Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Lightweight aggregate made from sewage sludge and incinerated ash

Ing-Jia Chiou *, Kuen-Sheng Wang, Ching-Ho Chen, Ya-Ting Lin
Department of Civil Engineering, Nanya Institute of Technology, Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Central University,
414, Sec. 3, Chung-Sun E. Road, Chungli, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan, ROC

Accepted 29 November 2005

Available online 23 January 2006

Abstract

In this study, sewage sludge ash (SSA), with similar characteristics to expansive clay, was used as the principal material and sewage
sludge (SS) as the admixture to sinter lightweight aggregate and to study the influences of raw material composition on pelletising, sin-
tering effect and aggregate properties. Results showed that both SS and SSA could be sintered to produce synthetic aggregates individ-
ually or mixed. Increasing the amount of SS would decrease the pelletising ratio. Under the consideration of energy saving, the mixture of
SSA was better for sintering normal weight aggregate. On the contrary, the mixture that added 20–30% of SS was more adequate to make
lightweight aggregates. Adding SS would enhance the oxidation–reduction reaction and lower the bulk density and sintering temperature
of aggregates to save energy. Sintering temperature affected the properties of sewage sludge ash lightweight aggregate (SSALA) more
than retention period did. Prolonging the retention period could improve bloating effect.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction various reactions (Short, 1977). The chemical composition

of the expansive clay are as followed: SiO2 48–70%; FAl2O3
According to the data released by the Construction and 8–25%; Fe2O3 + FeO 3–12%; CaO + MgO 1–12%;
Planning Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Taiwan, in 2003 K2O + Na2O 0.5–7% (Riley, 1950). Because the character-
the daily output of SS in Taiwan was about 180,000 m3 and istic of SS is similar to that of expansive clay, and there is a
is estimated to increase to 400,000 m3 in 2009. Currently, shortage of 50 million m3 in concrete aggregates every year
most of the SS is disposed of through landfill. This will in Taiwan, to resource SS or SSA can provide plenty of raw
become a serious environmental problem in Taiwan. materials and reduce the environmental impact.
Therefore, treatment by incineration cannot only disinfect In the past, Elkins et al. (1985), St. George (1986), Tay
the sludge, but can also reduce its volume. SSA has been et al. (1991), Tay and Show (1997), Wiebusch and Seyfried
widely used to make bricks, tiles, lightweight aggregates, (1997) and Wainwright and Cresswell (2001) partially
and cement, as well as to partially substitute for traditional added SS (10–30%) to clay, or only used SSA to sinter syn-
construction materials, such as cement and fine aggregates thetic aggregates at 1000–1200 C. When only SS was used,
(Tay and Yip, 1989; Slim and Wakefield, 1991; Bhatty and porous and loose aggregates were produced due to the
Reid, 1986; Chesener, 1998). To achieve proper expansion, higher organic matter content, and thus constrained its
the raw material should satisfy the following requirements: application. On the other hand, when only SSA was used,
(a) it should contain sufficient gas producing constituents, more energy was consumed because of the lower organic
(b) on heating, pyroplasticity should occur simultaneously matter content. In Taiwan, most of the SS is macromole-
with the formation of gas, which can be brought about by cule sludge ash, and thus has the properties of low work-
ability and low pozzolanic activity (Tay and Yip, 1989;
Monzó et al., 1999, 2003). This makes the SSA inadequate
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 3 3791938. to be used as a cement admixture. As a result, in this study,
E-mail address: Jessie.chiou@msa.hinet.net (I.-J. Chiou). through adding 0–30% of SS to SSA to sinter synthetic

0956-053X/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2005.11.024
1454 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461

aggregates at 1050–1150 C, the possibility of using SS as a 3. Results and discussion

composition adjusting agent and the effect of adding SS on
aggregate sintering are studied. 3.1. Properties of the mixture of SS and SSA

2. Experimental The principal chemical compositions of SSA were SiO2

(57.43–63.31%), Al2O3 (15.29–15.38%) and Flux (Fe2O3,
2.1. Materials CaO, MgO, Na2O, and K2O, 11.66–12.18%). This compo-
sition met the requirements of expansive clay (SiO2: 48–
The SS was collected from the primary sludge in the Ba- 70%, Al2O3: 8–25% and Flux: 4.5–31%) as stated by Riley
Li Waste Water Treatment Plant, Taipei. The dewatered (1950). The chemical composition of Flux in MA, MB,
SS was dried, ground and passed through a No. 70 mesh. MC and MD are listed in Table 1 (i.e. 6.62–6.81% of
The moisture content and combustible content of SS Fe2O3 + FeO, 2.83–2.89% of CaO + MgO and 2.21–
reached up to 55.32% and 22.78%, respectively, and its 2.48% of K2O + Na2O). This also satisfied the require-
ash content was 21.90%. The production procedure for ment of expansive clay on flux. This indicated that the
SSA was to combust dewatered SS in a pilot-scale inciner- compositions of SS and SSA were similar to those of
ator at 900 C for 3 h, and then to grind the ash in a shred- expansive clay (such as Chung-li clay). Thus, SS could
ding machine for 4 h to make it finer and more stable, and be sintered individually or together with SSA to make
to mix it well. Finally, it was dried in an oven at 105 C. lightweight aggregates. The species intensity of SS and
The chemical composition of the SSA is shown in Table 1. SSA varied apparently, especially SiO2. The leaching
The weight percentage of dried SS to that of total dried concentration of SSA was lower than the standard for
solids (SS + SSA) was 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%, respec- hazardous industrial wastes, EPA, Taiwan. The TCLP-
tively, named MA, MB, MC and MD accordingly. These results and concentrations of heavy metals in SS and
materials were finely ground and then shaped into spherical SSA are listed in Table 2.
particles with the aid of water and some additives in a tilted
rotating pan. Spherical particles were combusted in furnace 3.2. Pelletisation conditions and pellet properties
at 1050, 1100 and 1150 C for 10 and 20 min, respectively,
to sinter aggregates. Applying the utilization experience and trial-and-error
method to evaluate the pelletizing ratio (the ratio of pellet-
2.2. Methods izing weight over that of total solids) and particle size dis-
tribution, the rotation rate of the pellet machine was set at
SS characteristics were determined, including the specific 22 ± 2 rpm, with an inclined angle of 27. The average
gravity, combustible content, ash content, gross amount of moisture content of pellets in MA, MB, MC and MD were
heavy metals, and species (XRD). SSA characteristics were 24.82%, 26.30%, 33.48% and 34.97%, respectively, and
analyzed, including specific gravity (ASTM C127), particle increased with the increasing amount of SS added due to
distribution, pH, chemical compositions (XRF), gross the difference in particle size. The pelletizing ratio was in
amount of heavy metals (AAS), the Toxicity Characteristic an inverse proportion to the amount of water used. How-
Leaching Procedure (TCLP), and SEM micrographs. ever, the mixture of SS and SSA was difficult to pelletize
Besides, SSALA characteristics were determined, including with an insufficient amount of water. On the contrary, sur-
ignition loss (GB 2840-81), bulk density (ASTM C29), plus water would result in bigger or irregular particles.
water absorption (ASTM C12), failure point loading (i.e. Therefore, the water amount needed for pelletisation was
the failure loading of aggregate in one single point), frost affected by the characteristics of mixture and pelletizing
resistance (ASTM C88), and SEM micrographs. methodology.

Table 1
Chemical composition of sewage sludge ash (SSA) and expansive clay
Composition (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O SO3 P2O5
SSA 63.31 15.38 6.81 1.80 1.03 0.70 1.51 1.02 7.02
Expansive clay 62.77 16.82 6.97 1.02 2.25 1.68 3.07 – –

Table 2
Chemical composition of SSALA (%)
Aggregate SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O SO3 P2O5
MA, 1150 C 47.92 12.24 12.75 0.96 0.42 0.68 2.48 <0.25 <0.23
MC, 1100 C 52.20 11.07 11.98 0.93 0.37 0.71 2.22 <0.25 1.32
 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461 1455

Fig. 1. Appearance of SSA pellet (before sintering).

100 grease to decrease the compatibility of SS and SSA. The

cumulative retained percentages of coarse particles in the
Cumulative amount retained (%)

samples of MA, MB, MC and MD were 90.62%, 69.65%,

80
69.64% and 37.72%, respectively.

60 3.3. Properties of sewage sludge ash lightweight aggregate

(SSALA)
40
SS/(SS+SSA)=0% 3.3.1. Ignition loss from sintering procedure
SS/(SS+SSA)=10% In the process of sintering lightweight aggregates with
20
SS/(SS+SSA)=20% mixture of SS and SSA, weight loss occurred, probably
SS/(SS+SSA)=30% because of water evaporation, high temperature oxidiza-
0 tion of organic matters, decomposition of inorganic salts
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
or emission of volatile heavy metals. The emission and
Median diameter (mm)
decomposition of the before-mentioned substances
Fig. 2. The grading curves of SSALA. affected the macro properties and microstructure of the
lightweight aggregates. In this study, the weight loss per-
centage during the process of sintering dry pellets to light-
Fig. 1 demonstrates that the appearance of pellets of the weight aggregates was defined as the ignition loss. The
four samples were in rounded and spherical shape. Fig. 2 result is shown as Table 4. The ignition loss of aggregates
shows that the majority of the particle size distribution in was in a direct linear proportion to the amount of SS
these four samples were coarse aggregates of 9.50– added, as expressed
4.75 mm. With the increase of SS addition, the ratio of
LI ¼ 1:379  OMC þ 1:076; R2 ¼ 0:99; ð1Þ
coarse particles (>4.75 mm) decreased. Among the four
samples, the sample of MA had the highest pelletisation, where LI is the ignition loss (%) and OMC is the organic
and that of sample with MD was the lowest. This probably content (%) in the mixture of SS and SSA.
was because of the significant differences in specific gravity As shown in multiple regression (Eq. (2)), sintering tem-
between SS (1.02) and SSA (2.64), and the content of perature (T) was the most significant factor affecting the
1456 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461

ignition loss (p < 0.001), and the raw material mixture was LI ¼ 0:476ðSS=SS þ SSAÞ  0:036t  0:560T ; R ¼ 0:84.
the next (p < 0.01), but the retention period (t) was ð2Þ
insignificant

Table 3
TCLP-results and concentrations of heavy metals in SS, SSA and SSALA
Materials Heavy metals Pb Cd Cr Cu Zn
Raw sludge Total weight (mg/kg) 0.28 ± 0.09 1.60 ± 0.13 9.51 ± 0.11 33.32 ± 1.28 176.57 ± 2.97
SSA Total weight (mg/kg) 1.20 ± 0.013 4.81 ± 0.03 21.96 ± 1.84 89.64 ± 3.77 567.3 ± 4.85
TCLP (mg/L) 0.017 ± 0.006 ND 0.10 ± 0.05 3.81 ± 0.13 –
SSALA TCLP (mg/L) SS/SS + SSA = 0%; 1150 C/10 min 0.088 ± 0.015 ND ND 0.437 ± 0.008 0.116 ± 0.020
TCLP (mg/L) SS/SS + SSA = 20%; 1100 C/10 min 0.098 ± 0.026 ND ND 0.539 ± 0.117 0.402 ± 0.003
Regulatory TCLP (mg/L) 5 1 5 15 –
SSA: sewage sludge ash; SSALA: sewage sludge ash lightweight aggregate; ND: not detected.

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of SSALA (SS/(SS+SSA) = 0%, 200·): (a) 1050 C/10 min; (b) 1050 C/20 min; (c) 1100 C/10 min; (d) 1100 C/20 min; (e)
1150 C/10 min; (f) 1150 C/20 min.
 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461 1457

3.3.2. Chemical composition, TCLP and concentrations of and Fig. 6 shows that MD became sintered at 1050 C,
heavy metals and significantly expansive at 1100 C. Thus, it was con-
The chemical composition of sewage sludge ash light- cluded that increasing the amount of SS could effectively
weight aggregate (SSALA) is shown in Table 2. SSALA lower the sintering temperature, enhance the bloating
was mainly composed of SiO2, and Fe2O3, and then effect, and save energy.
Al2O3. The content of P2O5 apparently dropped to 1.32%
or lower during sintering. 3.3.4. Bulk density
TCLP results and concentrations of heavy metals in At 1100 C, with the increase in amount of SS, the bulk
SSALA are listed in Table 3. The SSALA toxicity charac- density of the aggregates dropped significantly. However,
teristic leaching procedure (TCLP) met the Taiwan Envi- when the temperature was increased to 1050 C, due to
ronmental Regulatory requirements. the sintering effect, the bulk density of aggregates only
slightly decreased, as shown in Fig. 7. At 1050 C, the
3.3.3. Sintering effect and bloating effect SSALA of MA and MB still had powdery film on the sur-
Fig. 3 demonstrates that MA became sintered and face. SSALA of MA would have the greatest bulk density
expansive at 1150 C. Fig. 4 showed that MB became sin- at 1100 C. However, the bulk density decreased to 1.35–
tered between 1100 and 1150 C, and its expansion was 1.39 g/cm3 at 1150 C; meanwhile, a glassy texture was
obvious at 1150 C. Fig. 5 indicates that at 1100 C, MC formed on the surface of SSALA, as shown in Fig. 8(a).
achieved the sintered and expansive stage simultaneously, When the temperature increased from 1050 to 1100 C,

Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of SSALA (SS/(SS+SSA) = 10%, 200·): (a) 1050 C/10 min; (b) 1050 C/20 min; (c) 1100 C/10 min; (d) 1100 C/20 min; (e)
1150 C/10 min; (f) 1150 C/20 min.
1458 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461

the bulk density of SSALA of MB slightly decreased by of 1050 C/10 min and 1050 C/20 min, the bulk density of
3.4–7.9%. However, when the temperature went up to SSALA was 1.63–1.71 and 1.59–1.62 g/cm3, respectively.
1150 C, the bulk density dropped obviously (18.0– Under the sintering conditions of 1100 C/10 min and
33.3%). When the amount of SS added was more than 1100 C/20 min, respectively, the bulk density of SSALA
20%, such as MC and MD, under the sintering conditions was 0.78–0.82 and 0.76–0.83 g/cm3, which met the light-

Fig. 5. SEM micrographs of SSALA (SS/(SS+SSA) = 20%, 200·): (a) 1050 C/10 min; (b) 1050 C/20 min; (c) 1100 C/10 min; (d) 1100 C/20 min.

Fig. 6. SEM micrographs of SSALA (SS/(SS+SSA) = 30%, 200·): (a) 1050 C/10 min; (b) 1050 C/20 min; (c) 1100 C/10 min; (d) 1100 C/20 min.
 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461 1459

weight requirement (<1.6 g/cm3), as shown in Fig. 8(b). was the next (p < 0.001), but retention period (t) was
SSALA had a glassy surface and spherical shape. SSALA insignificant.
of MA and MC were dark brown and red brown, respec-
c ¼ 0:7316ðSS=SS þ SSAÞ  0:064t  0:602T ; R ¼ 0:81
tively, as shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b). Besides, at 1150 C,
SSALA of MC and MD would adhere to the kiln, resulting ð3Þ
in additional energy consumption, and would increase the SS supplied more carbide, which helped to process an
bulk density and weaken productivity. oxidation-reduction reaction with ferric oxide, and gener-
Therefore, the sintering conditions required for MA, ated CO2 and CO to enhance the expansion. So, if only
MB, MC and MD to become lightweight aggregates were SSA was used to sinter aggregate, such as MA, the light-
1150 C/10 min, 1150 C/10 min, 1100 C/10 min and weight characteristics were incurred mainly because pyro-
1050 C/10 min, respectively. For energy savings, MA, plasticity happening at high temperature would wrap the
MB, and MC and MD would be more suitable to be sin- gas. On the other hand, the lightweight characteristics of
tered as normal weight aggregate (>1.6 g/cm3), medium mixtures with SS, such as MB, MC and MD, were incurred
density aggregate (1.0–1.6 g/cm3) and low-density aggre- through organic matter decomposition and the oxidation–
gate (<1.0 g/cm3) separately. In addition, Fig. 7 demon- reduction reaction between organic matter and ferric oxide.
strates that the bulk density of SSALA sintered for 10
and 20 min were similar. This indicated that adding SS
3.3.5. Water absorption
would affect sintering temperature more significantly than
Table 4 shows that when the sintering temperature
retention period, and sintering for 10 min was sufficient.
reached 1050 C, the 24 h water absorptions of SSALA
However, increasing the retention period to 20 min would
of MA and MB, and MC and MD ranged from
slightly decrease the density.
30.49% to 32.54% and from 9.08% to 12.46%, respec-
As shown in multiple regression Eq. (3), the raw mate-
tively. At 1100 C, the SSALA water absorption of
rial mixture was the most significant factor affecting the
MA and MB decreased, apparently because micro parti-
bulk density (p < 0.001), and sintering temperature (T)
cles started to tightly link. Meanwhile, a glassy texture
formed on the surface of SSALA, and thus prevented
3.0
its water absorption increase due to porosity. At
1150 C, SSALA of MA and MB have reached the sin-
1050?/10min 1100?/10min
1150?/10min 1050?/20min
tering stage, and made the water absorption decrease
2.4
1100?/20min 1150?/20min
to 1.65–2.84%. As shown in multiple regression Eq. (4),
sintering temperature (T) was the most significant factor
Bulk density (g/cm3)

to affect the water absorption (p < 0.001), and raw mate-

1.8
rial mixture was the next (p < 0.05), but retention period
(t) was insignificant.
1.2
W ¼ 0:404ðSS=SS þ SSAÞ  0:035t  0:836T ; R ¼ 0:82
ð4Þ
0.6

3.3.6. Failure point loading

0.0 The failure point loadings of SSALA of MA, MB, MC
0 10 20 30
and MD are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 9. At 1050 C,
SS/(SS+SSA) (%)
the failure point loadings of SSALA of MA and MB were
Fig. 7. Bulk density of SSALA. only 12.29–17.45 and 10.74–12.96 kgf individually. This

Fig. 8. Appearance of SSALA (after sintering). (a) (SS/(SS + SSA) = 0%; 1150 C/10 min; (b) (SS/(SS + SSA) = 20%; 1100 C/10 min.
1460 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461

Table 4
Performance of SSALA
SS/(SS+SSA) (wt.%) Properties of SSALA 1050 C 1100 C 1150 C
10 min 20 min 10 min 20 min 10 min 20 min
0% (MA) Ignition loss (%) 10.48 9.08 9.03 9.02 1.87 1.90
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.81 1.82 2.09 2.12 1.39 1.35
Water absorption (%) 32.54 31.28 9.54 9.07 1.65 1.90
Point loading (kgf) 12.29 17.45 45.95 80.94 59.25 53.02
Soundness (MgSO4, %) 3.75 3.59 1.09 1.08 0.19 0.16
10% (MB) Ignition loss (%) 11.61 12.46 11.81 11.64 4.72 4.70
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.78 1.77 1.72 1.63 1.46 1.18
Water absorption (%) 30.49 31.67 19.52 13.86 2.84 2.55
Point loading (kgf) 12.96 10.74 30.60 33.97 35.10 32.29
Soundness (MgSO4, %) 2.84 2.64 1.13 1.17 0.66 0.48
20% (MC) Ignition loss (%) 30.49 31.67 19.52 13.86 – –
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.71 1.62 0.78 0.83 – –
Water absorption (%) 10.48 9.08 9.03 9.02 – –
Point loading (kgf) 96.87 95.10 26.28 22.82 – –
Soundness (MgSO4, %) 1.63 1.42 1.11 1.25 – –
30% (MD) Ignition loss (%) 32.54 31.28 9.54 9.07 – –
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.63 1.59 0.82 0.76 – –
Water absorption (%) 11.61 12.46 11.81 11.64 – –
Point loading (kgf) 82.55 81.07 26.08 24.76 – –
Soundness (MgSO4, %) 1.58 1.56 1.34 1.26 – –
‘‘–’’ means adhering to kiln and cannot be detected.

120 only 12.29–17.45 and 10.74–12.96 kgf individually. This

was because the SSALA had not reached the sintering tem-
100 Mix A
perature, and there was still powdery film on the surface.
Failure point loading (kgf)

Mix B
Mix C The failure point loadings of SSALA of MC and MD were
80 Mix D
95.10–96.87 and 81.07–82.55 kgf, respectively, because the
60 sintering reaction has happened at this moment, as shown
in Fig. 3. Fig. 5 also proves that sintering temperature had
40 a more significant effect on aggregate characteristics than
retention period. Besides, 10 min of retention period was
20
sufficient, but prolonging the retention period to 20 min
0 would lower the failure point loading of SSALA.
1050˚C 1100˚C 1150˚C
a 10 minutes 3.3.7. Frost resistance
120
The soundness test is supposed to simulate the effect of
ice crystallization in a saturated aggregate. The weight loss
Mix A
100 rate of aggregates, which were repeatedly soaked in a satu-
Failure point loading (kgf)

Mix B
Mix C
Mix D
rated solution of magnesium sulfate for 5 times, was far
80 lower than the regulatory value of 18%. The result is shown
in Table 4. The aggregates with bulk density lower than
60
1.0 g/cm3 had a weight loss rate between 1.11% and
40 1.34%. As shown in multiple regression Eq. (5), the sinter-
ing temperature (T) was the most significant factor to affect
20 the soundness (p < 0.001), and the raw material mixture
was the next (p < 0.05), but the retention period (t) was
0 1050˚C 1100˚C 1150˚C insignificant.
b 20 minutes
Sd ¼ 0:354ðSS=SS þ SSAÞ  0:037t  0:900T ; R ¼ 0:87
Fig. 9. Failure point loading of SSALA: (a) 10 min; (b) 20 min.
ð5Þ
3
To SSALA with a bulk density lower than 1.0 g/cm , the
was because the SSALA had not reached the sintering tem- weight loss was 1.11–1.34%. This explained that the
perature, and there was still powdery film on the surface. SSALA at an expansive stage still had excellent anti-chem-
The failure point loadings of SSALA of MA and MB were ical decomposition characteristic. At 1050 C, because MA
 I.-J. Chiou et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1453–1461 1461

and MB have not generated a sintering effect, their sound- References

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