TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

63. Temperature
measurement
What is heat? Heat is a form of energy associated with the kinetic motion of molecules
within a substance. Heat energy gets transferred from a hotter to a colder
substance.
What is temperature? Temperature refers to the thermal state of a substance. It is the degree of
‘hotness’ of a substance and reflects its potential for heat transfer.
What is the SI unit of temperature? The standard international (SI) unit of temperature measurement is the kelvin (K).
It is based on the triple point of water, which is the temperature (at a specific
pressure) at which water exists in all three phases (273.16 K or 0.01 °C at a
pressure of 611.73 Pa or 0.006 atm).
1 unit kelvin = 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic triple point of water.
A change in temperature of 1 K is equivalent to a change in temperature
of 1 °C.

From kelvin To kelvin

Celcius [˚C] = [K] −273.15 [K] = [˚C] +273.15

(All calculations must be performed using the kelvin scale and not celsius.
The volume of a gas will double only if the absolute temperature doubles. So
if the temperature increases from 283.15 K (10 °C) to 566.30 K (293.15 °C)
the gas volume will double but this will not apply if the temperature doubles
from 10 °C to 20 °C!)
What methods can be used to Temperature measurement can be divided into non-electrical, electrical and
measure temperature? infrared-based methods.
Non-electrical:
> Liquid expansion thermometers (e.g. mercury and alcohol
thermometers):
• Principle: Based on the volumetric expansion of a liquid with
increasing temperature. Bulb containing the liquid is in communication
with a narrow, linear, calibrated capillary tube. As the temperature
increases the liquid expands and its volume increases causing it to
rise up the capillary tube. An angled constriction prevents the liquid
contracting back into the bulb until shaken. Alternatively, a small
bobbin sitting above the liquid gets left at the maximum reading point
until the device is shaken.
• Uses: Mercury thermometers were previously used to measure body
temperature (mercury freezes at about −39 °C and boils at about
250 °C) while alcohol thermometers are used to measure very low
temperatures (alcohol freezes only at −114 °C and boils at 78 °C).
• Advantages: Cheap and easy to use.
• Disadvantages: Slow (2–3 min), glass thermometers can break
causing injury and mercury is now classified as a hazardous substance.

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> Gas expansion thermometers (e.g. Bourdon gauge dial thermometer):
• Principle: Based on the volumetric expansion of a gas with
temperature and the associated pressure changes that ensue due to
this volume expansion. A bulb containing volatile liquid or saturated
vapour is in communication with a hollow, elliptical, spiral tube. As
the temperature rises, the volume in the bulb increases, and as the
hollow tube tries to accommodate the expanded gas it changes shape
from elliptical to circular in order to give it the largest possible cross-
sectional area. This shape change causes the tube to uncoil, moving a
pointer across a temperature scale.
• Uses: Used outdoors in harsh environments.
• Advantages: Cheap, robust and gives continuous measurements.
• Disadvantages: Poor accuracy and requires recalibration.
> Bimetallic strip dial thermometer:
• Principle: Coil consisting of two different metals with different
expansion coefficients. As the temperature increases these metals
expand by different amounts causing the coil to tighten and moving a
pointer over the temperature scale.
• Uses: Used outdoors in harsh environments.
• Advantages: Cheap, robust and gives continuous measurements.
• Disadvantages: Poor accuracy and requires recalibration.
> Chemical thermometer:
• Principle: Strip of small cells containing a chemical mixture that melts
over a range of temperatures to produce temperature-dependent
colour changes. Newer reusable models use liquid crystal technology,
where tiny colourless, solid crystals melt with increases in temperature
and then realign themselves, causing a colour change.
• Uses: Clinical body temperature measurement.
• Advantages: Fast response time (<30 s), disposable and no risk of
glass breakage.
• Disadvantages: Not very accurate at temperature differences less
than 0.5 °C.
Electrical:
> Thermocouple:
• Principle: Consists of two different metals (e.g. copper and
constantan, an alloy of copper and nickel) joined to form two separate
junctions. One junction is kept at constant temperature and is
known as the reference junction while the other junction acts as the
temperature-measuring probe. When there is a temperature difference
across these two junctions, a small voltage is produced. This voltage
is proportional to the temperature difference across the junctions and
is measured using a galvanometer. This phenomenon is known as the
Seebeck effect.
• Advantages: Rapid response time, accurate to within ± 0.1 °C and
small.
• Disadvantages: Voltage produced is very small and needs signal
amplification and the reference junction needs to be at a constant
temperature (or requires compensation).

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Junction Voltage (mV)

Temperature (°C)

Fig. 63.1  Change in junction voltage (mV) vs. temperature (°C) for a thermocouple

> Resistance thermometers (e.g. platinum wire resistance thermometer):

• Principle: Linear relationship between temperature and electrical
resistance of a wire (e.g. platinum, copper or nickel) such that as
temperature increases, the resistance within a platinum wire increases
in a predictable manner.
• Advantages: Extremely accurate to within ±0.0001 °C, with linear
relationship between 0 and 100 °C.
• Disadvantages: Slow response time, bulky and fragile.
Resistance (Ω)

Temperature (°C)

Fig. 63.2  Change in resistance (ohms) vs. temperature (°C) for a platinum resistance
wire thermometer

> Thermistor:
• Principle: Semiconductor composed of heavy metal oxide (e.g.
nickel, iron or manganese) that displays a negative exponential
relationship between electrical resistance and temperature.
• Uses: Used clinically in PA catheters to measure core temperature.
• Advantages: Rapid response time (<0.2 s), very small, accurate and
cheap.
• Disadvantages: Hysteresis, ageing, variability within a batch and
non-linear relationship requires recalibration.

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Resistance (Ω)

Temperature (°C)

Fig. 63.3  Change in resistance (ohms) vs. temperature (°C) for a thermistor

Infrared:
> Infrared tympanic membrane thermometers:
• Principle: All objects emit electromagnetic radiation, the wavelength
of which is dependent on the temperature of that object. At body
temperature, infrared radiation is the primary electromagnetic radiation
given off by objects. Tympanic membrane thermometers receive
infrared radiation from the tympanic membrane, which is close to the
brain and therefore represents core body temperature. There are two
main types of sensors that are used in these devices – the pyroelectric
sensor and the thermopile sensor. The pyroelectric sensor contains
crystals that alter their polarisation depending on the temperature. The
thermopile sensor is made up of numerous thermocouples connected
in series and allows continuous measurements to be made.
• Uses: Clinical measurement of core body temperature.
• Advantages: Non-invasive, accurate with a rapid response time (<5 s).

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