Menu Screen.

RESET ALL non volatile memory to default setting

F2 zero EXT This key will zero the extension display channel or perform
the

Function described on the Menu Screen.

SET ALL THE MACHINE PARAMETERS TO ASAFE

CONDITION

SPEEDS TO….. ZERO

Auto return…… off

Limits ……………… zero

This key will zero the auxiliary display channel or perform

F3 AUXI
the

Function described on the Menu Screen. This key will also

reset
 71

the cycle counter to zero.

This key will print out the current Results and/or Graph(s)
F4PRINT
to an

optional laser Printer or perform the Function described

on the

Menu Screen.

F5 RETUREN
This key will return the crosshead to zero on the extension
channel

or perform the Function described on the Menu Screen.

Alpha / numeric keypad

Numerically used to entering numerical values on the test parameters screen

(speed, range etc…)

Press shift key…………….. …. Press once for upper case

Press again for lower case

Delete key …………………….. Backspace the cursor erasing the character

Pressing the space key…………W ill insert blank space
 72

Fig. 10 Cross head control key

There are two cross head directional arrows, a [stop]key and a[test] mode key Led
to indicate mode selected

up

stop
key

DOWN

Fig. 11 Main Menu Screens

Main menu selection:-bring up the main menu shown below by pressing the
[menu? enter] key or pressing [enter] key will return you to the test screen. The
following flowchart is displayed on the screen.

MAIN MEANU

1) SPEED

2) PEAK HOLD

3) AUTO RETURN

4) LIMITS

5) ENTER IDENTEFIER

6) GRAPH DISPLAY

7) RESULTS

8) SET UP EFAULTS

PRESS NUMBER TO SELECT OPTION

ENTER ) RETURN TO THE MAIN MENU

 73

1.Set speed menu

Speed selection
1. speed 1= 500.000( mm/min)
Press the2=1000.000(mm/min)
2. speed 1 key on the main menu.
3. jog = 50 .000(mm/min)
4. return =1500.000(mm/min)

Press number to select option

Enter) Return to main menu

2. Peak hold selection

Peak hold is automatically turned off when using the graphic display screen
3. Auto return setup
Machine automatically detect a breaker drop in load and either stop or return
the
Cross head to zero extension after test.
Auto return setup
1 .off
2. STOP
3. Return
4. Threshold :1.00%
5 % change force :0.010%
6 % of peak :10.000%
OFF MODE: The operator must stop and return cross head manually during a
test.
STOP MODE: will stop the cross head when a break is detected.
RETUREN MODE: will stop and returned the cross head to zero extension.
 74

TRESHOLD: The amount of force that must be attend during attest before the
auto return
will function.
%CANGE FORCE: is the % of full scale load cell, fore this small value is
required such as 0.01%.
% of peak is of peak force seen during the test that the force must decrease from
the peak force reading to detect a failure.
LIMIT SELECTION
Limits
1.FORCE LIMIT…., off
2.Extension limit ….off
3. Cycle mode ………off
4. Jog limit…………..off
5. Aux limit ………...off
6. Aux.hold ………… off

The force limit can be used to protect loading rated lower than the load cell
capacity, to
end a test when that force is reached .
Entering zero will return off the limits but the machine will stop when the
Maximum capacity of the load cell is reached. The same is true fore other limits
put
the limits if you are surly now that if not leave it in the off position.

5 .ENTER IDENTIFIERS
 75

Enter identifiers

1.product code ……….abc124

2.Date ………………09/05/03

3.Batch number ………ring 32

4.Operator……………hule

 Press the number of the identifiers to be edited and cursor will appear at the
end of that line
 Press delete key to back space and delete a character
When editing „either number lock “, “uppercase” or “lower case “will
appear at
the bottom of the screen .
 Pressing [shift key] will change the mode shown.
 Press key once for the 1ST character twice for the second character etc..
6. PANEL (GRAPHIC) DISPLAY
 Test screen will toggle b/n the panel display and the graphic display mode
being in the panel mode or graphic mode one can control the amount of
pre tension force applied on the sample
 The graphic mode display the stress strain or load elongation curve
7. RESULT SELECTION
Results

1. view
2. program
3. clear all
4. delete last
 76

View
a) operator can view up to three tests at time
b) press f1 key to scroll to the next three tests
c) press enter to return to test screen
Program
The operator can change the result units
Program

1. Result units; force,

stress.

2.concidence points

Press [1] will cycle through the choice of force, stress, per unit width.
 when force is selected , the results are in force unit of N, Kgf ,Lbf
 when stress is selected the force results will be divided by the dimension
entered
and re ported as a strength in appropriate units
Mpa, Kgf/cm2,AND PSI
 when per unit width is selected the force results are divided by the width
entered and reported as N/MM,Kgf/cm or lbf/in
THICK /WIDTH SELECTION
 The selection only appears on the main menu , when the force unit selected
are “ stress”
or “ per unit width “. Pressing [9]key on the main menu will bring up the
thick/ width
entry menu.
 The operator enters the dimensions of the test sample on this screen.

7 DEFAULT MENU SCREEN

 77

Default menu

1 ) force unit

2 ) extension unit

3 ) graph/ aux. set up

4) printer set up

5) display setup

6) store recall test set

up

7) Language

8) reset /system check

9 serial port set up

Note:
Changing the force units will clear any test results stored
Extension units must be changed to mach the force units selected
lbs with inches
Nor Kgf with mm
Changing test extension unit will erase the preset speeds and clear any stored
tests
GRAF /AUX. SET UP SELECTION
Graph /aux set up

1) x axis selection ; aux

2)Force start range :10.000%

3)Aux. start range :100.00%

 78

4) Aux. channel: ext

5) aux unit %(mm)

6) gauge length:50cm for yarn, 20 cm for

fabric

7) aux. hold of force :0.500%

This menu shows the current settings

Sample preparation and test
Sample preparation
1. collect representative yarn sample
2. Condition the sample in standard test atmosphere.
3. Take different counts of yarn as available or required (a minimum of two
different
Counts produced from different fibers).
4. Check the gauge length of the machine to be 50cm
and just the speed of the machine with time to break 20 sec.
5. Measure the yarn count, preferably, in Tex system.
6. Switch on the machine and bring up the main menu by pressing [main menu
enter]pressing
[ enter ]again will bring the 6 menu (test menu).
7. Cross check the settings in universal strength tester if the program is adjusted
as
Explained above continue your test as explained below If not call your
instructor to
set the machine.
 79

8. Suspend the sample first in the upper jaw and fix it to the lower jaw by
applying
1% pre-tension force.
9. Delete all the previous data by pressing main menu 7and 3for the 1st time
10. Clear all unnecessary memories by pressing F1, F2, F3,
11. Press the test key and the led will illuminate (always do the test being on the
graph display mode).
12. Press the upper cross button for the movement of the upper jaw, this jaw
should return
to the original gauge length.
 Continue your test (up to 20) data can be stored in the LCD memory .if not
necessary take the number of data as required.
 when you finish your test go to the main menu 7 and click on 1 to see your test
results and statistical data as shown below

RESULTS RESULTS

Test 1 2 3 Test Mean median std.dev

Max 52.733 64.283 84.383 Max 52.733 64.283 84.383

F.BRK 52.550 64.233 84.216 F.BRK 52.550 64.233 84.216

E.BRK 70.111 107.781 105.691 E.BRK 70.111 107.781 105.691

Press f1 to scroll Press f1 to scroll

Enter) to return to the main menu Enter) to return to the main menu

 Calculate the tenacity of yarn in cN/tex /

Content of the laboratory record

1. Name and objective of the experiment.
2. Principle of measurement of the equipment used.
 80

3. Experimental procedures.
4. Test results.
5. Conclusion

10. YARN TWIST MEASUREMENTS

Yarn twist is defined in different ways by quite a number of persons. However,

the following definitions reflect appropriately the necessity of twist in a yarn
construction.
Twist is the measure of spiral turns given to a yarn in order to hold the constituent
fibres or threads together'.
'When a strand is twisted the component fibres tend to take on a spiral formation,
the geometric perfection of which depends on their original formation' (Morton).
The strength of most spun yarns depends on two principal factors; the fibre
strength, and the frictional resistance to slippage.
Yarn twist holds the fibres together to utilize the fibre friction. As yarn twist is
increased the angle of fibre inclination increases and therefore the component of
fibre strength in the direction of yarn axis decreases. Hence theoretically, fibre
strength makes its maximum contribution to yarn strength when the fibres lie
parallel to the yarn axis, i.e. when the yarn contains no twist.
As yarn twist is increased, the frictional resistance between the fibres gradually
increases until a point is reached at which fibre slippage is virtually eliminated. In
 81

most single spun yarns, the effect of twist is determined by a combination of the
two effects described above. The amount of twist required to produce maximum
yarn strength depends on the detailed fibre properties.
The use of finer fibres in a yarn has a similar effect to increased friction, enabling
stronger yarns to be made with less twist than could be made with coarser fibres
which are otherwise alike; also less twist may be used with longer fibres and weft
of wovens.
In cotton spinning, it is common to use the twist for maximum strength in single
warp yarns, and less twist in weft and knitting yarns.
Because strength is not usually a problem in worsted yarns, normally twist about
60-70% of that required for maximum strength is used.
Lower twists may be used in yarns which are to be folded and very high twists
may be used to produce special effects such as crepe.
Under free conditions, as twist distribution depends to a large extent on strand
thickness, there is a tendency for twist variation to be caused by local yarn count
variation, depending on the length of yarn over which freedom to rotate extends.
Twist direction

The direction of twist at each stage of manufacture is indicated by the use of the
letters S or z in accordance with the following convention:
A single yarn has'S' twist if, when held in vertical position, the fibres inclined to
the axis of the yarn conform in direction of slope to the central portion of the letter
S. Similarly the yarn has 'z' twist if the fibres, inclined to the axis of the yarn,
conform in direction of slope to the central portion of the letter 2 (Fig. 12).
 82

Fig. 12 direction of yarn twist

Twist is usually expressed as the number of turns per unit length such as turns per
metre or turns per inch.
Twist testing by quadrant twist tester

Fig. 13 Principle of measurement

This equipment use the twist contraction method twist causes contraction in
length. Suppose a yarn is twisted z way and has a length, h. Let the twist be
completely removed to produce an un twisted strand of length h + c c being the
contraction due to twist. if the strand is now twisted s way with a number of turns
equal to those removed, then it is expected that the strand will again contract to
the original length.. Yarn is first gripped in the left hand clamp which is mounted
on a pivot and caries a pointer after being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn is
pulled through until the pointer lies opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale,
the jaw is then closed. as the twist yarn extends and the pointer assumes a vertical
 83

position eventually all the twist is taken out but the jaw is kept rotating in the
same direction until sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to
the zero mark again. This result of twist is turns per meter in case of gauge length
50 cm.
Test procedure
1. Set the pointer to the desire Q. zero position by locating the spring
plunger in the appropriate hole on
the drum. The quadrant may be adjusted laterally, so that the zero
Position can be accurately set for each position.
2. Set the quadrant assembly to give the desired test length. Note that to
obtain, for
Example, a 10 inch (25 cm) test length:-
a) Using right hand zero position locate quadrant assembly on 10
inches (25 cm)
b) Using centre zero position locate quadrant assembly on 9~ inches
(24 cm)
c) Using left-hand zero position locates quadrant assembly on 9
inches (23 cm)
3. Locate the stop on the quadrant near to the pointer, so as to avoid drafting
of the yarn
when it is weak due to the removal of the twist.
4. Zero the counter by depressing the black reset lever, and on hand-driven
models, zero
the graduated hand wheel.
5. Discard the first few meters of yarn from the package, and then clamp the
end of the
 84

Yarn in the spring-loaded headstock jaw, making sure that it is centrally

positioned.
Break off any excess yarn
6. Lead the yarn through the clamp on the drum of the quadrant assembly,
and apply the appropriate pre-tension before tightening the jaw
using the knurled screw.

Pre-tension in g = +- 10%
i) Rotate the hand wheel in the appropriate direction to remove the
twist.
Continue until the pointer returns to zero.

9. Release the drum by pulling out the spring plunger.

10.ascertain the direction of twist and proceed as follows
Hand driven:
Rotate the hand wheel in the appropriate direction to remove the
twist.
Continue until the pointer returns to zero.
Motor driven:

i) Connect the machine to the mains supply

ii) Operate the switch on the front of the headstock to set the
direction of twist.
iii) Depress the foot operated rheostat speed control.
.
11.Divide the number of turns displayed on the counter by two to give turns
per test length.

Precautions
 85

1. How the yarn is presented between the jaws. careful handling is necessary to
prevent twist disturbance/shifting i e. avoid sliding fingers down the yarn after
fixing in head stock jaw and before fixing in tail stock jaw.
2. Pretension is critical. Too much and the twist which must be inserted to bring
the pointer back to zero after twist removal will exceed that taken out due to
the weight on the drum. Too little and fewer turns are required in yarn to
obtain zero. Experiment until right weight is reached.
3. The position of the pointer stop is critical. if the drum and the pointer are
allowed to move too far during twist removal, drafting will occur so that the
length of yarn to reinsert twist into is longer than that of the original test
length. if the drum is not allowed to move far enough, twist can be re-inserted
before zero twist is reach, particularly if the yarn is slack between the headstock
and tail stock jaws. Experiment with stop position to find the ideal place.
Equipments materials required
 Quadrant balance or any length and weight measuring device to measure
the count of yarn.
 clip weights

1 x 5 g clip weight

1 x 10 g clip weight

1 x 10 g ring weights

Content of the laboratory recorded

1. Name and objective of the experiment

2. Necessary theoretical information
3. experimental procedure
4. test results: mean , standard deviation and coefficient of variation
 86

11. YARN HAIRINESS TESTING

Due to advent of high speed looms, increased ring spinning spindle speed etc., the
hairiness has become more important parameter. But yarn hairiness is a property
very difficult to master because it seems that it is not possible to represent it by
means of a unique parameter.
The factors affecting hairiness can be sub-divided into three major components;
fiber properties, mechanical process parameters and yarn parameters.
Measurement of hairiness by Sirley yarn hairiness tester

Fig. 14 Shirley yarn hairiness tester

Hairiness is measured by counting the number of interruptions (each interruption

is assumed to be caused by a single hair) of an infra red transmitter/receiver (the
optical head). The head does not inspect the total circumference of the yarn, only
those hairs within an angle of approximately 35° each side of the vertical plane
through the yarn path. The arc is taken as representative of the yarn as a whole.
This is a satisfactory assumption as the tester is providing comparative data rather
than absolute values. The yarn is passed over a calibrated moveable guide which
can be set up to1Ommfrom the axis of the light beam. This enables counts to be
made at variable distances when yarns with longer than normal hair length are
being processed.
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This guide is altered by means of a micrometer which under normal testing

conditions is set at 3mm. Hairs in excess of 3mm are therefore counted and
recorded. Testing at this guide setting, and with a yarn speed of 60m/min, has
been found in the past to offer reliable data on the hairiness properties of yarns.

1.4 Technological diagram of machine for hairiness F

F

Fig.15 Yarn passage diagram in hairiness tester

A - Input tension control

B - Hairiness diablo
C - Friction diablo
D - Micrometer adjustment
E - Friction diablo
F - Hairiness diablo
G - Air take off device
H - Yarn drive rollers
 88

J - Friction peg

Use of Software
Follow the instructions below to change any of the parameters such as test length,
speeds etc,

Open a file in the file menu remembering to put it into the hairiness folder. Go to
test and choose hairiness. Insert any comments or references. Set the test speed
and test length. Thread the machine up using the diagram in the top right corner of
the screen as a guide. Press start. The machine will begin to run and will stop
automatically. After each test you will be asked to accept or reject the result. After
5 or 10 tests has been completed press results and analysis to view and print the
results.

12. YARN FRICTION TESTING

Variation in yarn frication arises from nature of the surface treatments applied to
manmade fibers, from the nature and quantities of lubricants used in the spinning
and finishing of yarns and threads, and from the amount of twist inserted into a
yarn or thread. The effect this has on a knitting machine is to vary the length of
yarn consumed in a course, and on a sewing machine,
Variation in the stitch length can occur.
In knitted fabrics, variations can lead to decrease in bulkiness, skewing, bare
patches and general patchiness. In finished garments, inadequately lubricated
sewing threads can lead to both poor sewing performance and to unacceptable
puckering of the seams. The elimination of unacceptable friction levels reduces
the levels of down time and faulty garments and is therefore desirable.
 89

The coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential force necessary
to maintain a uniform motion between two contacting surfaces to the
perpendicular force holding them in contact

Fig. 16 Yarn passage diagram in friction testing

How to use the software

If you wish to conduct a Quick trial follow the instructions in section 3.8, other
wise follow the instructions below. If you wish to change any of the parameters
such as test length, speed etc follow the instructions earlier in this section.

Open a file in the FILE menu remembering to put it into the friction folder.Go to
TEST and choose FRICTION. Insert any comments or references. Set the test
speed and test length.

Thread the machine up using the diagram in the top right corner of the screen as a
guide. Press START. Adjust the input tension until it reads 100% on the screen.
This will be done by unscrewing the small metal nut on the input tension device
and tighten again once the screen reads 100% +/- 5%. Note: this will only need to
be altered in between runs of different types of yarn. Press "Tension OK" The
machine will begin to run and will stop automatically.
After each test you will be asked to accept or reject the result. After 5 or 10 tests
have been completed press RESULTS and ANALYSIS to view and print the
 90

results. These results will be automatically saved to disc in the folder which was
allocated.
Close this file and repeat the instructions above.
 91

13. YARN ABRASION TESTING

Abrasion may be defined as a progressive loss of fabric integrity by removal of

minute particles of fibrous material, as a result of continuing frictional contact
with other surface. The failure of textile material is due to weakening of the
structure caused by mechanical breakdown of the individual fibers. In most of the
yarns, the fibers on the surface which are just lightly held suffer only gentle
abrasion. Whereas intense abrasive action is encountered by fibbers on the surface
which are held firmly by tension or pressure leading to fiber rupture. The
weakening of the yarn structure causes the failure and as a result breakage occurs.
The abrasion resistance of yarn is affected by a number of factors such as the
nature of fibre forming substance, the site of the fibre on filament, the length of
the fibres, the fineness of yarn, yarn structure and its moisture content. There is a
high correlation between the resistance to abrasion in yarn and the life of fabrics
made from the same yarns. Also the yarn with higher abrasion resistance improves
weaving efficiency due to less warp breakages.
Measurement of yarn abrasion by SDL yarn abrasion resistance
tester
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Fig. 17 Yarn abrasion tester

Test procedure
The instrument is capable of making up to ten simultaneous tests on individual
threads.

1. Turn on the machine using the main switch on the rear. The printer

will then automatically print -YARN ABRASION TESTER I once.

2. Thread the yam from left to right. This is done by lifting the sprung loaded
peg and placing the yarn underneath to secure onto the 'free' block (marked
A on the diagram). Then attach the other end onto the bar (B) on the right-
hand side of the instrument in the same way. The yam should then be set up
as shown in figure below.

3. To ensure that the yams are positioned horizontally, they should only be
attached to the machine with the abrasion bar assembly set up as shown in
 93

figure below , with the two bars on a horizontal plane. The assembly can
be moved into this position by rotating it clockwise.

4. When the required number of threads is fitted, press the START button.
The abrasion bars will then start to rotate and begin to abrade the yarn.

5. When a thread fails (either breaks or stretches beyond a specific length) the
'free' block. A falls and a signal is sent from the appropriate sensor to the
microprocessor, which records the exact number of rubs for that particular
yam.

6 When all the threads have failed the motor will automatically stop and the
result of each test will be printed. Printout can be selected at any time for
broken threads by pressing the STOP button, followed by the PRINT
button.

7. Readout will be given for yams 1 - 10. Yam 1 corresponds to the yarn
nearest to the machine. For each yam the number of rubs completed to incur
a failure will be given. Those yams which have not failed at this point will
register zero.

NB. Those blocks which have not had any yam attached to them during the
test may indicate 3, 4, 5 or 6 rubs on the printout, depending on the block.

These readings should be disregarded.

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Fig. 18 Passage of yarn during abrasion testing

When the paper looks worn it can be moved sideways to utilize the total surface of
the paper. When the paper is badly worn or tom replace with a new sheet of
abrasion paper as below:

1. Rotate the abrasion bar assembly clockwise so the abrasion roller is in

its down most position.
2. Remove the abrasion paper holder (the long, thin bar) by lifting it out of
the recess in the roller.
3. Remove the old paper and replace with afresh sheet

13. YARN APPEARANCE TESTING

Yarn appearance is an important yarn property and it can be easily observed. The
assessment of yarn for its appearance is a subjective test; nevertheless, because of
its simplicity, the test remains very popular and many textile mills find them
extremely useful. The sample of yarn is usually wrapped on flat blackboard the
warping of yarns should be made with uniform spacing. The spacing of warps has
to be adjusted to suit the count of the yarn that is being assessed. The wrapped
boards are usually compared against ASTM standard boards, which are
photographs of yarns with different “grades „. Usually, the standards boards come
in four grades: A, B, C, D; the best yarn appearance of grade A followed by other
letters.
 95

Half grades B+, C+ are also quit common. The standard boards are provided
in various count ranges to suit the different count for comparison.

The basis for gradation:

(a) Grade A Yarn - Grade A yarn may have no large neps which are over three
times the normal diameter of the yarn and very few small yarns. Grade A
yarn must have good uniformity from inch to inch, and good cover without
excessive fuzziness. No foreign matter may be present in grade A yarn.
(b) Grade B Yarn - Grade B yarn may have no large neps but may have few
small ones. This yarn may have no more than three small pieces of foreign
matter per board or specimen provided they do not form slubs. Grade B
yarn may be slightly more irregular and may have slightly more fuzz than a
grade A yarn.
(c) Grade C Yarn - this yarn may have more neps, and larger ones as well as
more fuzziness and a greater amount of foreign matter than grade B yarn.
The contrast between thick and thin places and the normal diameter of the
yarn may be greater than in grade B yarn, resulting in an overall rougher
appearance.
(d) Grade D Yarn - This yarn may have some slubs and more than three times
the average diameter of the yarn. Grade D yarn may have more neps, neps
of a larger size, more thick and thin places, more fuzz and more foreign
matter than grade C yarn. When slubs or large neps are present, grade D
yarn may have fewer neps than grade C yarn. Grade D yarn may have an
overall rougher appearance than grade C yarn.
(e) Yarn below grade D - yarn below grade D may have more defects and an o
verall rougher appearance than grade D yarn
 96

The official ASTM spun yarn appearance photographs are being used for
this comparison.

Yarn appearance testing by Zweigle yarn examination winder

Fig.19 Zweigle yarn examination winder

Test procedure
1. Fix properly the trapezoidal boards
2. Wind the sample properly with correct spacing, according to
3. The lighting arrangement should be appropriate to view the yarn.
4. The wave length of periodic fault also can be calculated by making the
necessary measurements.

The winding on the board should be standardized to get uniform gradation. The
guideline for preparation of appearance boards are shown in table_______.

Table 17 Requirement for preparations of specimens for yarn appearance

SN Range of yarn numbers CountA WrapsB

Sample cotton Tex Per in Per cm

count
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1 1 to 12 590 to 50+ 8 20 8

2 12+ to 24 50 to 25+ 18 22 9

3 24+ to 36 25 to 16+ 30 26 10

4 36+ to 50 16 to 12+ 42 32 13

5 50+ to 75 12 to 8+ 60 38 15

6 75+ to 135 8 to 4+ 100 48 19

A - Actual single yarn count based on ASTM boards

B - The specified number of wraps is subject to a tolerance of ± 10%

14. NEPS AND TRASH TESTING

Neps and Trash negatively affect the quality of the yarn originating from sliver
and roving and ultimately they affect the quality of the fabric. The impossibility of
clearing all these faults in the yarn leads to the necessity of controlling them in the
preparation process and especially in the carding and combing operation. A
continuous control of Neps and Trash content in the sliver is essential for the
spinner who can at any time ameliorate the carding cleaning efficiency by
changing card setting, by replacing card clothing or varying blends.

Function of top tester III

 98

The material to be tested is guided between three adjustable guides into a two-
roller drawing frame. The length of the drafting zone can steplessly be adjusted
and is set in accordance with the fiber length of the fibers under test. The drawing
frame converts the material into a thin, transparent veil which is fed over an
illuminated viewing area.

Fig. 20 Top Tester III

The operator checks the veil through a large magnifyer glass and visually counts
and classifies the various impurities when they cross over a counting line located
in the center of the viewing area. This is facilitated by five accumulating 4-digit
counters.

When a sufficient number of occurrences has been accumulated (for example 100
or 400) this number is divided by the weight of the tested material, resulting in the
number of impurities per weight unit. This figure makes it possible to directly
compare the number of occurrences in fiber ribbons with different material
densities and even in different materials.
 99

Depending on the impurities to be counted the viewing area is illuminated with

white, flickerfree background, foreground or mixed background/foreground light.
This allows the operator to set the illumination for optimum visibility of the
various impurities: Background light provides for optimum viewing conditions for
all impurities in the sample. In mixed background/foreground light with balanced
light intensities the veil is practically invisible and foreign particles, such as
colored hairs, vegetable matters, urine residues, etc. are easily detected.
Foreground light with white or black background is ideal for easy detection of all
kinds of fiber faults, such as thick hairs, neps and fused fibers.

The advance speed of the veil can steplessly be set according to the operator's
preference. For closer inspection the veil can be stopped at any time by means of a
foot switch.

Nep testing using top tester III

Test run: Test run the instrument by depressing the main power switch and check
that:

• The signal light in the power switch comes on,

• The background light can be switched on and off and can steplessly and
flickerfree be regulated with the controls located on the control panel,

• The foreground light can be switched on and off with the foreground light switch
located on the front panel,

• The motor can be switched on and off with both, the foot switch and the motor
switch located at the rear of the instrument, and that the motor speed can
steplessly be regulated with the speed control located on the control panel,
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• Both of the drafting roller pairs rotate with increasing speed from rear to front,

• Each of the five counters advances by one count when the respective push button
is pressed. If the fifth counter is used as a total counter (see D 4), it must show
the sum of the counts accumulated in the other four counters, and its push button
must be inactive,

• All counters can be reset by simultaneously pressing the two reset buttons
located at the right and left side of the counter assembly.

After this test the instrument is ready for use.

Preparation for the test

1. Feed material: Feed the material (one or two slivers/tops) from the upper storage bin
or from another container parallel between the three guides into the drawing frame.
Make sure the material is well distributed over the entire width of the drafting rollers
and is pulled untwisted into the drawing frame.

a) Clamp down both pressure rollers by flipping the black levers simultaneously in
pairs into the horizontal position. Place the brush on top of the front pressure
roller.

b) Switch on the motor with the motor switch located at the rear of the instrument,
and select a medium speed.

c) Using two fingers, twist the leading edge of the material into a small tip, and feed
this tip to the first roller pair. Catch the material when it leaves the first roller pair,
and guide and feed it to the second roller pair. Behind the second roller pair catch
the material again, and carefully guide it over the viewing area until it is heavy
enough to fall freely by itself.
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d) Switch off the motor.

2. Point of grip distance: Prior to testing determine the length of the fibers in the
material to be tested. Loosen the set screw located at the hand wheel at the upper left
side of the instrument, adjust the point of grip distance of the drafting rollers with the
hand wheel in accordance with the fiber length and re-fasten the set screw. The point
of grip distance of the drafting rollers should correspond approximately to the
maximum fiber length. For improved veil evenness a shorter distance may be used.
However, if the drawing frame delivers curly material the drafting rollers are set too
close. The correct point of grip distance of the drafting rollers may be obtained by
referring to the drafting rollers of the production machines.
3. Illumination: Select the light conditions best suited for the detection of the impurities
to be counted:
• Background light provides for optimum viewing conditions for all impurities in
wool tops. It might, however, be difficult to distinguish between neps and foreign
particles.
• Combined background/foreground light provides for optimum viewing conditions
for foreign particles, such as colored hairs, vegetable matters, urine residues, etc. For
best results adjust the light intensity of the background light to the same level as the
light intensity of the foreground light, so that the fibers become practically invisible
and the foreign particles are easily seen.
• Foreground light provides for optimum visibility of all kinds ofjiber faults, such as
thick hairs, neps and fused fibers. For white fibers use the black back plate with
counting line.
4. Magnifying glass: Determine whether you want to work with or without the
magnifying glass. After removal of the thumb screw it can be taken off the frame.
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5. Reference samples: In order to facilitate classification of the faults it is recommended

to mount samples of neps of different sizes, shells and other impurities for
comparison at one side of the glass plate. This greatly improves the reliability of the
test results.
6. Advance speed: Select the motor speed best suited for catching all impurities crossing
the counting line located in the center of the viewing zone.
7. Reset: Reset all counters to zero by simultaneously pressing the two reset buttons
located at the right and left side of the counter assembly. The Nep/Top Tester is now
ready for a measurement.
Testing
8. Trim: At the beginning of a measurement trim-off the material at the counting line
and make sure all impurities above this line are being counted.
9. Measure: Start the motor with the foot switch and count the impurities when they
cross the counting line by actuating the corresponding counter. Actuate only one
counter at a time and not too fast. Collect the tested material in the lower storage bin.

10. Pause: If you fall behind counting the impurities, reduce the motor speed with the
speed control located on the control panel or temporarely stop the motor with the
foot switch.

11. Test duration: For routine tests the counting is continued until at least 100
occurrences have been accumulated. At 100 occurrences the 95 % confidence range
is ± 20 %. This means, that the true count lies within a range of 100 occurrences ±
20 % = (100 ± 20) occurrences. For more accurate tests at least 400 occurrences
should be accumulated resulting in a 95 % confidence range of ± 10 % (i.e. the true
count lies within a range of 400 occurrences ± 10 % = (400 ± 40) occurrences).
 103

For 20 or more counted occurrences n the 95 % confidence range CR is

approximately:

12. End of test: When a sufficient number of occurrences has been accumulated, stop
the instrument and cut-off the material at the counting line. Make sure all impurities
below this line have been counted.

13. Switch off: After testing switch off the Top Tester with the main power switch and
lift all four levers at the pressure rollers of the drawing frame in order to release
pressure from the pressure rollers. The counters on the counter assembly remain
active for about six minutes after switch-off. This makes it possible to read the
counters even in case the Top Tester has been switched off by mistake or during a
power failure.

Evaluation of the test results

14. Weight: With a precision balance determine the weight of the material tested, i.e.
the material between the cuts made at the beginning and the end of the counting.

15. Calculate the test result: Divide the number of accumulated occurrences by the
weight of the tested material to determine the number of occurrences per gram
material. By multiplying this figure with 100, you may get a more convenient
figure: the number of occurrences per 100 g of material. Anyone of these figures
makes it possible to directly compare the number of occurrences in fiber ribbons
with different material densities and even in different materials.
 104

Nep testing using Top Lab

Procedure for test

 Switch on the device by means of the main switch.
 Place the sample near the blocking point of the rear movable cylinder.

Fig.21 sample passage through drafting rollers

 Start the machine by means of the pedal and eventually help the sample
insertion with the hands (pay attention!)
 Keeping pressed the pedal, insert the sample also in the second draft roller.
 According to the length of the fibre of the sample, regulate the draft by
means of the knob on the rear cover (cylinders close one to the other for
short fibres, distant cylinders for long ones).
 105

Fig. 22 drafting gauge setting

 According to the sample width you want to obtain and to the regulated
draft, regulate the sliver guides.

Fig. 23 sample width setting

 Select the desired quantity of light by means of the selector showing the
number of the lamps lighting up.

Fig. 24 setting of light

 Start the trial pressing the start button or by means of the pedal (to modify
the set speed, refer to the enclosed regulator manual).
 Enumerate the sample defects pressing the special keys.
 When the trial is finished, release the pedal or stop the movement pressing
the stop key.
106