REPUBLIC OF GHANA

GHANA NATIONAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

(2015-2035)
Volume II: Overall Spatial Development Strategy

–-------

GOVERNMENT OF GHANA
MINISTRY OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION
TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING DPARTMENT
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING COMMISSION

FEBRUARY, 2015
Volume I Ghana National Spatial Development Framework

Government of Ghana
Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources
Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation
Town and Country Planning Department
National Development Planning Commission

Ghana National Spatial

Development Framework
2015-2035

Space, Efficiency and Growth

Volume II:

Overall Spatial
Development Strategy

FINAL REPORT

Credit #: IDA 4870 GH

Land Administration Project II

Funded by the International Development Association (IDA)

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Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

ADDRESS COWI A/S

Parallelvej 2
2800 Kongens Lyngby
Denmark

TEL +45 56 40 00 00
FAX +45 56 40 99 99
WWW cowi.com
Land Administration Project II

Ghana National Spatial

Development Framework
2015 2035
Space, Efficiency and Growth

Volume II:
Overall Spatial Development
Strategy
FINAL REPORT

THE FINAL REPORT CONSISTS OF THREE VOLUMES:

Volume I: Space, Efficiency and Growth

Volume II: Overall Spatial Development Strategy

Volume III: Executive Summary of Vol I and Vol II

Annexes:

Annex 1: MS Excel Sheet for the NSDF Phasing Cost Estimates

Annex 2: Strategic Environmental Assessment of the NSDF

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Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

CONTENTS – VOLUME II
List of Figures and Tables of Vol. II
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Foreword by Minister of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation
Acknowledgments

1 Spatial development challenges and opportunities ............................................ 1-7

1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1-7

1.2 Economic challenges and opportunities ...........................................................................1-7
1.3 Population distribution and growth .................................................................................1-9
1.4 Urban settlement distribution and growth ....................................................................1-12
1.5 Rural population distribution and rural economy ..........................................................1-16
1.6 Increasing food production ............................................................................................1-18
1.7 Transportation and Telecommunications.......................................................................1-20
1.8 Managing national and regional land cover ...................................................................1-22
1.9 Making mining more viable and environmentally harmful ............................................1-24
1.10 Exploiting and protecting natural and cultural heritage assets ......................................1-25

2 Objectives and pillars of spatial strategy ....................................................... 2-31

2.1 What is national spatial planning? .................................................................................2-31

2.2 Contemporary approach to spatial planning ..................................................................2-31
2.3 The National Spatial Development Framework..............................................................2-35
2.4 Balancing urban and rural development ........................................................................2-37
2.5 Tools and instruments of spatial planning......................................................................2-38
2.6 Pillars of the spatial strategy ..........................................................................................2-45

3 Place-based framework ................................................................................ 3-51

3.4 Urban Settlement Hierarchy...........................................................................................3-51

3.5 Abidjan-Accra-Lagos coastal megaregion or urban corridor ...........................................3-59
3.6 Two city-regions around Accra and Kumasi ....................................................................3-60
3.7 Urban Networks .............................................................................................................3-72
3.8 Rural Development ........................................................................................................3-99
3.9 General spatial development policies .......................................................................... 3-103

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4 Important National Initiatives..................................................................... 4-107

4.4 A national and international expressway system ......................................................... 4-107

4.5 Improve connectivity with new and improved trunk roads.......................................... 4-110
4.6 A national and international rail network .................................................................... 4-114
4.7 Two international airports ........................................................................................... 4-117
4.8 Telecoms ...................................................................................................................... 4-119
4.9 New Airport City at Centre of Triangle ......................................................................... 4-119
4.10 Options for three new ports ......................................................................................... 4-122
4.11 Green infrastructure Network ...................................................................................... 4-123
4.12 Proposed Agricultural Growth Corridor........................................................................ 4-129
4.13 Proposed urban food sheds.......................................................................................... 4-134

5 Implementation ......................................................................................... 5-143

5.1 Policy tools for influencing urban growth .................................................................... 5-143

6 NSDF phasing and cost estimates ................................................................ 6-147

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 6-147

6.2 Phasing and population growth ................................................................................... 6-147
6.3 Future distribution of population in Ghana .................................................................. 6-148
6.4 Evaluation of needed resources for infrastructure development ................................. 6-151

Annex 1 – MS Excell Sheet of estimated cost relevant to the main infrastructure projects
Annex 2 - Strategic Environmental Assessment of the NSDF
Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

List of Figures and Tables of Volume II

Figure/Table # Title Page #

Figure 1.1 Percent job growth by sub-sector and region, 2000-2010 1-8
Figure 1.2 Estimated inter-regional migration, 2000-2010 1-10
Figure 1.3 Projected population and population increase 2010-2035 1-11
Figure 1.4 Urban Settlements and Population Growth 1-13
Table 1.1 Urban settlement growth by size class 1-14
Figure 1.5 Urban and rural Settlements, built-up area and transport networks 1-15
Figure 1.6 Rural Settlements and Population distribution 1-17
Figure 1.7 Change in population and crop cover 2000-2010 1-19
Figure 1.8 Change in land cover 1-23
Table 1.2 Directional change of land cover by region over two decades 1-23

Figure 2.1 From dichotomy to continuum of space 2-37

Figure 2.2 Stages of growth pole development 2.40
Figure 2.3 Integrated spatial development concept 2-48

Table 3.1 Number of NUP urban settlements by grade 3-52

Table 3.2 NSDF urban settlement hierarchy by region and grade 3-55
Figure 3.1 NSDF centres compared to NUP-Proposed Hierarchy of Settlement 3-56
Figure 3.2 Other options for settlement hierarchy 3-57
Figure 3.3 Urban population in 2010 and 2025 in Ghana and neighbouring countries 3-60
Table 3.3 Accra city-region population, 2000-2010 3-62
Table 3.4 Historical and projected growth of population, area and density 3-63
Figure 3.4 GAMA Urban Network 3-65
Table 3.5 Population and density change in GKC: 2010 to 2033 3-67
Figure 3.5 Kumasi Urban Network 3-68
Figure 3.6 STMA Urban Network 3-78
Figure 3.7 Cape Coast Urban Network 3-81
Figure 3.8 Tamale Urban Network 3-84
Figure 3.9 Sunyani Urban Network 3-88
Figure 3.10 North East Urban Network 3-91
Figure 3.11 Aflao Urban Network 3-94
Figure 3.12 Ho-Hohoe Urban Network 3-96
Figure 3.13 Wa Urban Network 3-98
Figure 3.14 Rural population clusters, road density and crop area density 3-102

Figure 4.1 Two options for alignment of the Trans West African Coastal highway 4-110
Figure 4.2 Areas for improvement of trunk road links 4-111
Figure 4.3 New and improved road links in SADA zone and Lake Volta area 4-112
Figure 4.4 Proposed ferry crossings and roads at Lake Volta 4-113
Figure 4.5 Western region road improvements 4-113
Figure 4.6 Railroad network options - NSDF, NIP and GRMP - and phasing 4-116
Figure 4.7 Biomass energy sites 4-118
Figure 4.8 Future land reserves for development of harbours 4-122
Figure 4.9 Ghana Green Infrastructure Network Concept 4-127
Figure 4.10 International examples of green infrastructure networks 4-128
Figure 4.11 International examples of agricultural growth corridors 4-132
Figure 4.12 Agricultural Growth Corridor Concepts - two options 4-133
Figure 4.13 Seventy (70) km radius foodsheds around main urban settlements 4-135
Figure 4.14 Land cover type within 50 km of centre of urban area / persons per crop 4-136
hectare at 50 and 70 km of centre
Figure 4.15 International examples of foodsheds 4-137
Figure 4.16 Integrated spatial development concept 4-138

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Figure 6.1 NSDF implementation and development cost plan 6-150

Figure 6.2 Projected GDP development in Ghana 2105 to 35 6-151
Figure 6.3 Infrastructure spending needs 6-152
Table 6.1 % of investments in sectors 2016-35 6-153
Table 6.2 Description of Budget Lines provided in Figure 7.1 and in Annex 1 6-154
Table 6.3 Average hectare price for land acquisition 6-157
Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADT Average Daily Traffic
AGC Associated General Contractors of America
ASDP Atlantic Spatial Development Perspective
AUE Atlas of Urban Expansion
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
CBD Central Business District
CBO Community Based Organisation
CCTV Closed Circuit Television
CERGIS Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Services
CET Central European Time
CHAG Christian Health Association of Ghana
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CMC Commercial Metals Company
CRC Coastal Resource Centre
CSIR Council for Industrial and Scientific Research
CSO Civil Society Organisation
DFO Direct Factory Outlets
DRF Daily Racing Form
ECOWAS Economic Commission of West African States
EPA Environment Protection Agency
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning
ESPON European Spatial Planning Observation Network
ETLS ECOWAS Trade Liberalisation Scheme
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
FASDEP Food and Agricultural Sector Development Policy
FCUBE Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
GCAP Ghana Commercial Agricultural Project
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHA Ghana Highways Authority
GIDA Ghana Irrigation Development Authority
GIN Group Interactive Network
GIPC Ghana Investment Promotion Council
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GKUDP Greater Kumasi Urban Development Plan
GLDP Greater London Development Plan
GLSS Ghana Living Standard Survey
GNP Gross National Product
GPS Global Positioning System
GREL Ghana Rubber Estates Limited
GRMP Ghana Railway Master Plan
GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda
GSS Ghana Statistical Service

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GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited

ICFG Integrated Coastal and Fisheries Governance Initiative
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPCC International Panel of Climate Change
IS Information System(s)
ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana
ITP Integrated Transportation Plan
JV Joint Venture COWIOrgut TA team
KIA Kotoka International Airport
KVIP Improve Ventilated Pit Latrine
LAP Land Administration Project
LED Local Economic Development
LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas
LULUCF Land use, land use change and forestry
LUPMIS Land Use Planning and Management Information System
LUPMP Land Use Planning and Management Project
LUSPA Land Use and Spatial Planning Act
LUSPB Land Use and Spatial Planning Bill
MDA Ministries, Departments and Agencies
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MESTI Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation
METASIP Medium Term Agricultural Sector Investment Plan
MGI McKinsey Global Initiative
MLNR Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources
MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assembly
MMT Multimedia Technology
MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture
MSE Mean Squared Error
MTDP Medium-Term National Development Plan
MTNDPF Medium-Term National Development Policy Framework
MW Mega Watt
NDP National Development Plan
NDPC National Development Planning Commission
NGO None Governmental Organisation
NIP National Infrastructure Plan
NITA National Information Technology Agency
NLTDS National Long-Term Development Strategy
NPC National Population Council
NPDP National Physical Development Plan
NPF National Planning Framework
NPP New Patriotic Party
NSDC National Security and Defence Council
NSDF National Spatial Development Framework
NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure
NSDP National Spatial Development Perspective
NTC National Technical Committee
Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

NTP National Transport Plan

NUP National Urban Policy
ODA Official Development Assistance
RCC Regional Coordinating Council
RD Registered Dieticians
ROC Regional Oversight Committee
RPCU Regional Planning and Coordinating Units
SADA Savannah Accelerated Development Authority
SAP Systems Applications and Products
SDF Spatial Development Framework
SfDR Support for Democratic Reforms (a GIZ project)
SFIP Small Farms Irrigation Project
SFIP Standard Flood Insurance Policy
SHS Senior High School
SIP Social Investment Project
SRI Soil Research Institute
SSIDP Small Scale Irrigation Development Project
SSIDP South Sudan Institute of Democracy and Peace
STMA Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area
TA Technical Assistance
TCPD Town and Country Planning Department
TOD Transit Oriented Development
TSIP Traffic Safety Improvement Program
UAE United Arab Emirates
UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union
UNCTAD United Nation Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNU United Nations University
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
UTP Unlisted Trading Privileges
VKT Vehicle kilometres travelled
WBGUR World Bank Ghana Urbanisation Review
WC Water Closet
WDR World Development Report
WFP World Food Programme
WRSDF Western Region Spatial Development Framework
YIAP Youth in Agriculture Programme

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Foreword by the Hon. Minister, MESTI

The central purpose of the Government of Ghana is to harness the enormous potential of the
country for sustainable and equitable socio-economic transformation, and provide, opportunities
for all to progress and enjoy a good quality of life. Our new land use and spatial planning system,
and soon to be approved Land Use and Spatial Planning Bill are geared towards the
accomplishment of this purpose.

The National Spatial Development Framework (NSDF), at the apex of our spatial planning
system, is a long-term, 20-year strategy for the spatial development of Ghana. It has been
informed by: (i) our Medium-Term National Development Policy Frameworks, the Ghana Shared
Growth Development Agenda's I and II, which set out the overall measures we are taking to
accelerate Ghana's development; (ii) our sectoral plans and policies in areas such as economy,
transport, education, health, environment, energy, climate change and land use; and (iii) the
views of several government agencies at the national, regional and district levels, particularly
those that participated in the country-wide consultations undertaken by the NSDF team.

Now that NSDF is completed, I would expect it will contribute to the National Long-Term
Development Strategy (NLTDS), currently being prepared under the leadership of the National
Development Planning Commission. NSDF is an important document, one that will influence
orderly development plans across the country and provide guidance to deliver the change that the
country yearns for. By providing a comprehensive analysis of the existing situation and trends, the
document can be used to guide future development and decisions.

NSDF will play a key role in guiding local authorities in preparing regional, sub-regional and
district level spatial development frameworks and lower level plans. Each part of the country must
use its strengths to build a prosperous, healthy and sustainable future with optimal impact on the
livelihoods of people and their surroundings. This NSDF seeks to harness these strengths, foster
collaboration and ensure spatially integrated development throughout Ghana.

NSDF is aligned to our existing development policies and trajectory. It supports sustainable
economic growth and a transition to a low-carbon economy. Ghana has a high-quality
environment, many good places to live in and visit, and abundant natural resources. These
physical assets – natural and cultural - underpin our economy and quality of life. Facilitating much
needed new development and investing in modernizing our infrastructure, while maintaining and
creating distinctive, sustainable and healthy places is, in my view, essential.

Ghana must provide nurturing and rewarding environments for its people while maximising its
attraction to investors and visitors in what will increasingly be a global economy. We need to
capitalise on our position in the centre of West Africa, one of the fastest growing and urbanizing
regions of the world, and as the main port for the vast land locked countries to the north. Ghana
must ensure that economic growth increases cohesion—reducing inequalities between different
areas of Ghana. The NSDF shows how we can do this at a national level, regional level, and
within urban networks.

While this document sets out our preferred spatial strategy and a number of national development
initiatives to support it, in some areas it also identifies alternative approaches, which have been
considered in the formulation process. We welcome all views in support of the NSDF but also
recommendations on how it might be improved.

My sincere thanks go to all those who have worked on and engaged with the NSDF. The
creativity, thoughtfulness, expertise and knowledge which has informed the project have been
crucial in shaping the result.

Hon. Akwasi Opong-Fosu MP

Minister, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation
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Acknowledgments
The Consulting Firm, COWI-ORGUT, on behalf of the Town and Country Planning
Department and the National Development Planning Commission, gratefully acknowledge
the individuals and organizations that have contributed their time, energy, and views toward
the Formulation of the National Spatial Development Framework for Ghana. Various
individuals attended a series of formal national, regional and zonal level consultations as well
as informal meetings and interviews. We greatly appreciate the observations, suggestions,
ideas and comments that have informed the NSDF.

The support received from the Project Coordinating Unit of the Land Administration Project
(LAP II) is appreciated. The supervisory role of the Town and Country Planning Department
in shaping the contents of the report was tremendous. Special mention goes to Messrs K D
Osei, Ag. Director; Lawrence Z. Dakurah, Deputy Director and Counterpart Team Leader;
Mr Chapman Owusu-Sekyere, Head of TCPD GIS; TCPD Counterpart Team members, the
Regional Directors; and the entire staff at the TCPD National, Regional and District offices.

Special appreciation goes to the Commissioners and Senior Staff of the National
Development Planning Commission (NDPC) for the strong collaboration during the
formulation of the framework. The enthusiasm and personal commitment of the Director
General, Dr. Nii Moi Thompson is highly appreciated. We also acknowledge the contributions
of Commissioners like Prof. Jecob Songsore, Mr. Steve Akuffo, the regional representatives
on the Commission who highly patronised the regional and zonal consultations, and senior
staff such as Dr. Mensah Bonsu and Mr. Kwame Awuah for their technical inputs.

We are also grateful to the Ministers and their Deputies including the Chief Directors and
their Management Teams, at the Ministries, Department and Agencies, for their unlimited
support, throughout the preparation of the NSDF. They include:

a) Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR)

b) Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI)
c) Ministry of Transport
d) Ministry of Roads and Highways
e) Ministry of Food and Agriculture
f) Ministry of Trade and Industries
g) Department of Urban Roads
h) Ghana Statistical Service (GSS)
i) Land Administration Project (LAP II)
j) Forestry Commission
k) National Population Council (NPC)
l) National and Regional Houses of Chiefs
m) Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs)
n) Academic Institutions
o) Chamber of Commerce and Industries
p) Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organisations, and
q) Other stakeholders and institutions who responded to the request of MESTI to
provide information and other support to the planning Team.

We are particularly grateful to the Government Statistician Dr Philomena Nyarko and her
outfit, especially the GIS Unit, for their assistance during the data gathering period.

Special appreciation also goes to the Members of the National Technical Committee (NTC)
and the Regional Oversight Committees (ROCs), for their active participation during the
Stakeholder Consultations and Technical Working Sessions on the NSDF.

Last but not the least, staff of COWI AS for the JV COWIOrgut Technical Assistance Team:

a) Taoufik Choukri: Project Director/Lead Adviser

b) Richard Geier: NSDF Project Manager
c) Jimmy Aidoo: Deputy Project Manager
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d) Kurt Lange: International Land Use Planner

e) Robin Bloch: International Land Use Planner
f) Gerhard Bechtold: International GIS and IT expert (I)
g) Johannes van Bennekom-Minnema: GIS and IT expert (II)
h) Erik Lysdal: Photogrammetry and Mapping Expert
i) Kofi Kekeli: Land Use Planner
j) Akosua Asare: Land Use Planner
k) Peter Owusu Donkor: Land Use Planner
l) Oppong Peprah: Facilitator
m) Felix S.K. Agyemang: Land Use Planner

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Volume II

Chapter 1

Spatial development
challenges and
opportunities

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1 Spatial development challenges and opportunities

1.1 Introduction
This chapter summarises the spatial development challenges and opportunities that
have been presented and analysed in Volume 1. It covers economic aspects at
various levels including in West Africa and within Ghana at the national, regional,
and district levels; population distribution and growth in urban and rural settlements;
transportation and telecommunications; land cover status and change; natural and
cultural heritage; social development; and agriculture and food production.

1.2 Economic challenges and opportunities

The major socio-economic challenges that Ghana will face in the next 20 years
include competition from West African neighbours while integrating into the West
African economy, large increases in regional populations particularly Greater Accra
and Ashanti regions, significant urban-rural migration coupled with population
decline in some districts, and large socio-economic disparities between north and
south, between rural and urban areas, and between small and larger urban centres.

Ghana's integration into the West African economy: The West African economy
has not been integrated to the extent intended by ECOWAS. As a result, inter-
regional trade remains at low levels and its economic performance reduced. Lack of
integration may be attributed to short-sighted policies; national differences in
language, currency, and culture; and lack of physical connectivity. Yet, ECOWAS
regional integration would benefit Ghana: its cities would benefit from direct
competition and cooperation with other ECOWAS cities; its ports would become
gateways to a larger West African market; and its trade with neighbouring countries
would increase. Opportunities to improve integration include new and improved
road, rail and air links.

Urbanisation drives economic growth: Urbanization drives Ghana's economic

development and deserves to be promoted and supported. Regions with higher
urbanisation levels have higher GDPs per worker, greater shares of private formal
sector jobs, and higher shares of manufacturing. For example, Greater Accra and
Ashanti regions, both highly urbanised, together account for about 42 percent of the
GDP. Greater Accra and Ashanti have a high share of service sector jobs while
industrial jobs are concentrated in Greater Accra. Greater Accra, with the nation's
capital and only international airport, has 50 percent of the country's banks, 41
percent of its tertiary education facilities, 28 percent of its telecoms towers, and 72
percent of business listings 1. It also has the most developed infrastructure and a
high-degree of economic agglomeration and access to large product, service and
labour markets.

Urbanisation is linked to poverty reduction: In 2013, poverty rates were almost

four times lower in urban areas (10%) than in rural areas (38%). However, it matters
in which regions the urban and rural areas are. For example, the poverty rate of
urban areas in GAMA was only about 4 percent, those in the coastal and forest
zones 10 percent, and those in the northern savannah 26 percent. Similarly, rural
poverty rates in the coastal and forested zones, which are closer to large urban
areas, were similar (29%), but in the savannah, the least urbanised regions, it was
almost double this rate at (55%).

1 Business listings are those found in the Surf Yellow Pages Directory of Ghana, 2013
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Economic inequality is growing between regions and between localities:

Partly due to urbanisation, the income inequality in Ghana is increasing. Between
1992 and 2006, the incomes of wealthy (top 10 percent) increased while the
incomes of the poorest 10 percent decreased. Between 1990 and 2005, the Gini
(inequality) index rose from 36 to almost 43, making Ghana the fourth most unequal
country in ECOWAS. Between 1992 and 2006, the overall poverty rate declined, but
more so in the south (48% to 20%) than in the north (69% to 63%). Moreover,
poverty was more severe in the north and its population, mostly rainfall-dependent
farmers, were more vulnerable to external shocks such as droughts and floods. The
north remains economically isolated despite the improved north-south road, in part
due to lack of non-farm job opportunities.

Economic activities are dispersing nationally and at metropolitan scale:

Despite Greater Accra's economic primacy (followed by Ashanti), economic activity
is dispersing from its metropolitan core to its fringes. Between 2000 and 2010, its
manufacturing jobs grew by just 1.3 percent annually while those of its neighbours,
Volta, Central and Eastern Regions, grew by 5.6, 3.8 and 3.1 percent respectively.
Within Accra, manufacturing jobs declined by 0.6 percent in the city centre but grew
by 3 to 4 percent in its suburbs 2. The service sector is also dispersing, but to a
lesser extent, to Volta, Eastern, Central, Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions but not to
the three northern regions.

Figure 1.1 Percent job growth by sub-sector and region, 2000-2010

Brong Ahafo

Upper West
Upper East
Northern
Western

G.Accra
Eastern

Ashanti
Central
Volta

prof. technical & scientific 32 35.3 23.9 23.6 29.7 26.3 27.6 25.8 26.1 27
arts, entertainment, recrea 22.6 18.2 19.9 15.3 17.3 15.7 16.1 11.1 13.2 8.7
accommodation & food 12.5 10.9 14.3 12.5 10.9 10.3 10.8 10.1 10.5 10.8
wholesale, retail 3.6 4.3 6.8 6.6 5.1 5.3 3.4 5.4 0.8 3.9
transportation & storage 5.8 4.7 6.1 5.3 4.5 4.1 2.8 3.5 1.7 0.6
finance and insurance 5.1 5.1 5.6 7.1 4.3 3.8 5 -0.1 0.2 -5.1
manufacturing 5.6 3.1 3.8 2.4 1.7 0.4 1.3 2.1 -1.3 1.6
construction 3.3 3.7 4.7 3.1 1.8 2.7 1.5 0 -1.7 -3.4

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on World Bank (2014) Ghana Urbanization Review

Investment and economic activities favour larger urban settlements: Most

cities have so far not been able to attract significant investment. Foreign direct
investment (FDI) has largely been channelled to Accra - with 84 percent of FDI
projects3 - and secondarily to Kumasi, and more recently to STMA's oil and gas
sector. Attracting new investment to other cities and towns, especially in more rural
regions, remains challenging.

Urban settlement economies vary in part by population size: The larger the
settlement, the more diverse is its economy and the greater the share of high value-
added jobs. For example, cities between 250,000 - 500,000 inhabitants, followed by
those over 500,000, have more real estate jobs. The three highest size-classes have
more ICT activities and arts and entertainment. Nevertheless, many smaller
settlements have some economic specialisation. For example, about 50 small

2 World Bank (2014) Ghana Urbanization Review

3 Between 2002 and 2012.
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settlements are specialised in mining and quarrying, eleven in manufacturing, 18 in

transportation and storage, and 27 in health and social work services.

1.3 Population distribution and growth

Population is presently concentrated in coastal regions and Greater Accra and
Ashanti: The three northern regions—Northern, Upper West and Upper East—have
41 percent of the land area but only 17 percent of the population. The three mid-belt
regions—Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Eastern—have 35 percent of the land area and
39 percent of the population. The four coastal regions—Western, Central, Greater
Accra and Volta—with 24 percent of the land area, have 44 percent of the
population. Two regions, Greater Accra and Ashanti, with only 1 and 10 percent of
the land area, account for 16 and 19 percent of the population.

Rapid natural population growth with large inter-regional differences: NPC

projects that Ghana's population may grow, naturally, by 17 million, from 25 million
in 2010 to about 42 million by 2035— with large inter-regional differences4. Natural
growth rates in Northern, Central and Upper West regions—3.9, 3 and 2.4 percent
per year—may be about twice those of Eastern, Volta and Greater Accra, which may
be as low as 1.6, 1.3 and 1.1 percent. The fast growing regions will account for a
larger share of the population increase than the slow-growing5. However, despite
this projection, a significant, targeted investment in family planning programmes and
social and economic development could lower these natural growth rates.

Significant migration flows with large inter-regional differences: Inter- and

intra-regional migration have had a major role in distributing population—and this is
likely to continue. For example, about 35 percent of the national population has
migrated: 18 percent between and 15 percent within regions. Regions with large
shares of lifetime migrants—Accra (51%), Ashanti (41%) and Western (36%)—have
more attractive qualities, like good jobs and better educational opportunities, than
those with low shares—Upper West (16%), Northern (13%) and Upper East (11%) 6.
Similarly, regions with high shares of intra-regional migrants—Ashanti (23%),
Eastern (18%) and Volta (18%)—would have localities with more attractive qualities
than others in the region, while those with low shares—Upper East, Northern and
Upper West—would have fewer of such localities.

The most and least attractive regions to interregional migrants: A region's

attractiveness, measured by the distance over which people have migrated and its
popularity as a destination, is likely to influence future migration flows. Greater Accra
was the most widely preferred destination between 2000 and 2010: the first choice
of migrants from adjacent regions—Eastern, Volta, and Central—as well as Ashanti,
and the second of Northern and Brong Ahafo migrants. Ashanti, the next most
popular, was the first choice of migrants from Northern, Brong Ahafo, and Upper
East and the second of Western and Central migrants. Central, the third most
popular, was the first choice of migrants from Greater Accra, the second of Eastern
and Ashanti migrants, and the third of Western region migrants, some perhaps
moving to Central but working in Western. Brong Ahafo was the preferred
destination of Upper West migrants and the third choice of Northern and Upper East
region migrants. Although few migrated from Greater Accra, those that did preferred

4 Based on NPC's high natural growth rate variant.

5 For example, the natural population increase in Greater Accra, despite having 16 percent of the present
estimated 2014 population, will account for only 6 percent of the national population increase. In contrast, the
natural increase in Northern Region, with about 11 percent of the present population, will account for over 23
percent of the national population increase.
6 GSS Population Census, 2010

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Central, Eastern and Ashanti regions, again perhaps still working in Greater Accra 7.
The three northern regions did not attract significant numbers of migrants.

Figure 1.2 Estimated inter-regional migration, 2000-2010

Upper West U West

Upper East U East

Northern Northern

B Ahafo B Ahafo
place of enumeration

Ashanti Ashanti

Eastern Eastern

Volta Volta

G Accra G Accra

Central Central

Western Western

Western Central G Accra Volta Eastern Ashanti B Ahafo Northern U East U West
place of birth

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on GSS 2010 Population and Housing Census

Inter-regional differences in population growth: Regional population growth—the

result of natural growth and inter-regional migration—may be characterised as
'strong’, ‘moderate’ or ‘weak’. Over a span of four decades, Greater Accra and
Ashanti have had strong growth, Upper East and Upper West have experienced
slow growth, and the remaining regions have grown moderately. While the objective
of 'balanced growth' may be desirable, it will be a challenge to achieve this balance
given these long-term trends.

■ Strong regions: Greater Accra and Ashanti's populations have increased eight-
fold and four-fold since 1960 and now account for over 16 and 19 percent of the
total population. They have high urbanisation levels (90% and 60%), high urban
population shares (29% and 23%), but different rural population shares (3% and
15%). Greater Accra' population density and urban population density are about
six times that of Ashanti's, and it has the second highest rural population density
after Central Region.
■ Moderate regions: By 2010, the populations of Eastern, Northern, Western,
Brong Ahafo, Central, and Volta regions had each converged to between 8 and
10 percent of the total population, as did their urban shares to between 6 to 9
percent. However, their rural populations varied; having grown rapidly in Volta
region (2.8%) annually and Northern region (2.6%) but slowly in Central (1.6%),
Brong Ahafo (1.2%) and Western (1.1%) regions. An important milestone is the
loss of rural population in Eastern region in the last census period, the first
instance of such a decline in Ghana since Greater Accra in the 1960s.
■
Weak regions: Upper East and Upper West regions, the slowest growing since
1960, now have only about 5 and 3 percent of the national population, 2 and 1
percent of the national urban population, and less than 7 and 5 percent of the

7As suggested by members of the Regional Coordination Committees

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national rural population. Urbanisation levels in Upper East (21%) and Upper
West (16%) are the lowest in the county. Upper West has the second lowest
population density (38 p/km2) after Northern region while Upper East density is
just above average at 118 p/km2.

Populations' projections show increasing concentration in Greater Accra and

Ashanti, followed by Northern and Central regions: Based on long-term trends in
regional natural growth and inter-regional migration, four regions may grow at above
average rates and increase their population shares by 2035—Greater Accra,
Ashanti, Northern and Central. All other regions will grow slower than average and
reduce their share.

■ Greater Accra and Ashanti may each grow by about 4 million people and reach
about 8 m and 8.8 m, doubling their 2010 populations and increasing their
population shares: Greater Accra's from 16 to 19 percent, Ashanti's from 19 to
21 percent. Net in-migration may be an important factor, accounting for 68
percent of Great Accra's growth (2.7 m) and 23 percent of Ashanti's (1 m). These
two regions will be challenged to house and provide services to the additional
population while at the same time addressing housing and service shortfalls
among their present populations.
■ Northern and Central regions may see slight increases in their population shares.
Their high natural growth may be countered by high net out-migration: 2.1 m
people may leave Northern and 0.8 m may leave Central, resulting in net
increases of 1.9 m and 1.6 m people. Still, this may leave them with 2035
populations of 4.4 m and 3.8 m respectively. These two regions would need to
house and service the increased population, address housing and service
shortfalls, reduce high natural growth rates, and retain a higher share of their
migrant-prone population.
■ The remaining six regions may grow at below the national rate and loose
population share. Still, their 2035 populations may be between 13 and 16
percent more than their 2010 populations. Western, Brong Ahafo, Eastern and
Volta may increase by between 1.5 m and 1 m people; Upper East and Upper
West by less than 352,000 each.

Figure 1.3 Projected population and population increase 2010-2035

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on GKUDP 2013

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1.4 Urban settlement distribution and growth

The size and distribution of existing urban settlements will influence the future
pattern: The existing urban settlement structure is likely to influence, to a large
extent, the future urban population distribution. Ghana has 388 urban settlements of
widely varying populations (Figure 1.4) 8 and population growth rates. There are four
large cities—Accra 3.85m, Kumasi 2.2m, STMA 588k and Tamale 275k— five with
between 100k and 150k (Sunyani, Koforidua, Ho, Cape Coast and Obuasi); 11
between 50k and 100k; 45 at 20k-50k; 103 at 10k-20k, and 220 at 5k-10k. Several
patterns are observed:

■ Urban settlements cluster in the south: These include all class-1's, class-2's
and class-3's, seven of the eleven class-5's, and about three-quarters of the
class-6's. The only large class-3 city in the North is Tamale.
■ The three largest cities form a triangle and are only 200km apart: Accra,
Kumasi, and STMA are each paired with secondary city only about 60km from
their centres: Accra has Kofuridua, Kumasi has Obuasi, and STMA has Cape
Coast. The other two class-3 cities are slightly more distant: Sunyani at 100km
from Kumasi and Ho about 130km from Accra.
■ Settlements cluster in the triangle, at the coast, around regional capitals:
More settlements are clustered around Accra than around Kumasi and STMA.
■ Areas with a sparse settlement pattern include the north between Tamale and
Kumasi and Tamale and Wa, presenting a challenge for cooperation and
achieving synergies.

Past trends may suggest future settlement growth: The historical growth of an
urban settlement does not determine its future growth, but it does give an idea of a
likely path. Between 2000 and 2010, urban settlement grew at widely varying rates,
from an exploding 14 percent to a decline of 6 percent per year. Figure 1.4 reveals
several patterns in the distribution of settlements by growth rate class:

■ Growth rates are diverse in all regions: all but Upper West have a settlement in
each growth rate class;
■ All regions but Upper West have at least one settlement that has lost population
and one new settlement;
■ Rapidly growing settlements (> 4.2%) are found in every region, but mainly in the
triangle area, in Western and Volta regions;
■ Rapidly growing settlements as a share of the total is higher in the south; the
north has only 10 of such settlements; and they are prevalent at international
borders;
■ No rapidly growing settlements are close to Kumasi, as if it is a black hole,
sucking in population;
■ Some 30 settlements have lost population; these are all in the south, mostly in
Brong Ahafo, Ashanti and Western regions and along the coast.

8GSS records over 800 urban localities. NSDF considers that urban localities that are part of the same
contiguous built-up area are in the same urban settlement. After aggregating such localities, the number of urban
settlements is found to be 388.
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Figure 1.4 Urban Settlements and Population Growth

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While settlement size classes grow at different rates, this seems not to be
related to their size9: The smallest towns (5k-10k) grew the fastest, followed by
STMA (500k-1m), then 50-100k at 4.25 percent. The growth rates of all the other
size classes grew at between 3.08 and 3.42 percent. Of the four largest settlements,
Kumasi and STMA grew at above the average urban rate while Accra and Tamale
grew at above the average rate. Regional capitals such as Cape Coast and Ho grew
at above average urban rates; Sunyani, Koforidua, and Bolgatanga at above
average rates, and Wa grew at below the average rural rate. Despite Accra and
Sunyani have relatively slow growth compared to Kumasi, they were surrounded by
rapidly growing settlements.

Table 1.1 Urban settlement growth by size class

size class 2000 2010 change
population count sum share count sum share 2000-2010g-
share
1 > 1 million 2 4,106,641 49 2 6,058,071 49 rate
0 3.96
2 500k - 1m 1 373,916 4 1 588,987 5 0 4.65
3 250k - 1 202,317 2 1 274,022 2 0 3.08
4 500k-
100k 5 450,915 5 5 634,643 5 0 3.48
5 50k - 250k
100k 11 495,818 6 11 751,471 6 0 4.25
6 20k - 50k 45 957,837 11 45 1,308,962 11 -1 3.17
7 10k - 20k 96 975,112 12 103 1,365,014 11 -1 3.42
8 5k-10k 157 894,811 11 220 1,484,913 12 1 5.20
5k - total
10k 318 8,457,367 100 388 12,466,083 100 0 3.96

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on GSS

The settlement structure is not likely to change significantly during the

framework period: The two largest cities and their city regions, Accra and Kumasi,
will and should continue to maintain their pre-eminent positions. The next tier of
cities, STMA and Tamale, are likely to take on an increasing role within their regions.
Nevertheless, new functions and networks may have an impact on the development
of individual cities and regions, especially if urban settlements cooperate in pooling
their resources, for example by developing complementary functions or sharing
facilities and services. Such cooperation could be advantageous for regional
development because it improves the range of available services, the economic
conditions, and competitiveness.

9 Map 1 on figure 1.4 provides insight into the spatial distribution of urban settlements by their population size and
their annual growth rates between 2000 and 2010. The eight settlement sizes are distinguished by the diameter of
the bubble. The population growth rates are indicated by bubble's colour: red indicates a settlement population
growing above the average national urban growth rate of 4.2 percent. Orange indicates a growth rate of above
average national growth rate of 2.7 but below the national urban growth rate. Yellow indicates a growth rate of
above average rural national growth rate of 1.3 but below the national growth rate. Green indicates a growth rate
between zero and the average rural national growth rate. Blue indicates a negative growth rate, and black
indicates a newly formed settlement between 2000 and 2010.
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Figure 1.5 Urban and rural Settlements, built-up area and transport networks
Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

1.5 Rural population distribution and rural economy

Rural populations are largely clustered around urban settlements: The rural
population may be broadly divided into (i) villages that are clustered around or near
to urban settlements and (ii) villages that are more distant from urban areas and
generally not clustered. Spatial development policies will need to take this distinction
into account. Most of the rural population is clustered. Dense, rural clusters in the
north comprise those around Wa and Tamale and a group of three clusters around
Bolgatanga, Bawku and Bungpurugu, while a lower density cluster is evident around
Yendi stretching southward to Lake Volta. Dense rural clusters in the south are
evident in the triangle area, especially around Kumasi and Accra and stretching
along the coast to STMA, in Volta Region around Ho and Aflao, and around
Sunyani.

Rural economies are influenced by nearby urban settlements: Most (70%) of

the rural population depends on the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector. Of the
remainder, the wholesale and retail (8%) and manufacturing (7%) sectors account
for the largest shares. However, this non-primary share varies by distance to urban
economies. For example, in districts around Kumasi and along the coast, less than
50 percent of the rural labour force have agricultural jobs. In districts around Accra,
Kumasi and STMA, 20-34 percent of rural workers are in wholesale and retail jobs.
While economic diversification of the rural economy is a positive trend, there are
questions as to the extent that urbanisation may be crowding out agriculture.

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Figure 1.6 Rural Settlements and Population distribution

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1.6 Increasing food production

Food production is practiced primarily on small-scale, family-operated farms that are
plagued by poor infrastructure, low technology, and lack of access to finance— all
resulting in low productivity. There are two main ways to increase agricultural
production: extensification and intensification. Extensification is the increase of the
cultivated land; intensification results in increasing the yield per area.

High potential for extensification: About 65 percent of Ghana's land areas is said
to have agricultural potential, but only 10 percent is presently under permanent
crops, 27 percent is arable, and 56 percent is permanent meadows. Ghana's huge
area of grassland, 34 percent of the land area, can potentially be put to agricultural
use.

Three regions—Northern, Upper East and Brong Ahafo—account for 72 percent of

national grassland cover while the Northern region alone has a third (31%). Upper
East, Upper West, Northern, and Greater Accra have more than 50 percent
grassland; Volta, Brong Ahafo and Eastern regions between 26 and 33 percent; and
Ashanti (13%), Central (11%) and Western (4%) have the low grassland cover.
Satellite imagery shows that cropland is highly fragmented into small units; where
these units are separated by grassland, there may be potential to convert the units
into cropland to create larger and more productive farms.

Regional differences in cropland per person: In order to achieve food security

and produce a diverse and nutritious diet of plant and animal products like that
consumed in developed countries, some experts call for a minimum of 0.5 hectares
of cropland per person (ha/p). In 2010, Ghana had only 0.2 ha/p. While crop land
has increased between 2000 and 2010—about 2.9 percent per year during which
the population grew at 2.7 percent per year—the net increase in the ratio of 0.2
percent may not be sufficient to achieve and ensure food security.

Despite the positive national trend, still 9 districts in 5 regions recorded long-term
cropland loss over two decades 10 and 13 more in the most recent decade 11. Some
regions may be said to be more food-secure than others. In 2010, cropland-per-
capita in Northern and Upper West regions was about three times the national
average, while Greater Accra, Central, Ashanti and Eastern had below average
ratios. Between 2000 and 2010, three regions saw an annual decline in this ratio,
especially Volta (by -6%) but also Greater Accra (-2.4%) and Eastern (-1.4%), while
Western (+10%) and Ashanti (+3.5%) saw significant increases. The rate-of-change
of per-capita cropland ratio matters because it is an indicator of the trend in a
region’s food security as well as prospects for selling agricultural products to other
regions.

High potential for intensification: In general, agricultural yields in Ghana are

below world standards. The average yield from the eleven major food crops is about
7.5 mt/ha. Average yields for individual crops vary from just 1 mt/ha for millet to over
16 mt/ha for cassava. Yam and plantain had yields above the national average while
yields for six crops—millet, sorghum, cowpea, groundnut, soybean, and, most
importantly, maize—were less than 2 mt/ha. According to MOFA, current yields for
cassava, yam, and plantain are about 16, 14 and 11 MT, respectively, and can be

10 Nine districts with cropland loss were in Greater Accra (4), Brong Ahafo (2), Volta (1), Upper East (1) and Upper
West (1).
11 The 22 districts loosing crop land between 2000 and 2010 were Cape Coast (7), Northern (4), Ashanti (4),

Western (3), Upper West (3) and Upper East (1)

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expected to increase significantly (to about 45, 36 and 36 MT/ha, respectively) if the
recommended MOFA policies are put in operation.

Figure 1.7 Change in population and crop cover 2000-2010

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on Forestry Commission satellite Imagery.

Irrigation can increase yields: Presently, only one percent of arable land is under
irrigation. Eight regions have irrigated areas, but only four account for 93 percent of
the 8,600 irrigated hectares: Greater Accra (38%), Upper East (39%), Volta (11%)
and Northern (6%). GIDA has identified areas with irrigation potential in all eight
regions that would almost triple irrigated land, with most of the potential in the same
four regions. While Greater Accra has the most irrigated land, it may be argued that
the investment may not be justified (it has relatively high rainfall and limited land
areas). Alternatively, it may be argued that the large urban market justifies this
investment.

Warehouses can stimulate farmers to increase production: They are used to

preserve seeds and reduce post-harvest losses. However, only five regions have
warehouses: Upper West, Upper East, Northern, Brong Ahafo and Ashanti—and,
according to the USAID, many of these warehouses are in poor condition with no
roofing and poor construction. Recognizing this deficiency, international donors and
private sector firms have started to promote and provide warehouses, particularly in
the northern regions, by assisting farmers with building materials and technical
support.

Markets exist but are not optimally located: Many or most market facilities are old
and unhygienic and lack suitable commodity-specific storage facilities. Many are
over-crowded, with demand for space exceeding supply.

Fishery-related infrastructure is lacking: This includes landings, storage and

processing facilities, and aquaculture cages. There are over 300 landing sites, but
many are unsuitably located and others are lacking in fishing intensive areas.
Aquaculture production facilities and equipment, such as hatcheries, ponds and
cages, are inadequate, particularly along the Volta Lake. The lack of proper storage
facilities has resulted in spoilage losses.

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1.7 Transportation and Telecommunications

1.7.1 Meeting the increasing demand for mobility

Rapid population and economic growth will greatly increase the demand for freight
and passenger services on roads, railroads and by air. Higher incomes will likely
lead to higher car ownership and use as well as higher affordability of other transport
modes. The demand will be highest in and between the largest urban areas as well
as between Ghana and her neighbouring countries. Passenger traffic on the trunk
roads is expected to grow faster (2.4% per annum) than the population, and air and
rail travel is expected to increase even faster than road transport 12. However, it is
unlikely that new infrastructure alone will be able to meet the demand for mobility;
other measures will be needed including getting more out of the existing
infrastructure, through better maintenance and demand management, and smart
urban growth policies and reforms.

ECOWAS was established in part to pursue a policy of regional integration and

economic cooperation. However, the physical infrastructure to support this policy
remains largely underdeveloped. There are missing road links and opportunities to
improve connectivity through better air links, improved trunk roads and new
expressways and a new railway network.

1.7.2 Trunk road challenges

A largely adequate trunk road network, but with deficiencies: The existing trunk
road system connects all regions and all urban settlements. However, its
deficiencies include poor maintenance, unimproved surfaces, missing domestic and
international links, and growing congestion and slow travel speeds, especially
around Accra and Kumasi and along the coast, but it this also prevalent in other
urban centres. In general, the trunk road system was not designed for modern, high-
speed, dual-carriage way and expressway travel. For example, in places, roads are
too narrow, turn radius too tight, section banking is insufficient, roads pass through
urban centres, and ribbon development along roads slows down traffic and is
unsafe. There are remedies for some deficiencies—for example, narrow roads can
be widened—but ribbon development would render widening costly and disruptive.

Areas with weak trunk road connectivity: Ghana government aims to improve
connections between regions and between cities in order to achieve a more
integrated economy and improve competitiveness. However, there are several
places where connectivity is weak. These include: (i) direct links in the northern
regions between Tamale and Wa, between Wa and Bolgatanga, and between
Bimbila and Tamale; (ii) no direct links from settlements in the centre of Western
region to STMA; (iii) no direct links in Volta Region between Ho and the border
crossing at Akano; and (iv) Lake Volta acts as a barrier for east-west travel between
Volta Region and points west.

Trunk road surfaces need upgrading, with regional differences: Ghana

Highways Authority plans to upgrade the trunk network, but this remains a significant
challenge. Only about 36 percent of the trunk road network is paved—10 percent in
asphalt or concrete and 26 percent surface-treated—and the rest is gravel. The
more urbanised regions—Greater Accra, followed by Ashanti and Central—have the

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highest quality road surfaces while the three northern regions have the lowest.
Surface quality is linked to road type: national roads are better than inter-regional,
and inter-regional are better than regional roads. Major cities and the principal
international border crossings generally have better quality roads.

Trunk road maintenance is inadequate, with regional differences: Routine road

maintenance has been and remains a serious challenge. Poor surface conditions
prolong travel times, increase transport costs and reduce connectivity. They also
increase road accidents, increase vehicle repair costs and reduce vehicle lifespan.
Moreover, deferred maintenance results in costly renewal works. While road surface
conditions have improved overall, some regions have better roads than others 13. For
example, Eastern, Central and Greater Accra have above average shares (16%) of
poor roads; Volta, Central, Eastern and Western have below average shares (49 %)
of good roads. Areas with poor surface conditions include Western Region (where
cocoa and mineral ore transport is needed), the 'triangle' area (where agricultural
products might be transported to the important urban markets), and around Lake
Volta.

Old and largely defunct rail network but plans for major upgrading and
extension country-wide: In contrast to the road network, railroad infrastructure
remains undeveloped. The existing rail network is largely inoperative except for a
mining segment in Western region and the line between Accra and Tema, which is
overcrowded. Built in the colonial era, its curves and gauge cannot accommodate
today's faster trains that would require significant new segments. NIP and the Ghana
Railway Master Plan have different proposals for a country-wide rail network, and
ECOWAS has plans to expand the rail network in the region, with which an
expanded network in Ghana could link. With new investment in connective
infrastructure comes an important opportunity to coordinate and integrate the
planning of roads, rails, and airports with each other and with urban development in
an integrated transport plan.

1.7.3 Aviation challenges and opportunities

International air links are relatively strong but could be strengthened: KIA is
served by 30 international passenger airlines and 7 cargo carriers, and it is ranked
third in West Africa after Lagos and Abuja airports in terms of passenger traffic.
However, only 7 of the 15 ECOWAS countries and 7 of the other 37 African nations
have air links with Ghana. Further, Ghana captures only about 10 percent of West
Africa's aviation market, second to Nigeria, which captures 57 percent. Furthermore,
other airports in the sub-region are also competing to be the premier aviation hub
status, including Ghana.

Inter-regional disparities in access to international airport: Ghana's one

international airport, located in Accra, is convenient for travellers who reside in the
Greater Accra region but less so for those from other regions, particularly those from
the North. Airport Investments are planned for KIA upgrading and upgrading
Tamale's to international status, while a proposal for a new airport at Prampram has
been deferred. Other regions are lobbying for international airports, including
Kumasi (in the GKUDP) and STMA (particularly for oil sector expats). While
international airports are sort-after development projects, they are costly to construct
and operate. Moreover, there is challenge to attract international carriers to multiple
airports.

13For example, good, fair and poor roads in 2012 accounted for 49, 25 and 16 percent of the total compared to
2008 when these figures were 38, 30 and 32 percent.

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Regional disparities in domestic airports: There are no direct domestic flights

between the five regional airports as all are routed through Accra. Regions whose
capitals lack a domestic airport include Upper East, Volta, and Eastern.

1.7.4 Feeder and urban road challenges and opportunities

Feeder road network challenges, with regional differences: Feeder roads are
essential for good urban-rural links, particularly for transporting agricultural produce
to and inputs from urban markets. Poor rural-urban links delay, constrain and
prevent delivery of agriculture inputs and extension services, lower agricultural
productivity, increase post-harvest losses, and result in higher food prices. Ghana's
18,000 km feeder road network has not been extended since 2007. While feeder
roads are largely located in areas with higher rural populations, there are populated
areas that seem to be under-served, in the meantime there are areas served that
have low populations. Feeder road quality varies: only 5 percent are asphalted, 64
percent are gravelled and the remaining 31 percent are of earth, often impassable
during the rainy seasons. Moreover, stakeholders at NSDF workshops have
reported that feeder road surfaces have recently declined. Brong Ahafo and Greater
Accra are said to have the worst feeder roads, with Brong Ahafo, it is a matter of
national concern given that the region is the bread basket of Ghana.

Urban road network challenges: Only 15 urban settlements have officially-

designated urban roads: the ten regional capitals plus Ga, Tema, Techiman, Obuasi
and Bawku. Urban road systems are challenged by more intense road use and
urban expansion and sprawl. More than 70 percent of arterial roads in the major
cities are congested—and congestion will likely increase as private vehicle use
increases five-fold while urban population doubles by 2035 14.

1.8 Managing national and regional land cover

Satellite imagery of Ghana's land cover from 1990, 2000 and 2010 has enabled the
analysis of land cover profiles and land cover change at the national, regional,
district and urban settlement levels. Land cover refers to the physical and biological
cover over the surface of land, including forests, grasslands, crop lands, wetlands
and (built-up) human settlements. Its present status (2010) reflects historical human-
environment interaction over long and short periods. The existing land cover
provides the environment in which future development will take place. Also the pace,
place and extent of development—including urban, agricultural and forestry
development— has a major impact on the land cover. Managing these changes is
critical to sustainable development. These directions and magnitudes of land cover
changes indicate, although do not predict, the likely future land cover.

Ghana's land cover profile has been changing rapidly: Forest, grassland, and
crop cover account for 38, 34 and 21 percent while wetlands and built-up
settlements cover less than 4 and 2 percent of the total territory. During the last two
decades, grasslands have decreased while the other types have increased.
Grasslands fell by about 34,000 km2, or 32 percent; forests gained 6,000 km2 or 6
percent, crop cover gained 22,000 km2 or 66 percent; settlements gained 2,400 km2
or about 170 percent; and wetlands gained 2,000 km2 or 13 percent. The loss of
grassland nationally and the gains in forests, cropland and wetlands may be
regarded as positive changes at the national level, although these changes must be
examined at the regional, district and local levels.

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Figure 1.8 Change in land cover

Source: NSDF Study based on Forest Commission Satellite Imagery

Regional differences in net land cover change: There are significant differences
in the long- and short-term direction of net land cover change among regions.
Forests declined over two decades in the four most-forested regions—West,
Eastern, Central and Ashanti. In the last decade, forest losses may be considered
critical in Upper West (21%) and Western (15 %) regions and serious (<10%) in
Ashanti and Central. Volta's grassland gain and cropland loss of 30 percent in the
last decade is also critical. Greater Accra, Central and Western regions suffered
wetlands loss of 22, 40 and 36 percent. Finally, as expected, settlement cover
increased everywhere over both decades; and over 69 percent in four regions—
Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, Eastern, and Western—in the last two decades. Greater
Accra gained grassland over both periods and Volta in the more recent period.

Table 1.2 Directional change of land cover by region over two decades
Northern
Western

B Ahafo
G. Accra

Eastern

Ashanti

U West
Central

U East
Volta

grassland GG GL GL LL LL LG LL LL LL LL Note: gain in two periods

forests LG LL LL LL LL GG GG GG GG GL is marked “GG” and
cropland LG GG GG GG GG GL GG GG LG GG coloured red; loss in the
wetlands LL LL GL GG GG GG GG GG GG GG first and gain in second is
marked “LG” and
settlements GG GG GG GG GG GG GG GG GG GG
coloured pink; similar
coding applies to losses
Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on Forestry Commission satellite imagery
in both periods and gains
and losses

1.8.1 National land covers change dynamics

Between 1990 and 2010, 55 percent of cropland changed to another cover type of
which 34 percent was to grassland and 18 percent to forests. Cropland loss may be
attributed to several factors. These include land degradation, desertification and soil
erosion and to a lower extent settlements.

Change dynamics refers to the land cover change process and concerns the extent
to which each land cover type gains from or loses to all other types. Understanding

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these dynamics nationally and in regions is essential to improving the management

land cover types. At the national level, 34 percent of cropland changed to grassland
while 18 percent changed into forests. Only 3 percent of cropland was lost to
settlements and wetlands, proving that urban expansion is not a key cause of
cropland loss. Some 14 percent of forests were lost to cropland (perhaps a
preventable loss had farmers pursued other options for increasing production, such
as increasing crop yield or converting grass land). Another seven percent of forests
were lost to grassland, a result, perhaps, of degradation. Less than two percent of
forests were lost to settlements and wetlands, showing that urban expansion is the
main cause of forest loss.

Regional differences in land cover change dynamics: The change dynamics

within regions varies significantly from the national change dynamics.

■ Settlements: Settlement gain from cropland exceeded 25 percent in Volta

(38%), Upper East (32%), and Upper West (26%); settlement gain from forest
loss was high in Western (40%) and Eastern (35%); and settlement gain from
wetlands loss was appreciable but low in Central (5%). In Brong Ahafo, Greater
Accra and Ashanti, almost half or more of the settlement cover was gained from
grasslands, a positive finding.
■ Crop cover: Forest-to-cropland change is extremely high in Western (91%) and
Central Regions (84%), and moderately high in Eastern, Ashanti and Brong
Ahafo Regions. About 6 percent of Great Accra’s cropland was gained from
wetlands.
■ Forest cover: Crop-to-forest cover change is high in Volta (26%) and Greater
Accra (15%). The static component of forest cover is the highest in the regions
with the most forest cover, and lowest in the northern regions.
■ Wetlands cover: Wetlands-to-forest conversion is high in Central (24%) and
Western (38%) regions.

Continuing and widespread urban sprawl: The satellite images of built-up land
over two decades provide evidence of urban sprawl and fragmentation. Sprawl and
fragmentation are most evident around large cities, along trunk roads, and at the
coast, where, for example, built-up areas between Cape Coast and STMA are
starting to merge. Built-up areas and their increase are also seen at some distance
from trunk roads, an indication of the urbanisation of rural villages. Finally, built-up
areas are visible in areas that are designated as "protected" in structure plans,
suggesting possible lapses in development control.

Urban development density is declining: Satellite images provide evidence that

urban development densities have been declining at an average rate of about 1.2
percent per annum15. Density decreased in six regions, with the highest rates of
decline in Volta, Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Upper West and Greater Accra. The
persistent decline in development densities means that government authorities need
to plan and prepare more development land than they have in the past while at the
same time implementing containment strategies.

1.9 Making mining more viable and environmentally harmful

Mining potential is held back by lack of infrastructure: Ghana's mining industry
is important, contributing 5 percent to GDP and about 37 percent of total exports.
While Ghana has significant quantities of mineral resources—such as gold, bauxite,
manganese and diamonds, limestone, iron, silver, salt, barite, basalt, dolomite,

15Between 2000 and 2010, the annual growth rate of built-up cover (5.4%) was 1.2 percent faster than the urban
population growth rate (4.2%), an indication of the rate is that urban population densities are decreasing.
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feldspar, granite, gypsum, marble, mica, kaolin, laterite, magnetite, phosphate,

phosphorus, sandstone, slate and talc—these have not been fully exploited due in
part to the lack of appropriate infrastructure, particularly railwa ys, to transport
materials from areas with mineral deposits to the processing locations or for export
points. The Minerals Commission believes that investment in improved transport,
including rail and barges on Lake Volta, and the new electric power from Bui dam,
would improve the economic viability of a number of potential mines.

Unregulated mining is harming the environment: Mining cuts up the landscape

and uses poisonous chemicals and generates waste (or tailings) that pollute land
and water bodies. Illegal gold mining, known as galamsey, is reportedly wide spread
and particularly damaging to agricultural production. While galamsey activities have
not been systematically located and assessed, press reports identify at least two hot
regions, Tontokrom in Ashanti and Dunkwa in Central Regions. Because galamsey
miners can earn above average salaries, it is expected to continue unless strict
measures are put in place.

1.10 Exploiting and protecting natural and cultural heritage assets

Ghana's natural and cultural heritage presents opportunities and challenges. The
wide range of natural and cultural heritage assets provide tourism development and
marketing opportunities that could contribute to national and local economic
development. However, many sites are inadequately protected and are being
degraded by poor maintenance, encroachment, and incompatible development.
Many sites also suffer from poor accessibility. The main natural and cultural heritage
assets are the following.

Protected areas and forest reserves include 21 protected areas—7 national parks,
6 resource reserves, 2 wildlife sanctuaries, 1 strict nature reserve and 5 Ramsar
wetland sites— and over 200 protected forest reserves. National parks, which cover
4 percent of the land area, are found in only four regions: Western, Northern, Brong
Ahafo and Ashanti. Mole National Park accounts for almost half of the national park
land, followed by Digya (27%) and Bui (18%), while the combined areas of the
others are just seven percent. Mole and Kakum parks are UNESCO’s World
Heritage List nominees. Forest reserves cover about 11 percent of the national land
area.

Water-related natural assets include beaches, lakes, rivers and waterfalls, and the
Ramsar wetland sites, noted below.

■ Six Ramsar wetlands, listed as “wetlands of international importance” under the

International Convention on Wetlands, include the Anlo-Keta lagoon complex in
Volta Region, the Muni Lagoon in Central Region, the Owabi in Ashanti Region,
and, the Densu Delta, Sakumo and Songor lagoons in Greater Accra.
■ Beaches have great scenic and economic value, and Ghana, with over 500 km
of coastline, has some excellent pristine ones. The best are in Western region,
with notable beaches in Accra and Volta regions as well. Ghana's beaches could
attract far more foreign and domestic visitors, but coastal tourism is constrained
and threatened by beach and sea pollution, beach erosion (a result of sea level
rise and uncontrolled and illegal sand mining), and low grade and incompatible
development.
■ Lakes also have high economic and natural resource values. Ghana has three
large lakes: Lake Volta, Bui Lake and Bosomtwe, all under-exploited assets with
tourism potential. Lake Volta, the world’s fourth largest reservoir, may be
considered as a West African asset. Bui, the second largest reservoir in Ghana,
is easily accessible from western Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire. Bosomtwe lake, a

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meteorite crater 30 km south-east of Kumasi, is presently popular with domestic

tourists and has been nominated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve16.
■ Rivers; Ghana is drained by a large number of streams and rivers. The major
ones include the Afram, Oti, Pra, Tano, Ankobra, Birim River, Densu, many of
which are navigable and could be further developed as for transport and tourism.
■ Waterfalls are presently providing recreational opportunities for both domestic
and international visitors. Popular waterfalls include Kintampo, Wli/Agumatsa
and Boti, but there are many others with tourism development potential 17.

Mountains and hills have an important role as landmarks, recreational areas and
rainwater water catchments. However, with good views and cooler and breezier
climates, they are also attractive development sites. Nevertheless, many countries
restrict development on mountains and hills for aesthetic reasons, potential landslide
and erosion hazards, and high infrastructure costs. In Ghana, these land forms are
particularly important because they are rare: only two percent of the country is
above 400 metres in elevation. These are mostly found in Eastern, Ashanti, Volta,
Brong Ahafo and Western regions, with the largest contiguous are running along
Lake Volta from just north of Koforidua to the boarder of the Ashanti Region.

Built heritage represents and embodies important periods of history and contributes
to a sense of place and community identity. Ghana’s built heritage includes its forts
and castles, traditional architecture, historic urban cores, sites connected to the
slave trade, churches and mosques, museums and markets as well as towns, and
parts of towns and streetscapes.

Two sets of heritage properties on the UNESCO world heritage list are (i) Forts and
Castles, along the coast, and (ii) the Asante Traditional Buildings. Other assets on
the UNESCO’s tentative list are the Tenzug-Tallensi settlements, Navrongo Catholic
Cathedral, Nzulezu Stilt Settlement and the Trade Pilgrimage Routes of North-
Western Ghana. Other important sites include buildings in Northern region, the
Kassena houses in Upper East, and the Larbanga Mosque. Finally, the historic
cores of Accra, Elmina, Cape Coast, Kumasi and Sekondi present exciting tourism
development opportunities if their historic features were protected, new development
made compatible, and infrastructure and services upgraded.

Natural and cultural heritage sites are located in almost every region. Central region
has the historical castles and the Kakum Forest, which receives the largest number
of international visitors. Greater Accra region serves as the international gateway
and has tourist sites in Accra. Eastern region has the Aburi Botanical gardens (near
Accra), Boti Falls and the Bunso Arboretum. Western region has the Ankasa
Resource Reserve, the Nzulezu stilt settlement and long stretches of undeveloped
natural beaches. Volta region has the Amedzofe/Mountain Gemi natural landscapes,
Wli waterfalls, Kyabobo national park and the Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary.
Northern and Upper regions have the Mole National park, the Paga crocodile pond,
the Salaga market and the Tongo/Tenzung hills. Social Development challenges
and opportunities remain key to their conservation and their potential exploitation.

16Regional stakeholders are keen to develop Bosomtwe for tourism (NSDF regional workshop, 2013)
17These include Aflambo, Akaah, Amedzofe, Amenapa, Asenema, Atiwa, Begoro, Biakpa, Bibiri, Boti, Buka,
Bupru, Fuller, Sanders or Nkrumah, Nakpanduri, Oku Abena, Oworobong, Tagbo, Tin, Tsatsudo, Wsi and Wuli
waterfalls
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1.10.1 Education

Education empowers individuals to pursue their spiritual and economic well-being,

improve their health and engagement in society, resulting in a more productive,
innovative and competitive nation. After five decades of educational policies and
reforms in Ghana, more people are now attending school 18, including a higher share
of girls. However, reaching full enrolment remains a challenge, especially at
secondary and tertiary levels.

Regional disparities in education are glaring: About 45 percent of the population

in the three northern regions have never attended school compared to 30 percent in
the rest of Ghana. Greater Accra, Ashanti and Central regions have far higher post-
basic and tertiary levels than other regions. Within regions, the most urbanised
districts have the most educated populations. Primary school enrolment is higher in
the south than in the north, and higher in urban areas than in rural areas—except in
the metropolitan districts of Wa, Tamale and Bolgatanga where rates match these in
the South. Greater Accra and Ashanti have higher primary enrolment in their
suburban areas than in their centres. All regions have schools without adequate
facilities, including water and sanitation, but facilities are worse in much of the
Northern region and the northern part of Volta and Brong Ahafo. Again, the better
quality schools are clustered along the coast (except in Western region) and in the
more urbanized districts of Ashanti and Brong Ahafo.

Demand for higher education has increased dramatically with economic

development: The number of students now enrolled in tertiary institutions has
reached over 280,000, or 10 percent of the eligible population, along with the
numbers of institutions and breadth of curricula. Tertiary institutions now include
private institutes such as polytechnics, colleges of education, nursing training
colleges and other university colleges. Nevertheless, enrolment levels in Ghana
have grown at a lower rate than most middle income countries, including China,
Indonesia, India, and Malaysia where rates are above 25 percent. The southern part
of the country has more settlements with tertiary institutions, and more with multiple
numbers of institutions. Accra and Kumasi, for instance, have 47 and 13 institutions,
respectively, while the three northern regions together have less than twelve.

Tertiary institutions are clustered in Eastern, Greater Accra and the Ashanti:
While regions have their polytechnics, Greater Accra as eight specialized public
institutions. Private universities, which are drawn to areas with favourable economic
conditions, are concentrated in Eastern, Greater Accra and Ashanti regions and
absent in the three northern regions. Colleges of education are fairly well distributed
across the country but more in the south than north, with clusters of colleges in
Eastern, Ashanti and Western regions and none in Upper East and Upper West.
Nursing institutions are located in the coastal regions—Greater Accra, Central and
Western regions—and Eastern and Ashanti, and absent in the three northern
regions. Ashanti and Central regions have the largest share of TVET schools while
Greater Accra and the Upper East and Upper West have the least.

1.10.2 Health facilities

Inter-regional disparities in health services: The Ministry of Health (MoH) vision

for the health sector is, in part, to 'create wealth through health'. A major policy goal

18 educational attainment—attendance increased from 27 to over 76 percent of the population—and a decrease

in the gender gap, between 1960 and 2010

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is to “ensure a healthy and productive population that reproduces itself safely”.

Ghana has over 4,300 health care facilities that are unequally spread over ten
regions, districts and urban and rural areas. Most facilities are in Eastern Region
(16%) followed by Ashanti (14%) and Greater Accra (12%). The three northern
regions together have 19 percent. Despite MoH policy to locate a district hospital in
every district, they exist in only 114 out of 216 districts. While TCPD guidelines set a
maximum threshold of 200,000 people and a minimum threshold of 80,000 per
district hospital, some 6 percent of districts have more and 27 percent have less.
Districts that exceed the maximum threshold may need additional facilities and
districts below the minimum threshold in theory are over served.

Districts without hospitals: Of the 102 districts without a district hospital, some 51
percent do not meet the minimum population threshold, and therefore are not
entitled to one. Inasmuch as district hospitals are meant to serve as referral centres,
locational decisions should not only be based on population but also on distance to
the nearest neighbouring district with adequate facilities.

Need for more regional hospitals: All ten regions have regional hospitals. TCPD
guidelines set a maximum threshold of one million people and a minimum of
600,000 per hospital, but all regions, except Upper West, already have populations
that exceed the maximum. Thus to follow the guidelines, all regions would need at
least two regional hospitals, particularly Ashanti and Greater Accra, to serve their
populations.

Need for more teaching hospitals: Pop teaching hospitals are at the apex of the
health care system. They undertake research, provide teaching services and handle
the most complex cases. Based on TCPD planning guidelines, teaching hospitals
should serve a population of a one million. However, with only three teaching
hospitals in the country, they already serve on average about 8 million people each.
So while the National Infrastructure Plan proposes a new additional teaching
hospital in the Volta Region, it is likely that more will be needed within the 20 year
NSDF timeframe.

1.10.3 Increasing disparities and segregation among and within cities

There are growing differences in income and lifestyles, especially in the larger cities.
In Accra, for example, middle-class, self-contained, gated communities with high
service levels and amenities are mushrooming in clusters near and at the urban
periphery. In contrast, poorer families and immigrants are concentrated in the inner
cities, slums and informal settlements, mostly at or near the coast, and at some
distance from the gated communities. A study from Accra Metropolitan Assembly
found far lower income levels in slums compared to other areas of the city. These
areas are not only segregated from the better off neighbourhoods but are also
economically and, perhaps, educationally disadvantaged.

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Volume II

Chapter 2

Objectives and pillars of

spatial strategy

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2 Objectives and pillars of spatial strategy

2.1 What is national spatial planning?
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe defines spatial planning as
concerned with “the problem of coordination or integration of the spatial dimension
of sectoral policies through a territorially-based strategy. More complex than simple
land-use regulation, it addresses the tensions and contradictions among sectoral
policies, for example for conflicts between economic development, environmental
and social cohesion policies”19.

A spatial plan provides a roadmap for the future development of a limited

geographical area, usually either a nation or a region. In contrast to more detailed
land use planning, spatial planning is usually defined as a wider set of concepts and
instruments which gives geographical expression to a society’s social, economic and
other policies. It is important to note, though, that while spatial planning occurs at the
strategic level of overall guidance and effectively incorporates land use planning, it
blurs (or even loses) its meaning if it encompasses all development planning
methods and techniques. A hard and fast line is difficult to draw, as national policies
in many domains (social, economic, environmental, etc.) have real spatial
consequences or impacts, because they affect the spatial organisation of activities in
any national (and sub-national) territory.

Box 1 below provides the key principles for spatial planning. A detailed summary of
spatial and development planning in Ghana is provided in the introduction to Volume
One of the NSDF. Section 2.22 below outlines the contemporary approach to spatial
planning with examples from recent national spatial plans in other countries.

Box 1 Principles for spatial planning

■ Articulate a national development vision, overall concept and goals in spatial terms
■ Be evidence-based, on analysis of those key economic, social and urban and rural
human settlement development factors and dynamics which have, over time and
currently, influenced spatial development
■ Address identified spatial priorities, both opportunities and challenges, within shorter,
medium and longer-term perspectives
■ Be realistic and strategic (resources are usually constrained) and focus on achieving
particular defined outcomes, using specific spatial measures or instruments
■ Be implementable, through measures that are well-defined, fundable and amenable to
performance management (monitoring and evaluation).

2.2 Contemporary approach to spatial planning

Current spatial planning approaches draw inspiration from many sources. At both
national and sub-national levels in Africa and Asia, the 2009 World Development
Report (WDR), Reshaping Economic Geography 20, and subsequent conceptual and
practical refinements by the World Bank since then, have been particularly
influential. The WDR 2009 distinguishes between (1) serving people (in place – or
where they live), primarily through social, community and welfare policies and
programmes ranging from health and education through to pensions, and (2)
targeting specific places, primarily through investments in physical and social

19 UNCEC, 2008, Spatial planning: key instrument for development and effective governance
20 World Bank, 2009, World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography

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infrastructure and institutions. The main strategic concern is spatial integration:

policies, initiatives and investments to link and ease movement between leading
areas (which exhibit economic growth and dynamism) and lagging areas (which can
be growing slowly, or are in decline).

The focus of contemporary spatial planning is on integrating these leading

areas with the lagging areas across the national territory, rather than
dispersing economic activities from the former to the latter. Integration usually
necessitates an emphasis on infrastructure policies, programmes and investments
that are spatially connective, notably transportation systems like roads, railways,
airports and harbours and telecommunications. These systems facilitate linkages
across the national territory (e.g. urban-rural linkages), and the mobility of people,
goods and ideas, and access to markets and resources. They thus serve to spatially
and economically integrate the national territory. The same integration-through-
improving-connectivity perspective can be applied to large, spatially extending urban
areas. It is usually complemented by what could be thought of as spatial targeting –
specific measures and/or investments applied to both leading areas (to support
growth) or lagging areas (to improve the prospects of growth).

The integration imperative also characterises contemporary European spatial

planning, in which it is often referred to as linking “competitiveness” support to
“cohesion” support. Poland’s National Spatial Development Concept 2030 21, for
example, is formulated as a spatial framework for national development strategy and
sectoral policies. It sets forward a desired end state (or vision) for territorial
development and its management, which aligns with national development goals.
This end state is to be realised through an overall strategic goal: To effectively use
the country’s space and its territorially diversified development potentia ls to achieve
overall development objectives – competitiveness, increased employment, efficiency
of the state and long-term social, economic and territorial cohesion. Six specific
operational objectives are included which correspond to challenges identified
through an analysis of current conditions and dynamics. These are further related to
the identification and delimitation of a typology of functional areas. These objectives
are:

■ Improving the competitiveness of Polish major urban centres within the

European space, while at the same time retaining the polycentric settlement
structure which is beneficial for cohesion;
■ Improving national internal cohesion by promoting functional integration and
development diffusion as well as making use of the inner potential of all areas;
■ Improving national territorial accessibility on different levels by developing
transport and telecommunications infrastructure;
■ Shaping spatial structures that contribute to achieving and maintaining the high
quality of Poland’s natural environment and landscape;
■ Increasing Poland’s spatial structure resistance to energy and natural threats;
■ Restoring and consolidating the spatial planning system.

As can be seen from this short description, the NSDC emphasises the potential of
the different components (as functional areas) of the Polish national territory.
Nonetheless, crucially, this emphasis is driven by strategic objectives – which
are themselves derived from the need to address challenges that are identified
by analysis.

21

https://www.mir.gov.pl/english/Regional_Development/Spatial_Policy/NSDC_2030/Documents/KPZK_2030_ENG
_small.pdf
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These strategic and dynamic approaches differ from the more traditional,
comprehensive, (and static) national spatial planning approach. This tended to
describe or anatomise and map a territory (often in terms of its sectoral attributes
and/or functional or administrative areas). Then, on the basis of national policies, a
set of plans and measures to deal with each of the sectors (economy, education,
health, environment, etc.) was developed.

Contemporary approaches no longer aim at developing a spatial plan for the location
of all sectoral activities and facilities in either current or future space. The trajectory
of social and economic development is now understood to be too unpredictable for
that approach to work. Rather, the intention is to create a flexible framework that can
further developmental objectives by guiding and accommodating national spatial
development, and framing it at sub-national (regional, local) levels. The national
territory is thus shaped rather than controlled. Within this, spatial strategy and
its instruments have an impact, but they are not the only factors that have
influence.

It is important to stress that in addition to strategic objectives, whether general

(overall) or operational (specific), current approaches to spatial planning also te nd to
be oriented around overriding spatial concepts that articulate the overall imperative
to integrate (or join) the national territory. Plans from Europe tend to emphasise
polycentric development.

This can take one of two forms: A hierarchical polycentric system contains
several settlements that are integrated functionally, but organised in a hierarchical
place structure, with settlements of different sizes or grades fulfilling different
functions. A complementary polycentric system contains several settlements that
are organised such that no centre is dominant in terms of the level of activities and
services that it provides. However, settlements are specialised in their functions and
together they reach a critical mass that each would not be able to reach individually.

A complementary polycentric approach has been adopted in the Netherlands 22. The
spatial strategy identifies six national urban networks made up of urban settlements
of varying sizes and the rural areas between them. No hierarchical distinction is
made between the six networks. The settlements that comprise these urban
networks are to complement and reinforce each other’s strengths. Infrastructure
development and urbanisation will be concentrated within these networks.

National spatial plans in Denmark23, Ireland24 and Bulgaria25 have adopted a

hierarchical polycentric approach. The Danish plan emphasises the importance of
an internationally competitive capital city for the development of the whole country.
Two key metropolitan regions are identified: Greater Copenhagen and Easter
Jutland. The key cities in these regions will be linked to other settlements in urban
networks that will facilitate cooperation and strengthen the surrounding region.
Outside of the two metropolitan regions, development is to be concentrated in
transport corridors that connect the main cities.

22 Netherlands Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, 2006, National Spatial Strategy (Nota Ruimte) --
Creating Space for Development
23 Ministry of Environment Denmark, The 2006 National Planning Report

24 http://www.irishspatialstrategy.ie/pdfs/Guidea.pdf

25 http://www.bgregio.eu/media/Programirane/NKPR_28012013_Last_en.pdf

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The National Spatial Strategy for Ireland has a more clearly defined hierarchical
structure. The key role of Dublin as an international gateway and engine of growth is
acknowledged:

“The greater Dublin area has had a key role in Ireland’s growing prosperity. But
instead of trying to stop Dublin’s growth and risk damaging Ireland’s development as
a whole, we need to sustain Dublin’s role as an engine of the economy. At the same
time we must strengthen the drawing power of other areas to emulate the economic
role of Dublin and achieve a better spread of investment and work opportunities
across the country”.

In addition to Dublin, the plan identifies four existing national gate ways and four new
gateways. The existing gateways are to be continued to be supported in their role,
while “the new gateways will require a high standard of infrastructure and services to
fulfil their national level role”. Below the nine gateways are nine strategically located
regional hubs whose role is to “support and be supported by the gateways and link
out to wider rural areas”. At the county level, hubs and gateways are to be supported
by county towns. “The role of gateways acting at the national level, together with
hubs acting at the regional and county levels needs to be partnered by the county
towns and other larger towns as a focus for business, residential, service and
amenity function”. In the context of the Irish National Spatial Strategy, the term
‘gateway’ denotes a strategically located settlement that can act as a magnet for
investment, while a ‘hub’ provides a cluster of firms and public services linking the
‘gateway’ to the local area. In other words, larger and strategically located
settlements channel additional investment into a region leading to economic
development which is dispersed more evenly via the secondary hubs.

Bulgaria too has opted for an explicitly hierarchical polycentric system to integrate
the leading and lagging areas of the country. Strategic objective 2 of the National
Concept for Spatial Development states;

“Strengthening of a moderate polycentric network of core-centres with improved

quality of the urban environment, contributing to the achievement of balanced
territorial development and diminishing of the disparities between the central urban
areas and the peripheral rural area”.

Settlements have been ranked according to five hierarchic levels:

■ Sofia, the capital and largest city, is ranked as level 1 – a city of European
significance;
■ Level 2 contains the six next large cities that will function as regional centres;
■ Level 3 contains the remaining district capitals and other large towns, distributed
evenly across the national territory in order to balance the larger settlements and
diminish the effect of monocentric development.
■ Level 4 contains settlements of municipal importance. These cities play an
extremely important role in providing services and employment for the peripheral
rural and mountain areas.
■ Level 5 contains the remaining small towns and villages of Bulgaria.

Few Sub Saharan African countries have developed national spatial plans to date,
though two notable examples are South Africa and Ethiopia.

In summary, the three key points for consideration in the NSDF are:

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■ Contemporary spatial planning does not attempt to produce a comprehensive

(and static) plan for the location of all economic activity, infrastructure and
facilities in a territory. Rather, it is a dynamic and flexible framework to guide
development decisions;
■ The focus of contemporary spatial planning is on integrating leading and lagging
areas, rather than dispersing economic activities or population from the former to
the latter.
■ Contemporary spatial planning emphasises a polycentric system to integrate
leading and lagging areas. For Ghana, given the current differing state of
development and size of the urban economies/populations, a hierarchical
polycentric system is most appropriate.

2.3 The National Spatial Development Framework

According to the TCPD New Spatial Planning Model Guidelines, a spatial
development Framework is a spatial strategy for achieving defined social, economic
and environmental policies on the ground. It provides a picture of the likely and
preferred development pattern 20 years in the future. It may address the spatial
development implications of key sectors: economic development and employment,
population and urbanisation, housing and infrastructure services, education and
health care, tourism and leisure, transportation, communications, culture and nature
and the environment. An SDF provides a strategic vision – it is a framework not a
blue print. Accordingly, it allows for economic and spatial development to take place
without stifling or constraining regional, district and local initiatives, provided they are
in alignment with the framework. It provides perspectives and proposals for what
kinds of development should take place, how much of it should occur, where this
should happen, and how to make this happen.

Spatial development frameworks are not meant to be prepared once every 20 years.
Rather, they should be thought of as not just a document but also a cyclical,
systematic and dynamic process that needs to be institutionalised and continually
supported, maintained, monitored and upgraded by dedicated human resources.
The system must have vertical and horizontal links to all sectoral and local
government agencies that must be willing and able to share data and work together
for common objectives.

A National Spatial Development Framework is the highest level SDF. The Land Use
and Spatial Planning Act (once passed) requires that NSDF be initiated and drawn
up by the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority (LUSPA) as part of the Long-
Term National Development Plan in collaboration with the National Development
Planning Commission (NDPC) and approved by the NDPC, with the President as
the key signatory and the Office of the President the designated appeals body.
NSDFs are to identify key strategic issues related to the National Development Plan
(NDP).

The NSDF should be seen as:

■ Articulating a national development vision and goals in spatial development

terms;
■ Strategic in its intent of achieving particular defined outcomes, using specific and
defined spatial measures;
■ Based on evidence, and on thoroughgoing analysis of those key economic,
social and urban development factors and dynamics which have over time and
currently influence on spatial development;

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■ Addressing identified spatial priorities, both opportunities and challenges, within

shorter, medium and longer-term perspectives;
■ Implementable, through measures that are well-defined, fundable and amenable
to performance management (monitoring and evaluation).

Inherent to this perspective, and as a large academic literature argues, space and
society are not somehow separate domains of existence. They are instead
inextricably bound together. A strategic (national) spatial development framework
thus of necessity expresses and advances a preferred developmental end state (or
vision) for a national territory and pursues the objectives or goals which such a
vision incorporates.

It is also important to emphasise that strategy also denotes selectivity. As explained

above, it is not feasible, or desirable, to develop comprehensive spatial plans for the
location of all sector activities and facilities, as in the more traditional spatial
planning approach. Instead:

■ A coherent perspective is established on the basis of data and analysis on the

structure and dynamics of the space economy;
■ For any country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there is focus on its urbanisation
process and pattern;
■ Particular priorities are identified for addressing specifically through spatial
strategy and instruments;
■ Through these priorities being addressed, which can be constraints on or
‘unclaimed’ opportunities towards national spatial development goals, better and
fairer spatial outcomes are likely to occur.

Box 2 Main functions of the NSDF

■ to strengthen national development planning, including medium and long term, by
articulating the spatial dimensions of social, economic, environmental and other
policies at the national level;
■ to establish a national spatial framework that gives policy direction to land use planning
and management at the national level, to guide the preparation of other lower hierarchy
plans, such as regional, sub-regional and district spatial development frameworks,
structure plans and local plans;
■ to make explicit the spatial information from sectoral agencies -- including their plans,
projects, resources and assets -- to enable coordinated decisions and aligned policies
as well as reduced duplications, conflicts and overlaps;
■ to provide spatial policies to help ensure sustainable development as well as mitigating
and adapting the natural environment and human settlements to climate change.

The NSDF will benefit stakeholders at the national, regional and local levels.
National level planners will be enabled to facilitate synergy and integration of
policies, programmes and projects. Major infrastructure and projects will be guided
to the most optimal locations to maximize their benefits. Sectoral agencies will be
able to see how their initiatives fit within the overall framework to ensure
complementarities and avoid conflicts and overlaps with other sectors. Regions will
have a guide to prepare their own SDFs and regional disparities will be reduced
through improved targeting of poverty reduction initiatives. They will also be able to
better identify locations for rural service centres to provide social services and
infrastructural development and promote agriculture and agro-based industries.

The environment will be improved through a protected area system that includes
protected areas and buffer zones for Volta Lake, rivers and flood plains, parks,
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wetlands and coastal zones. Special areas will be connected through landscape
corridors. Green belts will be designated to ensure against settlement
amalgamation. Incompatible uses, such as land fill sites, will be guided to
appropriate locations away from sensitive areas and urban populations.

There will be improved linkages between urban and rural areas. Urban areas and
human settlements will be spatially integrated and orderly distributed into a hierarchy
of human settlements in support of socioeconomic development. The functional role
of cities and towns will be clarified and strengthened.

2.4 Balancing urban and rural development

At all spatial levels, globally, regionally, nationally, locally and within cities, there is
generally a pattern in which production is concentrated in particular areas (based on
agglomeration economies, historical factors, location of natural resources, etc.).
This, in effect, means that economic activity is not evenly distributed across space
and hence some areas are more prosperous than others.

As a result of such spatial inequalities, space is often conceived of in terms of

dichotomies – core and periphery, urban and rural, and leading and lagging areas.
While useful, this in many respects represents an oversimplification of reality and
can fail to recognise the spectrum of settlements or portfolio of places that exists –
from the leading, primary or largest city to secondary cities, small urban areas,
towns and villages. 26 This is further illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 2.1 From dichotomy to continuum of space

Source: World Bank, 2009, World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography

The old orthodoxy of a discrete and dichotomous approach to urban development as

distinct from rural development no longer reflects reality. Considering the
complementary functions and flows of people, capital, goods and services,
employment, information and technology between the two areas, rural and urban
areas are economically, socially and environmentally interdependent 27. The joint
World Bank and IMF Global Monitoring Report 2013 28 “calls for complementary
rural-urban development policies and an integrated strategy of planning, connecting
and financing”.

26 World Bank, 2009, World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography
27 Okpala, D., 2003, Promoting the Positive Rural-Urban Linkages Approach to Sustainable Development and
Employment Creation: The Role of UN-HABITAT
https://www.fig.net/pub/morocco/proceedings/PS1/PS1_1_okpala.pdf
28 World Bank and IMF, 2013, Global Monitoring Report 2013: Rural-Urban Dynamics and the Millennium

Development Goals

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Rural development should not be based on policies that deter rural-to-urban

migration but rather on the need to improve economic and social conditions of rural
population and the need for the rural areas to effectively contribute to the national
economic growth through increased agricultural and non-agricultural productivity. An
improved rural infrastructure is a necessary condition for improving productivity in
rural areas as well as for enhancing access of agricultural produce to both urban
areas and the export market. This brings to the fore the urgent need for developing
countries to design and implement realistic urban-rural and spatial infrastructure
policies within the context of a set of coherent national human settlements policies.
In many developing countries, addressing rural-urban infrastructure gaps requires
therefore more, rather than less, government action 29.

Understandably, given urbanisation dynamics, contemporary spatial planning tends

to emphasise larger city development. The planning discourse and practice would
also benefit from shifting beyond the rural-urban dichotomy and focusing instead
more on how best to urbanise and develop the rural non-farm economy and
secondary towns. For example, recent research in Tanzania shows that about one in
two individuals/households who exited poverty did so by transitioning from
agriculture into the rural non-farm economy or secondary towns. Only one in seven
left poverty by migrating to a large city, although those moving to a city experienced
on average faster consumption growth 30. As such, it can be argued that spatial
policy should adopt a dual approach that accepts and endorses the primacy of larger
cities and also seeks to diversify economic activity in and around secondary cities
and towns.

2.5 Tools and instruments of spatial planning

The preceding sections of this chapter have reviewed the roles and objectives of
national spatial planning in the context of Ghana. This section now reviews the tools
that can be used to implement these objectives.

It might seem obvious, but the contemporary approach to planning is distinctively

spatial in its wider perspective. An overall spatial conception is typically
accompanied by particular spatial planning design instruments such as growth poles
and centres, development corridors and nodes. To this can be added spatially-
targeted investment interventions, like special economic zones, export processing
zones or industrial development zones, and the projects which often anchor them,
usually large-scale industrial facilities (heavy, agro-processing, assembly – all of
which have different linkage patterns). Such targeted interventions can also be
aimed at cities, or specific localities within them, in the form of neighbourhood
regeneration or informal settlement upgrading projects, or specialised Local
Economic Development (LED) programmes. In addition, state- or state-private
sector designed and financed mega-projects (airports, harbours, government
administrative or military facilities) are increasingly used as instruments within
spatial planning strategies, as are large-scale real estate or property development
formats like regional malls or the new suburban cities currently being purpose-built
on metropolitan peripheries in Africa.

These spatially-specific instruments can be and are often strengthened by the

effects of other government policies and investment decisions, such as those on the

29 Okpala, D., 2003, Promoting the Positive Rural-Urban Linkages Approach to Sustainable Development and
Employment Creation: The Role of UN-HABITAT
https://www.fig.net/pub/morocco/proceedings/PS1/PS1_1_okpala.pdf
30 Christiaensen, L. et al, 2013,Urbanization and Poverty Reduction The Role of Rural Diversification and

Secondary Towns http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6422

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location of health and educational facilities and infrastructure policy and spending,
transportation and telecommunications being key for the latter. The spatial
arrangement of government representation and administration is also highly
influential, particularly when emplaced within well-resourced decentralisation
programmes. But it is accurate to repeat that strategic spatial planning – at the
national level at least – now emphasizes spatial planning instruments such as those
listed above in order to devise the flexible spatial frameworks required to work
together with and contribute to national development.

The growth pole theory, developed by French economist François Perroux in the
1950s, is built on the assumption that, for an economy to attain higher income
levels, that economy should first develop within itself one or several regional centres
for economic strength31. Growth poles, as a broad spatial planning instrument, draw
on the following concepts: (1) economies of scale; (2) the nurturing of backward and
forward economic supply linkages; and (3) economies of agglomeration, which are
associated with spatial clusters and the geographic concentration of economic
activities.

Growth pole strategies were first implemented by developing countries in Latin

America in the 1960s, achieving mixed success32. Enthusiasm for growth poles
dwindled in the 1970s and, until recently, the approach had received little attention in
SSA. Now, however, growth poles are once again being advocated by the World
Bank as an effective strategy for the development of regions in SSA that already
have natural or economic geography advantages. According to The Africa
Competitiveness Report 201333:

“Growth poles…are comprised of multiple simultaneous investments coordinated

throughout many sectors with the purpose of supporting self-sustaining
industrialization in a country. Growth pole projects are not oriented around
addressing identified market failures, but around capitalizing on and augmenting
opportunities that already exist in an economy”.

Growth poles promote growth but also integrate leading and lagging areas through
spillovers and linkages from the primary sectors to secondary sectors and the rest of
the national economy. This process is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below.

31 Perroux, F. 1955, as cited in The Africa Competitiveness Report 2013

32 Gantsho, M., 2008, Cities as growth poles: implications for rural development
33 World Bank, 2013, The Africa Competitiveness Report 2013

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Figure 2.2 Stages of growth pole development

Source: World Bank, 2013, The Africa Competitiveness Report 2013

An example of a growth pole strategy that has been implemented successfully in

SSA is included in Box 3 below:

Box 3 Integrated Growth Poles in Madagascar

The Madagascar Integrated Growth Poles Project aims at stimulating the growth of three
geographical regions of Madagascar centred around the growth poles of Nosy Be, Fort
Dauphin, and Antananarivo-Antsirabe. The objective of the poles is to address key
constraints to investment, including infrastructure, business environment, institutional
capacity, skills and access to finance. The poles are multi-sector projects with particular
focus on tourism-led growth in Nosy Be, mining- and tourism-led growth in Fort Dauphin,
and export-led growth in Antananarivo-Antsirabe.

In Nosy Be, the pole focuses on building support infrastructure (rehabilitating roads and
improving water supply); strengthening municipal capacity for administration, fiscal
management, and service delivery; and supporting business environment reforms. The
project supports a new hotel training school in partnership with other donors and the
private sector, and the establishment of a marine reserve to protect rare ecological
resources vital to the sustainability of the tourism industry.

In Fort Dauphin, the pole is jointly invested in by the government and the mining company
Rio Tinto to ensure that large mining investments benefit the local population. They co -
financed the construction of a new public multiuser port managed by a private consortium
and in operation since 2009. Investments were also made in road construction to support
tourism and to facilitate market access for local production.

In addition, the project is supporting innovative public-private partnerships (PPPs) with Rio
Tinto in power generation and transmission – with a guarantee from the Multilateral
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Investment Guarantee Agency – and in improving access to water supply. A partnership

with the United Nations Development Programme, Rio Tinto, and other private firms has
led to the establishment of a vocational training centre to bridge local skills gaps. The
emphasis on ensuring that mining projects have a positive impact on local populations and
on the economy more broadly serves as an example of what can be done for other mining
investments.

In Antananarivo-Antsirabe, PPPs have been established in skills development for the

garments, tourism, and information technology industries. For example, the growth pole
includes a private university and firms in the garments industry, which have collaborated to
offer the first textile engineering diploma program in Madagascar.

The growth poles in Madagascar are showing positive results, and the main objectives of
these investments have not been revised. Until the onset of the political crisis of 2009, the
poles were on track to achieve their development objectives and results in terms of private
investments and job creation. Private investment increased from US$84 million in 2005 to
US$1,045 million in 2007. In 2006–08, some 5,000 new businesses were registered in the
three poles. During the same period, an estimated 10,000 formal jobs were created in the
three poles, and the number of new hotel rooms in Fort Dauphin and Nosy Be increased
by 40 percent and 27 percent, respectively. Regional development plans were adopted
and most of the main infrastructure works were completed, leading to major improvements
in local infrastructure. Since 2009, Fort Dauphin and Nosy Be continue to show progress,
and by 2013, had added over 13,000 formal jobs.

The overall business environment in Madagascar has been improved: it is now easier to
register a business, trade, pay taxes, and obtain a license. In Fort Dauphin, it now takes
four days to register a new business; before the project was initiated, this took two months.
The Economic Development Board of Madagascar regional offices in Nosy Be and Fort
Dauphin can now register individually owned enterprises, which have significantly reduced
the cost and time required for small business start-ups. By 2013, following results
assessments on the poles, the Antananarivo-Antsirabe pole was deemed less successful
and discontinued.

Overall, indicators from the poles suggest promising private-sector response to the
investments made in infrastructure, the improvement in the business environment, and jo b
creation.

Source: The World Bank’s Integrated Growth Poles Project, available at

http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P083351/integrated-growth-poles?lang=en

Linked to, but distinct from, the concept of growth poles are those of economic
corridors and growth triangles. Economic corridors are integrated networks of
infrastructure within a geographical area designed to stimulate economic
development. The economic corridor approach looks at regional transport routes not
only as a means of transporting goods and services, but also as a tool for
stimulating social and economic development in the areas surrounding the route.
Economic corridors accomplish this by creating industry and social facilities in
conjunction with transport infrastructure. In doing so, they develop rural and border
areas, increase the earnings of low-income groups and create employment 34.

The development of an economic corridor takes place in several stages:

■ Physical development – the first stage is the development of the physical

transport infrastructure comprising the transport corridor. It involves
strengthening the physical facilities needed for efficient and effective
transportation and trade by establishing and revamping transport links; improving
the quality of infrastructure, increasing carrying capacity, and dealing with related
34
AfDB, 2013, Developing Economic Corridors In Africa: Rationale for the Participation of the African
Development Bank

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safety issues; upgrading infrastructure associated with priorities such as rural

agriculture, agroindustry, and tourism; encouraging multimodal structures; and
upgrading border areas.
■ Logistics development – the aim of this stage is to facilitate the efficient
movement of people and goods along the corridor, reducing travel times and by
extension the cost of doing business within the region. It involves the
harmonisation of regulations and the creation of cross-border trade agreements
(if relevant), as well as the provision of related infrastructure and services such
as storage, warehousing, freight, insurance, etc.
■ Economic and social development – this stage promotes investments in areas
such as agroindustry and manufacturing, natural resource-based enterprises,
small-scale industries, trade (including planned roadside shops), tourism (rest
houses and hotels), schooling, and health facilities, all located near the corridor.
Other interventions might include the promotion of innovative trade techniques
such as fair trade products and investment forums, again close to the corridor.
The economic and social development stage might also market business
opportunities in key industries; establish special economic zones where
appropriate; publicise investment policies, rules and regulations; offer micro-
financing; implant special measures for approving business licenses efficiently
and effectively; and address other infrastructure deficiencies, such as inadequate
water and power supply.
■ Integration of cross-cutting issues – cross-cutting issues should be
considered at each stage and encompass social, environmental and institutio nal
capacity concerns.

Although any transport corridor has the potential to develop into an economic
corridor, some corridors clearly present more opportunities than others. As such,
planners must consider the comparative advantage and existing resources of
potential corridors to determine where best to target investment. The case study in
box 4 provides an example of a successful economic corridor between Gauteng
province in South Africa and Maputo in Mozambique.

Box 4 Maputo Development Corridor in South Africa / Mozambique

The Maputo Development Corridor connects the industrialised Gauteng region of South
Africa with the nearest deep water port in Maputo. The Gauteng province is highly
urbanised and is the engine of the sub-continental economy, contributing approximately 40
percent of South Africa’s GDP. Situated within the province are Johannesburg, the most
productive metropolitan area in Africa, and Pretoria, the nation’s administrative capital. In
addition, the corridor also links Linpopo province, a major transit point for trans-South
African freight headed to / from landlocked Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, and
Mpumalanga Province, which produces 76 percent of South Africa’s coal mining output,
the majority of which is exported through the Matola Coal Terminal in Matola Port, Maputo.

The Maputo Development corridor is a true integrated multimodal transport corridor.

Development of the corridor progressed in several stages – similar to those described in
the main text above. The corridor began with the physical re-development of the Gauteng-
Maputo rail link starting in 1995. Following this, in 1996, a framework agreement was
signed between the governments of South Africa and Mozambique formally establishing
the development corridor. Over the next decade, a series of infrastructure improvements
were completed along the corridor including: construction of a new toll road; rehabilitation
of the Maputo Port; rehabilitation of the railway. Logistics development and economic
development projects were undertaken simultaneously with the physical development of
the corridor. Logistics developments included: construction of weighbridges along the toll
road; construction of the Lebombo Dry Port on the border; Clearing Agents offices opened
at the Lebombo Dry Port; extension of border crossing hours; secure parking for trucks at

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Lebombo Dry Port; diesel depot at Lembombo Dry Port; individual terminals for
ferrochrome, sugar and citrus fruits at the Maputo Port; abolishment of 30 day visas for
travel between South Africa and Mozambique. Economic development investments
included: construction of the Mozal aluminium smelter near Maputo; development of the
Pande gas field and pipeline; construction of liquid petroleum pipeline and inland storage,
rail and road offloading infrastructure in the corridor.

The impact of the Maputo Development Corridor on economic development in the region
has been highly positive. The initial upgrading of infrastructure and crowding-in of
investment has led to further public and private sector investments and a deepening of the
sub-regional economic base to support local economic development. To date, the private
sector has committed an estimated figure of more than $3 billion worth of investments in
southern Mozambique and Mpumalanga. The success of the Maputo Development
Corridor led to the Spatial Development Initiative (SDI) programme in South Africa, which
is an integrated planning tool aimed at promoting investment in regions of the country that
were underdeveloped but had potential for growth. Various SDIs have since been initiated
at both the regional and sub-national level, including several development corridors.

Source: Maputo Corridor Logistics Initiative http://www.mcli.co.za/mcli-web/mdc/mdc.html

The concept of a growth triangle is most often implemented on a regional scale, i.e.
between three countries in a region. The model involves linking adjacent areas of
separate countries with different endowments of factors of production -- such as
land, labour and capital -- and different sources of comparative advantage, to form a
sub-region of economic growth. Growth triangles seek to reduce regulatory barriers
to the exploitation of economic complementarities in order to gain a competitive
edge in attracting domestic and foreign investment, and to promote exports for the
mutual benefit of the areas and countries involved. The most prominent example of
a growth triangle is the Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle, which is a
partnership arrangement between Singapore, Johor (in Malaysia), and Riau Islands
(in Indonesia) that links the infrastructure capital, and expertise of Singapore with
the natural and labour resources and the abundance of land of Johor and Riau.

Special economic zones (SEZs) refer to any designated area with regulations that
are different (more relaxed) than the rest of the country, usually designed to induce
foreign direct investment (FDI). Common policies in SEZs include: tax reductions;
removal of quota restrictions and; relaxed customs and labour regulations. The
purpose is to create a more competitive environment for firms based within the SEZ.
Examples include:

■ Free trade zones – are a geographic area where goods may be landed,
handled, manufactured or reconfigured, and re-exported without the intervention
of the customs authorities. Only when the goods are moved to consumers within
the country in which the zone is located do they become subject to the prevailing
customs duties. They are often located in and around ports, airports or national
borders.
■ Export processing zones – are areas where a firm is allowed to import plant,
machinery, equipment and material for the manufacture of export goods under
security, without payment of duty.
■ Free economic zones – are an area in which firms benefit from reduced
taxation to encourage economic activity. Unlike export processing zones, there is
no emphasis on manufacturing goods for export.

In addition to tax and regulatory benefits, SEZs often provide improved infrastructure
and services to firms in the zone in order to provide a more attractive business
environment to investors.

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As well as attracting FDI, SEZs have additional benefits as a spatial planning tool.
SEZs can be used to attract additional investment in or encourage the relocation of
firms in a particular sector to a spatially advantageous location. The clustering of
firms from one or more related industries in the same location can provide
economies of agglomeration, including labour market pooling, access to
intermediate goods and services and technological spillovers. Moreover, having a
high concentration of firms in one space means that investment in key infrastructure,
such as electricity, water, telecommunications and transport infrastructure, is more
efficient.
SEZs in Africa, however, have often underperformed. Farole (2011) 35 finds:
“that while performance varies across countries, economic zone programs in Africa
have, by and large, failed to deliver significant benefits to date. Investment, exports,
and employment generated in the African zones are low, and many of these benefits
have come from single factory schemes, which in most African countries are unlikely
to have the catalytic effect that is the objective of economic zone programs. Most
importantly, the African programs show little evidence of progress in capturing the
dynamic benefits of FDI and, thus, of leveraging the zone program to support
diversification, upgrading, or broad-based economic reform. Indeed, evidence
suggests that several of the programs have already stagnated at levels of
employment and exports that are far short of their objectives”.

The reasons for this underperformance are varied, but successful SEZ projects
share some characteristics in common. After assessing the evidence from previous
studies and analytical work by academics on SEZs, Farole (2011) has produced a
framework for situations in which SEZs are appropriate, as well as preconditions for
their success. This is presented in 0 below.

Box 5 Framework for Special Economic Zones

■ Ensure that the SEZ programme is focused where it can best complement and support
comparative advantage, as validated through a detailed strategic planning, feasibility,
and master planning process.
■ Integrate the SEZ as part of a broader package of industrial, trade, and economic
development policies.
■ Integrate the SEZ with support to existing industry clusters rather than as an alternative
or greenfield approach to cluster development.
■ Ensure high-level political support and broad commitment before launching any
programme, including the establishment of an inter-ministerial committee to oversee
programme development.
■ Promote exchange between the zone and the domestic environment through both
policy and administrative reforms.
■ Support the provision of high-quality hard and soft infrastructure encompassing zones,
key urban centres, and trade gateways. The focus should be on leveraging SEZs to
support existing and planned infrastructure to facilitate the potential for growth
catalysts/poles.
■ Put SEZs on the regional integration agenda, with an emphasis on their role in
facilitating regional production scale and integrating regional value chains.
■ Ensure the development of sound legal and regulatory frameworks, and cement them
by addressing the challenges of institutional design and coordination.
■ Promote private sector participation and public-private partnerships, along with
technical assistance with structuring and negotiating PPPs.
■ Consider the capacity of the government to deliver on an SEZ program, particularly in
light of the integrated and long-term nature of SEZs. This will require a focus on

35Farole, 2011, Special Economic Zones in Africa: Comparing Performance and Learning from Global
Experience, World Bank
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institutional development and political economy factors that influence zone policy and
implementation.
■ Establish clear standards with regard to environmental, labour, and social compliance,
and identify regulatory responsibilities for monitoring and enforcement.
■ Develop and implement a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation program from the
outset, with safeguards in place to ensure that SEZ program developments remain
aligned with strategic and master plans.
■ Recognize the long-term nature of SEZ program development. This means planning
beyond short-term project cycles and monitoring progress on an ongoing basis.

Source: Farole, 2011, Special Economic Zones in Africa: Comparing Performance and
Learning from Global Experience, World Bank

The spatial planning concepts described above are by no means mutually exclusive
options; rather, they can be implemented in combination to achieve economic
development objectives. For example, the Polish spatial development concept is one
of a spatial network structured to a large degree by the country’s cities and towns as
network nodes. Spatial development is to follow the lines of this network, and to be
concentrated in the nodes of the network, and primarily in those nodes that are
cities. The nodes themselves act as growth poles, which can be linked together
along development corridors. These corridors are shaped by transportation
infrastructure. New poles (or nodes) of growth financed by significant new
investments, often on Public Private Partnership (PPP) models, can be added.

2.6 Pillars of the spatial strategy

2.6.1 Emphasise balanced polycentric development
As outlined above, contemporary spatial plans seek to achieve balanced growth
through the development of many connected and complementary settlements. Most
commonly, this takes the form of a hierarchical structure, with a settlement’s role
determined by its place in the hierarchy. All settlements in the hierarchy are
connected and support each other by fulfilling their designated functions. The aim is
to ensure balanced coverage of the functions of the settlements, to promote
balanced development.

In Ghana, this is to be achieved through the establishment of a new urban

settlement hierarchy based on the distance between settlements and the area of
influence, or service coverage, of individual settlements. This is explained in detail in
Section 3.1.

2.6.2 Improve regional, national and international connectivity

The main concern of contemporary spatial planning is integration. Successful
strategic spatial planning at the national level typically aims at facilitating linkages
across the national territory in order to support the mobility of people, goods and
ideas, and access to markets and resources, thus serving to spatially and
economically integrate the national territory. This will result in the integration of
leading and lagging areas, more spatially balanced development and a reduction in
regional disparities. Greater integration into the global and West African economies
will provide Ghanaian firms with access to a larger market, creating opportunities for
increased trade and for Accra and the ports of Tema and Takoradi to serve as
gateways to the ECOWAS region.

A series of important national infrastructure initiatives are proposed to improve

connectivity in Chapter 4, including a national expressway system, a network of new
and improved trunk roads and a rail network, as well as improvements to the ICT
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network. It is important that the proposed transport infrastructure projects

themselves are integrated in order to create an efficient multimodal national
transport system.

2.6.3 Strengthen the metropolitan city regions of Accra and Kumasi

The role of Greater Accra as an engine of growth, magnet for investment and
gateway for international trade is highlighted in Chapter 3 of Volume 1 (Section
3.6.1). This role must be supported and strengthened. As illustrated in other national
spatial development frameworks, a hierarchical polycentric system recognises the
key role of a primary city and the unique functions that it fulfils in relation to the rest
of the country. Development of secondary settlements can occur in a mutually
beneficial way, without the need to sacrifice one for the other.

In addition to Greater Accra, the Kumasi city region has a key role as driver of
national growth, which must be reinforced. Its location at the peak of the ‘golden
triangle’ is strategically important as a link between the relatively more urbanised
and developed coast and the rest of the country, as well as linking the cocoa
producing regions with the ports of Tema and Takoradi. Strengthening Kumasi’s
position will also promote more spatially balanced development by creating an
additional gateway for investment in the heart of the country.

Strategies to strengthen the development of the Accra and Kumasi city regions are
discussed in section 3.3.

2.6.4 Promote development in secondary cities

In the hierarchical polycentric system proposed, it is important that the settlements
at each level reach a critical mass in order to fulfil their proposed functions. The
analysis in Chapter 1 indicates much under-utilised potential in the secondary cities,
which at present act more as administrative and basic commercial centres than as
drivers of economic growth. Regional capitals in particular need to be supported to
transcend their role as just centres of local government and public services and to
become attractive locations for business. Moreover, these cities need to be
recognised and incentivised as nodal points that facilitate the flow of goods, services
and people across national space.

This is to be achieved through the promotion of urban networks centred around

strategically located settlements at either grade 1 or grade 2 in the urban settlement
hierarchy. Urban networks have many potential benefits. These include: realisation
of urban synergies and inclusive development; more efficient and affordable
services; more diverse job and housing opportunities; stronger attractiveness for
investment; improved capacity to solve urban problems; concentrated and balanced
urban development; reduced out-migration; and improved functional links.
Eight potential urban networks are identified using a set of detailed criteria. This
process is explained together with the benefits of the urban network approach in
more detail in Section 3.4.

2.6.5 Ensure sustainable development and protect ecological assets

The principle of sustainable development must be a pillar of any national spatial
plan. As much as it important to promote economic development in all areas of the
national territory, it is also vital to protect the natural environment and ensure that
future generations can benefit from ecosystem services to meet their own
development needs.

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To coordinate the protection of the environment at the national level, a green

infrastructure network is proposed, incorporating protected areas, coastline, mai n
rivers and river valleys and lakes. The green infrastructure network (GIN) will
provide the counterpoint to urban development and anchor the urban centres while
at the same time protect and restore natural systems and open spaces that serve as
an environmental life support system for urban settlements, as well as ensure
continuity of green corridors for the wild life, and hence its improved conservation.
The areas to be included in the GIN and the steps needed to implement it are
described in section 4.9.

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North-East
Network

Tamale
Wa Network
Network

Sunyani
Network

Ho-Hohoe
Network
Kumasi
City-Region
Aflao
Network

Accra
City-Region

STMA Cape Coast

Network Network

Figure 2.3 Integrated spatial development concept

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Volume II

Chapter 3

Place-based framework

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3 Place-based framework
NSDF sets out a place-based framework that includes an urban settlement
hierarchy; a mega-region amalgamating several large urban centres in the
ECOWAS region; a linear, city-regions that have taken on a larger scale than
individual large cities; and urban networks.

The overall spatial concept for Ghana is shown in Figure 3.1. The Figure shows the
urban settlement hierarchy (section 3.2), the two city-regions (section 3.4), the eight
urban networks (section 3.5), the proposed rail network, the proposed national and
international expressway (section 4.1), the proposed international and national rail
network (section 4.3).

The urban settlements hierarchy, with 70 urban settlements in four grades, has a
combined area-of-influence that accounts for 90 percent of the national population,
95 percent of the urban population, and 80 percent of the rural population. The city
regions and urban networks and two city-regions and eight urban networks. The two
city regions of Accra and Kumasi are anchored by their grade 1 core cities. The two
city regions each have a grade 2 city within its network; Accra has Koforidua and
Kumasi has Obuasi. Two urban networks, STMA and Tamale, are anchored by the
grade 1 cores.

The six other urban networks are anchored by at least one grade 2 cities while three
of them benefit from having dual grade 2 cities: the North-East cluster has
Bolgatanga–Bawku, Ho‒Hohoe has these city pairs, and Sunyani network has
Techiman. Then, the two coastal networks, STMA and Cape Coast. Many of the
designated settlements in the hierarchy are not part of a city-region or network.

3.4 Urban Settlement Hierarchy

3.4.1 Urban settlement hierarchy planning in Ghana
Settlement planning in Ghana began in 1963 with the publication of the National
Physical Development Plan (1963-1970). NPDP proposed that a set of urban
settlements should be planned to achieve equitable and economic distribution of
social and economic infrastructure and provides commercial and social functions to
nearby populations. The plan include 31 "urban service centres" at three
geographical levels: 4 sub-national, 11 regional and 16 sub-regional centres.

Over the 50-year period since NPDP, Ghana’s urban population grew at a rapid 4.3
percent per annum. However, while some service centres flourished, most did not.
Of the four sub-national centres, Accra and Kumasi grew fast while Sekondi and
Tamale grew slower than the urban average. Of the 11 regional centres, Sunyani,
Hohoe, and Bolgatanga grew rapidly, Cape Coast, Akim Oda, Dunkwa-on-Offin,
Keta, and Nkawkaw grew more slowly than the national population, and Tarkwa and
Mpraeso lagged behind the rural growth rate. Of the 16 sub-regional centres, with
the exception of Kintampo and Atebubu, all grew more slowly than the urban
average while four—Kete-Krachi, Jasikan, Somanya, and Axim—were outpaced by
rural growth. In sum, less than a quarter of the designated centres grew faster than
the urban population, 40 percent were outpaced by national growth, and about a fifth
grew more slowly than the rural population. Thus it would seem that the designation
of services centres did not have a significant impact on population growth patterns.

After a long lapse in urban settlement planning, the Ghana Shared Growth and
Development Agenda I (2010-2013) again aimed to influence urban settlement

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growth. It advocated "a spatially integrated hierarchy of settlements in support of

rapid transformation of the country" that would address (i) the "over-concentration of
towns" in the south compared to the north; (ii) the absence of effective alternatives
to Accra and Kumasi; and (iii) the lack of intermediate cities. In addition, it called for
"balanced development", especially in poorer regions, creation of new growth points,
and promotion of a range of medium-to-large urban centres36. Furthermore, it called
for (i) improved services to attract investment and employment opportunities in the
least developed grade-I settlements, (ii) upgrading of grade-2 settlements to perform
industrial and commercial functions, and physical integration of all regions and
districts, and (iii) an interconnected national and international urban system.

The draft Long Term National Development Plan (2008-2015) of NDPC also
included urban settlement policies, and proposed a list of growth centres to receive
new infrastructure and social services so as to attract investment.

3.4.2 Proposed settlement hierarchy by National Urban Policy

The National Urban Policy (2013) adopted the NDPC-proposed hierarchy of 170
urban settlements. The policy defines the largest two grades by function and the
smallest two by population size (Table 3.1). Of the 170 settlements, there are 14 that
are not contained in the GSS database in 2010 37 (Table 3.2); these are 2 grade-3
and 12 grade-4 settlements. Figure 3.1 shows, in red and blue, the location and
grade of 156 NUP settlements that could be identified in the GSS database.

Table 3.1 Number of NUP urban settlements by grade

Grade NUP # in GSS # NDPC definition
1 4 4 large cities with high level functions (the metropolitan areas)
2 12 12 medium-sized cities with administrative functions incl. regional capitals
3 63 61 multi-district functional centres (selected district capitals);
4 91 79 rural service centres, with population between 5,000 and 10,000
All 170 156

Source: NSDF Study 2013 based on National Urban Policy, 2010

NUP urban centres are as follows:

Grade-1 centres comprise Accra, Kumasi, STMA and Tamale. Although these
have the same grade, they have very different characteristics and roles. Their
populations vary from over 2 million in Accra down to 275,000 in Tamale as do their
annual growth rates: Kumasi and STMA grew at over 4.2 percent; Tamale grew at
about half that rate between 2000 and 2010,

Grade-2 centres comprise the remaining six regional capitals that are not
designated as grade-1 (Cape Coast, Sunyani, Koforidua, Ho, Wa and Bawku) plus
six large towns: Obuasi, Techiman, Yendi, Bawku, Nkawkaw and Tarkwa. While
most of these have populations over 50,000, four are class-4 and seven are class-5,
the latter two have only 48,000 and 16,000 inhabitants, or class-6 and class-7,
respectively. In addition, while most of these centres are growing rapidly, a few, like
Wa, Nkawkaw and Sunyani are slow-growing and one, Tarkwa, is losing population.

36 The draft matrix for the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (2014-2017) includes wording that is
similar to its predecessor regarding the settlement hierarchy.
37 The missing grade 3 settlements are Nsawinso and Peki-Dzake. The missing grade 4 settlements are:

Asutsuare, Agomenda, Asafo, Bawjiase, Ayanfuri, Kankan, Kwahu Praso, Kwanikrom, Vakpo, Gyenegyene,
Dormaa and Akrodie
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Grade-3 centres are meant to serve as administrative centres and market towns.
They vary widely in population, from 58,000 to just over 5,000 people, and in growth;
the fastest almost tripled its population while the slowest declined by almost 50
percent. Four grade-3 centres fall into class 5, twenty-eight into class 6, twenty-three
into class-7, and five into class-8.

Grade-4 centres are meant to serve as rural service centres. Their populations vary
between 5,000 and 10,000 (class-8). NSDF could locate only 79 of the 92
designated centres. Of these, 7 had no recorded population, 35 had between 5,000
and 10,000 inhabitants, and 37 had populations of between 10,000 and 32,000.

Many of NUP's service centres are those that had been proposed by NDPD. NUP's
grade-1 centres are the same as NPDP's sub-national centres. Five of NUP's 12
grade-2 centres are NPDP regional centres and 3 are sub-regional centres, two of
NUP’s 63 grade-3 centres are NPDP regional centres and 15 are sub-regional
centres.

The National Urban Policy presents two guiding principles for determining an urban
settlement hierarchy: (i) promote urban centres as engines of growth and (ii)
facilitate balanced re-distribution of the urban population. Given that there are now
over 350 urban settlements, the first principle raises the question "how many
settlements can be promoted and sustained with quality services, either by their own
resources or with the support of the government?" And if the answer is only some;
then which ones should be promoted as growth engines and which ones should be
supported to grow so as to help redistribute population?

While the NUP hierarchy classifies urban settlements into grades by function and
population size, it is not clear on how the hierarchy contributes to achieving
balanced spatial development. Nor does it consider the distance between centres
and spatial coverage, or area-of-influence, of these centres. Finally, NUP does not
give a clear direction regarding centres of priority. For instance, the hierarchy grades
63 settlements as grade-3 but is silent on the ones that should be accorded
development priority in pursuit of the key objectives.

3.4.3 NSDF Urban settlement hierarchy criteria

NSDF uses two criteria for establishing an urban settlement hierarchy that
addresses the issue of balanced development: (i) distance between settlements and
(ii) area-of-influence, or service coverage, of individual settlements.

Using the criteria, NSDF applies the following rules to select urban settlements for
the hierarchy: (i) a settlement is a candidate for the hierarchy if its area-of-influence
is not overlapped by that of any other settlement; (ii) if an area-of-influence of a
smaller settlement overlaps that of a larger settlement's area-of-influence, then it is
considered a candidate only if its area substantially adds to the combined coverage;
and (iii) if an area-of-influence of a smaller settlement is contained within a larger
settlement's area-of-influence, then it is not a candidate for the hierarchy.

While there are no absolute standards regarding the spatial influence of urban
centres of varying sizes, studies and examples from other countries suggest that
areas-of-influence are a factor of urban settlement size and the form and speed of
the transportation system, together determining the distance the people are willing to
travel to work, to shop, or obtain services. Typically these distances range from 10
km for small towns to 150 km or more for a large metropolis. NSDF lacks hard
evidence of effective areas-of-influence in Ghana, but sets what it considers as
reasonable areas as follows: 100 km radius for Accra, 50 km radius for medium-
sized cities, 20 km for major district centres and 10 km for rural service centres.
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3.4.4 NSDF-proposed urban settlement hierarchy

Based on the above criteria and rules, NSDF proposes an urban settlement
hierarchy of 70 settlements in four grades (Table 3.2). The hierarchy comprises 4
settlements at grade-1, 14 at grade-2, 31 at grade-3 and 21 at grade-4. The
combined areas-of-influence of these settlements cover close to 90 percent of the
national population (21.6 m), 95 percent of the urban population (12.1m) and 80
percent (9.5 m) of the rural population.

Figure 3.1 compares the NSDF proposed urban settlement hierarchy with the NUP-
hierarchy. All but three of NSDF's 70 settlements are NUP settlements while 103
NUP settlements are left out. The following describes each grade and provides
justification for selection.

NSDF's four grade-1 settlements are the same as NUP's: Accra, Kumasi,
Secondi-Takoradi and Tamale. These are the largest cities in Ghana, have grown
rapidly, and are regional capitals.

NSDF's 14 grade-2 settlements include all twelve of the NUP grade-2 settlements,
including the six regional capitals not in grade-1, plus Hohoe and Aflao. Hohoe is
included because it fills a gap in the spatial coverage of grade-1 cities, is the second
largest city in the Volta Region, and grew faster than the national urban average
between 2000 and 2010. Aflao also adds to the coverage of grade-1 cities, has over
50,000 inhabitants, and grew moderately between 2000 and 2010.

NSDF's 31 grade-3 settlements include 25 NUP settlements and 6 others including

Kintampo and Yeji. The 38 NUP settlements that are left out of the NSDF
hierarchy—most of these are located within the “golden triangle”—are excluded
because their areas-of-influence with the catchment areas of grades-1 and grade-2
settlements. Most of the grade-3 settlements are located at the northern parts of
Ghana and Western region, areas uncovered by grade-2 cities. Kintampo and Yeji,
two of the additional six settlements that were not graded by the NUP, have sizable
populations (over 25,000), grew rapidly over the last decade, and fill gaps in the
coverage of the first two grades.

NSDF's 21 grade-4 settlements, which include 21 of the 79 NUP-settlements, are

outside the catchment area of the first three grades. The remaining 58 NUP grade-4
settlements are not included—most are located in the southern and middle parts of
Ghana between Sunyani, Takoradi and Aflao—because their spatial coverage does
not significantly add to the catchment areas of the centres in grades 1, 2 and 3. In
contrast most of NSDF grade-4 settlements are in the northern parts of Ghana,
especially, Upper West and Northern Region. These areas have large areas
uncovered by the spatial coverage of the first three grades.

Regions differ in the number of settlements and the number of different grades of
settlements that are in the hierarchy (Table 3.2). In general, regions with larger
settlements will have fewer in the hierarchy than those with smaller settlements.

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Table 3.2 NSDF urban settlement hierarchy by region and grade

Greater Accra

Brong Ahafo
Upper West
Upper East
Northern

Northern
Western

Eastern
Ashanti

Central
Grade

Volta
1 Accra Kumasi STMA Tamale Tamale
Tarkwa Yendi Bawku Cape Coast Koforidua Wa Sunyani Aflao Yendi
2 Obuasi Bolgatanga Nkawkaw Techiman Ho
Hohoe
Ejura Asankragua Bimbilla Assin Foso Donkorkrom Tumu Atebubu Dambai Bimbilla
Nyinahin Axim Bole Dormaa Ahenkro Kete Krachi Bole
Bibiani Buipe Goaso Kpasa Buipe
Elubo Damongo Kintampo Nkwanta Damongo
3
Half Assini Gushiegu Mim Sogakope Gushiegu
Juabeso Karaga Yeji Karaga
Sefwi Wiaso Salaga Salaga
Sawla Sawla
Enchi Bunkpurugu Hemang Ofoase Funsi Kwame Danso Banda Bunkpurugu
Wassa- Daboya Twifo Praso Gwollu Sampa Dodo Daboya
Akropong Gambaga Hamale Gambaga
4
Kpandai Jirapa Kpandai
Nalerigu Lawra Nalerigu
Wulensi Nandom Wulensi

Source: NSDF Study, 2014

3.4.5 Urban settlement hierarchy options

NSDF believes that a settlement hierarchy with 70 centres provides a reasonable
balance between one that includes a large number of settlements—such as all of the
388 existing settlements, or 216 district capitals or the 150 NUP urban settlements—
and one that includes a lesser number. Nevertheless, policy makers may decide that
70 urban settlements are still more than the Ghana government has resources to
support. Thus NSDF provides three options that have fewer numbers of settlements
in the hierarchy (Figure 3.2). These are (a) the four large cities; (b) the four large
cities plus 14 medium-size cities; and (c) the four large cities plus 14 medium-size
cities plus 25 major towns. These options are assessed below in terms of the total,
urban and rural populations that would be included in their areas-of-influence.

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Figure 3.1 NSDF centres compared to NUP-Proposed Hierarchy of Settlement

Bawku
Hamale Gwollu

¯
Nandom Tumu
Bolgatanga
Lawra
Jirapa Gambaga Bunkpurugu
Nalerigu
Funsi

Wa
Karaga
Gushiegu
Grade
Daboya 1
Tamale (metro) Yendi
Sawla Grade 2
Bole Damongo

Bimbilla
Grade 3
Buipe
Wulensi Grade 4
Salaga
Kpandai Kpasa
Banda Nkwanta
Yeji
Dambai
Trunk Road
Kintampo
Sampa
Atebubu Kete Krachi Dodo
National
Techiman Kwame Danso
Inter-Regional
Sunyani Ejura
Dormaa Ahenkro Regional
Hohoe
Donkorkrom
Mim Catchment Area
Goaso
Kumasi (metro) Rural
Nyinahin Ho
Nkawkaw Settlements
Bibiani
Juabeso
Sefwi Wiaso Obuasi Prioritised
Ayirebi Koforidua Aflao
Sogakope
Enchi Asankragua Not Prioritised
Wassa Akropong Assin Foso
Hemang Accra (metro) NSDF Prioritised
but Not Graded
Elubo Tarkwa by NDPC
Cape Coast (metro)
Half Assini
Sekondi-Takoradi (metro) km
Axim
0 15 30 60 90

Source: NSDF Study analysis based on NUP Settlement Hierarchy, 2014

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Bawku
¯
Bawku

#
Bolgatanga ¯ #
Tumu Bolgatanga
#
¯
Leg
Wa
Legend
Wa #
Legend # #
SelectedMediumCities Karaga
# #
Gushiegu !
! Large Cities " National_Capital
Tamale Metro " National_Capital Tamale MetroYendi # Regional Capital Tamale MetroYendi
!
Urban Settlements # Sawla
Urban Settlements !
# "
#
Damongo #
2010 P 2010 P #
Bole #
1,000 Buipe
Bimbilla Urb
1,000 #
#
Salaga 2010
10,000 10,000 Kpasa
#
#
Yeji Nkwanta
1,000,000 1,000,000 # #
Kintampo Dambai
# #

Rural Settlements Rural Settlements Atebubu Kete Krachi

Techiman # #
Techiman
National National
Sunyani Ejura
Inter-Regional # Hohoe Inter-Regional
#
Dormaa Ahenkro# #
Hohoe
Regional Regional Sunyani Donkorkrom
#
Mim
Kumasi Metro Spatial Coverage Kumasi Metro Ho
Spatial
Goaso Coverage
# Agogo
! # !
Nkawkaw
#
#
#
Nyinahin#Kumasi!
#
Metro Ho
#
Bibiani
km #
km Obuasi Aflao 0 15 30
Juabeso
60# 90 Obuasi
0 15 30 60 90 Koforidua Sefwi Wiaso Aflao
# # Koforidua
# #
Sogakope
0 15 3
Asankragua
Accra Metro # Assin Foso
Accra Metro # Accra Metro
" Tarkwa " "
Elubo Tarkwa Winneba
Cape Coast (metro) #
#

Sekondi-Takoradi Metro
#
Sekondi-Takoradi Metro Half Assini #
Cape Coast (metro)

! # #
#
Axim
!
#
Sekondi-Takoradi Metro

Option A Option B Option B

Large Cities Large and Medium-sized cities Large cities, Medium cities and Major towns

Figure 3.2 Other options for settlement hierarchy 57

Ghana National Spatial Development Framework 2015-2035 Volume II

Option A: Four Large cities

About a quarter of all urban settlements fall within the areas-of-influence of the four
grade-1 metropolitan centres—Accra, Kumasi and STMA and Tamale. These areas-
of-influence account for 50 percent of national population, 70 percent of the urban
population and 30 percent of the rural population. They cover the southern part of
the country much better than the northern part. For example, the three largest cities
in the south are only about 200 kilometres (straight line distance) apart. In contrast,
in the north, Tamale, the smallest, stands alone at about 315 kilometres from
Kumasi, its closest neighbour. Grade-1 cities are important growth poles and have
development potential. They play a vital role within the national urban system.
Three of them are growing faster than the national urban growth rate.

Option B: 4 Large and 14 Medium-sized cities

There are 16 medium-sized cities with populations of over 50,000 but less than
250,000 inhabitants. Twelve of these cities are outside the catchment areas of
grade-1 centres and therefore their areas-of-influence would add to the overall
spatial coverage.

NSDF includes ten of twelve NUP grade-2 centres. These ten are the six regional
capitals that are not considered as large cities plus Yendi, Bawku, Techiman and
Obuasi. The two NUP centres, Tarkwa and Nkawkaw, have populations of less than
50,000, but because they fall outside the catchments areas of grade-1 centres, they
are included as NSDF grade-2 centres, making a total of 14 centres in the grade.

Two medium cities, Hohoe and Aflao, which the NUP does not include as grade-2
settlements, are included in the NSDF hierarchy because they have populations
over 50,000 and are located beyond the spatial coverage of grade-1 cities.

The population in the catchment areas of grade-2 cities totals 6.4 million comprising
2.4 million of urban and 4 million rural inhabitants. Thus, the population that is
contained within the combined catchment areas of both large and medium sized
cities is more than three-quarters, 19 million, of the national population, 90 percent
of the urban population 11 million, and two-thirds of rural population 7 million.

The distribution of medium-sized cities is generally skewed towards the coast and
middle part of the country. Nevertheless, Northern Ghana has four such cities: Wa,
Bolgatanga, Bawku and Yendi. If the population in and around these centres were
targeted by government to receive priority development support, then it would be
more likely that they would hold their populations and reduce the north-to-south drift.

Option C: 4 Large cities, 14 Medium cities and 31 Major towns

Forty-two major towns have populations of between 20,000 and 50,000 inhabitants.
Of these towns, 28 fall within the spatial catchment areas of large and medium-sized
cities. The remaining 14 that are significantly distant from grade 1 and 2 settlements,
their areas-of-influence add to the total population coverage of the first two grades.

Of the 63 NUP grade-3 centres, or multi-functional district centres (of which 61 have
been located), 36 fall within the areas-of-influence of settlements in higher grades.
In line with the NUP policy objective of achieving spatially-balanced development,
the remaining 25 grade-3 settlements could be given development priority.
Comparing these 25 settlements with the 14 identified by the NSDF, there are eight
settlements in common: Assin Fosu, Atebubu, Dormaa Ahenkro, Ejura, Goaso,
Bimbilla, Salaga and Damango. NUP does not include six of the settlements that
NSDF considers should be accorded development priority as grade-3 centres. Of
these settlements, four (Kintampo, Nkwanta, Dambai and Yeji) have over 20,000
inhabitants and are growing faster than the national urban average. Although, the
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other two, Gushiegu and Mim are growing slower than the national urban average,
their growth rates are higher than that of the national and rural averages,
respectively. These six settlements together plus the 25 from NUP are considered
as grade-3 and are referred to as major towns. The areas of influence of these major
towns account for about 2 million people, of which 1.3 million are urban and 0.7
million are rural.

The areas-of-influence of 4 large, 14 medium-sized, and 31 major towns contain

about 85 percent of the national population, 95 percent of the urban population and
three-quarters of the rural population. Unlike the distribution of large and to some
extent medium-sized cities, the northern part of Ghana is better served by major
towns, all of which are district centres.

3.5 Abidjan-Accra-Lagos coastal megaregion or urban corridor

The 2010 UNHABITAT State of the World Cities report identified "megaregions" and
"urban corridors" as new urban forms that could be "one of the most significant
developments—and problems—in the way people live and economies grow in the
next 50 years".

Megaregions were first identified by French geographer Jean Gottmann in his book
Megalopolis (1961), which referred the North-eastern United States stretching from
New Hampshire to Virginia. Gottman considered the megaregion to be “the dawn of
a new stage in human civilization,” and predicted its evolution in other parts of the
country by the end of the 20th century. While there are different definitions and lists
of megaregions, many writers agree that the USA has 11, China has 4, Europe has
5 Japan has 4, India has 1 and Africa has 1. Recent research finds that the 10
largest megaregions are home to about 6.5 percent of the world’s population, but
account for about 43 percent of its economic activity, 57 percent of its patented
innovations and 56 percent of its most cited scientists.

UNHABITAT identifies one megaregion in West Africa, the Greater Ibadan-Lagos-

Accra corridor that spans 600 km across four countries—Ghana, Benin, Togo and
Nigeria. Another one that is mentioned in the media is the Abijan-Lagos corridor.
With a fast growing urban population of over 30 million, many experts consider this
coastal urban corridor to be the engine of West Africa’s regional economy.

Writers have used different methods to define mega-regions. One method, used by
the Regional Plan Association and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, considers the
location of existing population centres, population and employment growth
projections, and connectivity between centres. To be considered a candidate
megaregion, an area must have a population density exceeding 77 p/km2 and
projected population growth and job growth of greater than 1.5 percent per annum.

Ghana's coastal region already meets this criteria. With a total population of 10.7
million, and an urban population of 6.3 m, its population density in 2010 was 186
p/km2, more than twice the threshold 38, and its population growth was 2.9 percent
per year between 2000 and 2010, more than five times the threshold and its urban
population growth was 3.8 percent.

Lagos with 10.8 million inhabitants is already considered as one of the World's 21
megacites and is projected to increase to 18.8; Ibandam 2.8 to 5 m, Ogbomosho
from 1 to 1.8m, and Ilorin from 0.8 to 1.4m.

38The population densities of coastal regions in 2010 was: Greater Accra's 1,236 p/km 2, Central's 224 p/km2,
Volta's 103 p/km2 and Western' s 99 p/km2

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The only planned interventions in this corridor to date are the approved, though not
yet aligned, Trans West Africa Highway and the proposed railway network along the
coast. These infrastructure projects are expected to increase the corridor's
attractiveness to economic development and with it more rapid population growth
and urbanisation. This will only increase the need for a special corridor planning
effort including a spatial development framework. Such a framework is needed to
determine, for example, how the urban areas can become more spatially connected
and functionally bound, but also how they might maintain distinct spatial entities
separated by green infrastructure with natural landscapes worthy of protection, and
how intercity travel and freight movement can be best managed over roads, high-
speed rail and new air and water links.

Figure 3.3 Urban population in 2010 and 2025 in Ghana and neighbouring
countries

population in 2025

10,000,000
7,500,000
5,000,000
2,500,000
1,000,000

3.6 Two city-regions around Accra and Kumasi

City-regions come about when major cities extend beyond formal administrative
boundaries to engulf smaller cities and towns. In the process, they also absorb semi-
urban and rural hinterlands, and in some cases merge with other intermediate cities
such as the Cape Town city-region in South Africa, which extends up to 100
kilometres.

Ghana has two major city-regions that are centred around Accra and Kumasi.
These two city regions have physically over-spilled their boundaries into adjacent
administrative areas that include district, municipal and metropolitan assemblies.
They have dense urban cores and a sizeable number of other urban settlements
within a reasonable commute distance. Moreover, both are among the faster
growing urban areas in Ghana. These city-regions are discussed in section 3.5.1
and 3.52 below. Common policies and strategies for both are discussed in section
3.3.5 and 3.3.6 below.

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3.6.1 Accra City-Region

The Accra city-region may be variously defined as: (i) the area defined as the
Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, or GAMA, in 1991, (ii) the contiguous built-up area
in 2010, (iii) the districts sharing part of the built-up area, or (iv) the present and
future daily commuting zone.

In 1991, the government, in response to a rapidly expanding urban footprint,

delineated the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, or GAMA39 as the three districts
around Accra; at the time these were the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), the
Tema Metropolitan Assembly (TMA) and Ga. The term GAMA is still used to refer to
the original area but the three original districts were subdivided in 2010 and these
were further subdivided in 2013 40.

Between 2000 and 2010, GAMA’s population grew rapidly from 4.75 to about 6.48
million. Besides the metropolitan assemblies of Accra and Tema, GAMA has several
urban settlements: one with a population between 100 and 250k, three at 50-100k,
seven at 20-50k, 21 at 10-20k and 35 at 5-10k. Many of these settlements grew
rapidly: 16 faster than national urban average and 15 above national population
average. NSDF estimates that GAMA could reach 8.8 million people by 2035.

National population and economic activities are concentrated in GAMA. Its area
makes up less than one percent of the national territory but its population in 2010
made up about 15 percent of the national total, and its GDP accounted over an
estimated quarter of the national GDP. While the 20 most productive districts
contribute 55 percent of the national GDP, GAMA alone generates almost half (47%)
of that amount.

If the city region is defined as the 90 km2 built-up area of Accra, it would have about
3.85 million inhabitants and would have grown at an annual rate of 3.2 percent
between 2000 and 2010 41.

If the city-region is defined by the 439 km2 area of the twelve districts 42 that share
part of the Accra built-up area within their boundaries, it would have a population of
4.3 million, 4 million urban and 400,000 rural, and an urbanisation level of 90
percent, and would have grown at 3.54 percent annually while its urban population
grew by 3.92 percent.

Population growth in the Accra built up area.

Accra city-region's recent population growth may be calculated in the six districts
that held part of the built-up area in the year 2000 (Table 3.3). These districts grew
at an annual rate of 3.5 percent, or almost 1.3 million people, from 3.1 to 4.4 million
inhabitants. While Urban population growth made up almost all (98%) of this
increase, it is significant that the rural population also grew, albeit slightly. About
two-thirds of the growth occurred in two districts, Ga and AMA, which grew by about
6.2 and 2.3 percent per annum. Nevertheless, Awutu Efutu Senya, in the Central
39
The term GAMA was first used in a 1991 TCPD-United Nations study which defined GAMA as the area within three districts –
Accra, Tema and Ga.
40In 2010, the original GAMA consisted of eight districts—AMA, TMA, Ga East Municipal Area, Ga West Municipal Area, Ga
South Municipal Area, Ashaiman Municipal Area, Adenta Municipal and Ledzekuku-Krowor Municipal Area. In 2013, the original
GAMA area would now also include La Nkwantanang Madina, La Dade Kotopan, and parts of Upper West Akim and Ningo
Prampram.
41 The population was estimated by aggregating the 2010 census population of localities whose centres are c ontained in the
built-up area. A more exact estimate would require census data at the enumeration-area level, presently not available.
42 These twelve districts are year-2010 districts, located in three regions. Nine are in the Greater Accra Regions: Accra

Metropolitan Area (AMA), Tema, Ledzokuku Krowor, Adentan, Ashaiman, Ga East, Ga West, Ga South, and Dangme West.
One is in the Eastern Region: Akwapim South. Two are in the Central Region: Awutu Senya and Gamoa East. Of these districts,
AMA and Tema are metropolitan assemblies while Ashaiman, Ga West, Ga East and Ledzokuku Krowor and Akwapim South
are all municipal assemblies.

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Region, grew most rapidly, at over 8 percent. Rapid growth of Ga and Awutu Efutu
Senya is evidence of a westward urban growth trend.

Table 3.3 Accra city-region population, 2000-2010

change 2000 - 2010
Year 2000 Year 2010
number percent age

% urbanized

% urbanized
density

density
urban

urban

urban

urban
rural

rural

rural

rural
total

total

total

total
AMA 1,659 1,659 0 7,415 100 2,077 2,077 0 9282 100 418 418 0 2.3 2.3 0
Ga 550 402 149 699 73 1,008 839 169 1280 83 458 438 20 6.2 7.7 1.2
Tema 506 447 59 1,075 88 672 633 39 1426 94 165 186 -20 2.9 3.5 -4.1
Awutu E. Senya 170 111 59 242 66 389 316 72 553 81 219 205 14 8.6 11 2.1
Akwapim South 116 53 63 302 46 124 61 63 320 49 7 8 -1 0.6 1.4 -0.1
Dangme West 97 23 74 60 24 123 42 81 77 34 26 19 7 2.4 6.2 0.9
TOTAL 3,099 2,695 404 742 87 4,391 3,968 424 1052 90 1,293 1,273 20 3.5 3.9 0.5

Source: GSS Population and Housings Census 2000 and 2010

Strengths and potentials of the Accra City Region

With a nickname “The Gateway to Ghana – its Commercial Core”, Accra is the
governmental and commercial capital of the nation, and its biggest sub-national
economy. It is a vital strategic, national asset and therefore should be strengthened
as a gateway to international trade.

The city region contributes about a quarter of total national GDP—approximately the
same share as Greater London contributes to the economy of the UK. Its role goes
beyond economic output; it acts as a magnet for investment into the country and as
a gateway for international trade for Ghana. It is roughly at the centre of a West
African regional economic corridor—and inter-connected by good air, sea, rail and
highway links—running from Abidjan to Lagos, the capital of a MINTS 43 country and
an economic powerhouse. Accra city-region leads or is second in almost all non-
primary sectors.

The city-region has particular strengths and potential in financial services and ICT.
Its economic assets include the country’s largest port, its only international airport
and a functioning railroad from Accra to Tema. Its locational assets include the
national capital, attractive beaches, room for physical expansion, and proximity to
the country's main power source, only 100 km from Lake Volta.

The city region excels in almost all economic sectors except agriculture, mining and
education sectors. Its output in finance and insurance, real estate and professional
services, and transport and communication services account for 47, 46 and 40
percent, respectively, of the national sectoral output. In the electricity and gas,
wholesale and retail, construction and accommodation and food industries, the city
region contributed 34, 34, 34, 40 per cent, respectively.

43 MINT is an acronym that refers to the economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey. The
term was coined by Fidelity Investments, a Boston-based asset management firm, and was popularized
by Jim O'Neill of Goldman Sachs, who had created the term BRICS, which stands for Brasil, Russia,
India, China, and South Africa, another group of strong and promising economies.
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In health services and other community services, education and public

administration and compulsory social services sectors, the city region recorded a
GDP contribution of 28, 24 and 40 percent respectively. Finally, the city region
contributed 38 and 34 percent in the other social services and manufacturing
sectors.

Undoubtedly, the Accra city-region is the nation's most important economic hub and
must remain its top priority for infrastructure investment and economic development.

Recent developments of significance include the Airport City (a multi-storey mixed

commercial development within a few kilometres from the airport); several highways
including the Tema Motorway, Accra-Winneba Highway, the George W Bush (or N1)
highway, and the Akosombo-Tema highway.

Planned initiatives include a new airport, a ring-road, the Trans-African Highway and
a regional rail network, and Tema port improvements. Other opportunities for
investment include water front development and additional multi-storey development
particularly near the airport.

Key challenges
Key challenges facing Accra include its rapid expansion at declining densities and
strengthening Accra as a gateway to international trade. Between 1985 and 2000,
the population grew at 2.7 percent per year while the built-up area grew by 6.5
percent, giving a rate of density decline of 3.2 percent per year. The trend worsened
between 2000 and 2010, with population and built up area growing at 3.3 and 9.6,
respectively, for density decline of 5.8 percent per annum (table 3.4).

Table 3.4 Historical and projected growth of population, area and density

Year Annual growth rate

1985 2000 2010 2035 1985-2000 2000-2010 2010-2035
Built-up area (km2) 140 360 900 1860 6.5 9.60 2.95
S-1: Growth at 2010 density
population (million) 1.80 2.70 3.75 7.64 2.74 3.34 2.89
population density (ppha) 123 75 41 41 -3.24 -5.86 0.00
S-2: Growth at trend density decline
population (million) 1.80 2.70 3.75 4.71 2.74 3.34 0.92
population density (ppha) 123 75 41 10 -3.24 -5.86 -5.50
S-3: Growth at 1/2 trend density decline
population (million) 1.80 2.70 3.75 5.96 2.74 3.34 1.87
population density (ppha) 123 75 41 23 -3.24 -5.86 -2.25

Source: NSDF Study based on GSS population census and Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project

The density decline with its higher consumption of land per person is a matter of
concern in itself. It also raises questions as whether Accra's projected population
could be contained within the new ring road, which could be designated as a
possible urban growth boundary, similarly to the new ring road around the Greater
Kumasi Conurbation.

The outer-ring road defines an area of about 1800 km2, double the existing built-up
area, with space for urban development expansion area of about 900 km 2. The
following three scenarios considered the population that could be contained within
the ring road at three different densities.
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Scenario-1: If Accra grew at its 2010 density, 41ppha, a population of over 7.6
million could be contained within the growth boundary. This would imply an annual
population growth rate of about almost 3 percent per year, which is not
unreasonable given the historical growth of 3.3 percent.

Scenario-2: If Accra's density declined at the trend rate, or 5.5 percent, then the
population density in 2035 would be 10 ppha and only 4.7 m people could be
contained within the growth boundary, and the population growth rate would be less
than one percent. In this scenario, it would be likely that development would need to
take place outside of the growth boundary.

Scenario-3: If Accra's density declined at one-half the trend rate, or 2.25 percent,
then the population density in 2035 would be 23 ppha a nd nearly 6 m people could
be contained within the growth boundary, with a population growth rate of 1.8
percent. In this scenario, as well, it would be likely that development would need to
take place outside of the growth boundary.

The conclusion is that if planners wish to contain Accra's estimated 2035 population
within the ring road, then they will need to plan for and encourage higher density
development.

Strengthening Accra as a gateway to international trade

The following strategic actions should be pursued:

■ Support Accra to compete globally, especially with other regional centres, such
as Lagos and Abidjan, to attract investment in the activities associated with the
role of a regional business, trade and investment hub. This is a role that no other
city in Ghana could realise.
■ Improve connectivity to international markets, through new and upgraded air, rail,
expressway and marine infrastructure.
■ Avoid shifting industry and services from Accra to secondary cities; let these
cities grow naturally, in a mutually-beneficial fashion.

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Figure 3.4 GAMA Urban Network

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3.6.2 Greater Kumasi Sub-Region (GKSR) and Greater Kumasi Conurbation

The "Study on the Comprehensive Development Plan for Greater Kumasi"
delineated the "Greater Kumasi Sub-Region", or GKSR. GKSR, defined by the
boundaries of eight districts—Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly, Afigya-Kwabre,
Kwabre East, Ejisu-Juaben, Asokore-Mampong, Bosomtwe, Atwima-Kwamwoma
and Atwima-Nwabiagya—comprises an area of 2,850 km2 or 11 percent of the
Ashanti Region. This area may be taken as the Kumasi city-region44.

Within the GKSR, the study defined a "Greater Kumasi Urban Conurbation", or
GKC, that included the Kumasi's existing contiguous built-up area and sufficient land
for decades of growth. GKC covers an area of 1,025 km2 or about 4 percent of
Ashanti Region and about 36 percent of GKSR.

Within GKC, Kumasi Metropolitan Area (KMA) covers an area of 254 km2 or about
25 percent of GKC. In 2010, KMA was about 84 percent built-up.

Population growth in Ashanti Region, GKSR, GKC and KMA

The Ashanti Region, particularly its urban areas, is among the fastest growing in the
county. According to GKUDP, Ashanti's population may increase from 4.8 to 8.7
million between 2010 and 2033, GKSR's from 2.8 to 5.8 million, GKC's from 2.5 to
5.5 million, and KMA/Asokore Mampong's from 2 to 4.2 million, or almost half of
Ashanti's population45.

These figures mean that the population in the region may concentrate. Ashanti's
area outside of GKSR may grow more slowly than GKSR, and GKSR's area outside
of GKC may grow more slowly than GKC. In fact, the population of the area outside
GKC but within GKSR may lose population and have only about 300,000
inhabitants. Nevertheless, GKC may de-concentrate; its area outside of
KMA/Ashokore Mampong may grow more rapidly than within KMA/Ashokore
Mampong. The fastest growing population may be within GKC outside of
KMA/Ashokore Mampong, which may nearly triple from 0.42 to 1.24 million
inhabitants by 203346.

Urbanised area and density

According to GKUDP, between 2010 and 2033 period, residential land may
increase, but more slowly than the population—by about 105 percent in GKC, 150
percent in the area outside KMA/Ashokore Mampong, and only by 19 percent in
KMA. This means that residential densities may increase significantly, from 67 to 73
persons per hectare in GKC and from 159 to 279 ppha in KMA/Ashokore Mampong,
a density that is comparable to some of the most densely populated cities in the
world.

Some 282 km2, or 27 percent of GKC, falls outside of the ring road. About 12
percent of GKC's area that is outside the ring road is already built-up, leaving 248
km2 as greenfield sites. Almost half (48%) of the GKC area within the ring-road is
already built-up, leaving 386 km2 as greenfield sites. Thus 62 percent of GKC, or
634 km2, is comprised of greenfield sites.

44
The ”Study on the Comprehensive Urban Development Plan for Greater Kumasi”, 2013, was essentially a sub-regional
spatial development framework (SDF) of eight districts and a structure plan for the future urbanised area around KMA. The
Kumasi City-region and urban area within it were clarified and defined as ”The Greater Kumasi Sub-Region and ”the Greater
Kumasi Conurbation".
45 GKUDP, 2013

46The districts are projected to grow at widely varying rates and reach 2033 populations as follows: Ejisu-Juaben, 438,940
people at 4.97%; Afigya-Kwabre people 259,891 at 2.85%; Atwima Nwabiagya, 251,548 people at 2.30%; Kwabre East,
220,322 people at 2.85%; Atwima Kwanmowa,198,629 people at 3.47%; and Bosomtwe, 165,273 people at 2.49%.
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Table 3.5 Population and density change in GKC: 2010 to 2033

residential area gross density

population
(km2) residential areas

% increase

% increase

% increase
2010

2033

2010

2033

2010

2033
GKC 2,459 5,470 122 37 75 105 67 73 8
Outside KMA 424 1,243 193 24 60 151 18 21 17
KMA 2,035 4,227 108 13 15 19 159 279 75

Source: NSDF Study based on GKUDP, 2013

Strengths and potentials of Kumasi

Kumasi, Ghana’s second largest city, has a population size and growth that may
qualify it a primary city along with Accra. It is the centre of national population
distribution and a hub of transportation between the south and north. It sits at the
peak of the ‘golden triangle’, links the coastal industrial corridor with the rest of the
country, and links the cocoa producing regions with the ports of Tema and Takoradi.

Significant economic growth has been achieved largely through promotion of labour-
intensive industries and the ICT and high-tech sectors. With the nickname “The
Heart of the Nation; a City of Culture and Knowledge" and a long and rich history,
the Kumasi City-Region has consolidated its position as the commercial and
agricultural service centre for the central zone of Ghana. It is also an academic
centre and has several significant manufacturing clusters, Suame Magazine being
the most well-known.

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Figure 3.5 Kumasi Urban Network

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3.6.3 Recommendations for city regions

These two city-regions have a number of common challenges that may invite
common strategies.

Both city-regions are experiencing rapid, low density expansion at their peripheries
and in towns and villages located up to 100 kilometres from the centres.
Development is taking place around rural feeder roads; in ribbons along trunk roads;
in random, inefficient cluster patterns that lack basic services and social amenities;
and outside of the designated areas in the structure plans and in conflict with
planning guidelines. New housing is being developed for the middle and upper
income groups while poor households are left to find accommodation in slums and
informal settlements. In Accra, most new housing developments are located in
places that are distant from poorer areas.

NSDF recommends the following measures to address these challenges.

■ Adopt city-region planning and management. The government will have to

establish an integrated, inter-jurisdiction, city-region planning and management
body. This entity will have to be tasked with preparing a city-region spatial
development framework that include components for land development and use,
economic development, environmental protection, mobility and transport
planning, and infrastructure and services. The SDF will have to adopt the
following principles:
■ Promote regional accessibility: Regional accessibility refers to the share of jobs
and services available to the population within a given time-distance. Studies
show that regional accessibility can have a major impact on trip length and travel
mode choice, and therefore the average per vehicle distance travelled (VDT).
Dispersing jobs to suburban locations of satellite towns can sometimes reduce
commute lengths, but it may also increase non-commute vehicle travel.
■ Discourage scattered development: Scattered or fragmented development
leaves non-planned and unusable open spaces between. It increases the
distanced between destinations, increases vehicle distance travelled, and lowers
the overall population density.
■ Establish an urban growth containment boundary: GKUDP has already
established an urban growth boundary (UGB) that delineates GKC. Accra does
not have an UGB, although a green belt had also been designed but never
approved. While UGBs have been criticised for raising land prices and
constraining urban and economic growth, its defenders claim that this can be
avoided if the UGB includes an adequate supply of buildable land to
accommodate the expected growth during a 20-year period.
■ Provide ring roads where applicable: An outer ring-road can improve transport
movement and increase accessibility around a dense, built-up urban area. Ring
road rights-of-way will have to be wide enough to include dedicated lanes for
mass public transport and facilities for non-motorised transport. The GKC plan
includes an outer ring road and one has been planned around Accra, although it
has not been designated as an urban growth boundary.
■ Establish and strengthen development corridors: Development corridors, linked
to ring roads, will have to be designated to concentrate new, high density, urban
growth. Such a corridor has been established in GKSR between Ejisu and the
Boankra inland port area and towards Bekwai, Kokofu, Mampong, Afinso
Ahenkro, Mankranso and Nyinahin.
■ Promote centrality and centeredness: "Centrality" is the share of the population
that lives close to the city centre compared to its suburbs and periphery.

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"Centeredness" is the share of jobs and other attractions that are located in the
main activity centres as compared to being dispersed. In urban areas with high
centrality and centeredness, people tend to drive less and use alternative modes
more.
■ Promote high densities: "Density" is the ratio population to area and may be
applied to a region, district, city, and neighbourhood. Studies show that as
density increases, so does the share of trips by car, the average trip length, and
the cost to construct, operate and maintain urban infrastructure and services
including roads, drains, sewers, electricity lines and solid waste collection. Thus
higher densities are considered to be “greener” than lower densities.
■ Promote compactness: "Compactness" is the degree to which a city footprint
approaches that of a circle. Compact settlements are more accessible—the more
circular, the closer are its locations to the settlement centre and to one another,
and the less VDT.
■ Strengthen the central business district (CBD): A city-region's CBD is
fundamental to its well-being. The CBD is the spiritual soul of the city and often
the main engine that drives the economy and culture. CBDs can be
strengthened, for example, through investments in street and public space
greening and improvement, infrastructure upgrading, better public transport and
traffic management and pedestrian environment, educational and cultural
facilities and events, and new high density housing development.
■ Invest in other urban centres: Centres—places that provide housing, jobs,
schools, shopping, and recreation that are close together—provide many and
diverse opportunities to the largest numbers of people and are efficient users of
land, energy and infrastructure. Cities and city regions may have network centres
of different sizes and functions. They may be new or upgraded centres (For
example, GKUDP plans to upgrade Ejisu as a secondary centre of the sub-
region). A centre's development policy may be combined with a policy to
discourage growth in suburban and rural areas.
■ Promote transport-oriented-development, or TODs: A TOD is high-density
mixed-used developments that is located near to a public transport station and
corridor. Promote TODs with high accessibility and connectivity, and encourage
people to take public transport. The GKC plan includes TODs in the form of “new
towns” that are located largely along the main corridors.
■ Promote mixed land uses: Mixed land uses may be promoted at several scales—
cities, neighbourhoods, streets and within buildings—as well as within types.
Studies show that people in areas with mixed land uses have less cars, shorter
trips, lower car use and more use of alternative modes. A good mix of jobs and
housing tends to reduce commute distance and VDT; a good mix of convenience
stores and housing; promotes access by pedestrians and cyclists within
neighbourhoods; and a good mix of housing types and prices ensures more
socially inclusive and equitable neighbourhoods.
■ Promote public transport: A high quality, wide coverage, public transport system
is essential to decrease congestion, pollution, and energy used in transport.
People who live and work near to good quality public transport tend to own fewer
vehicles, drive less and rely more on alternative modes. Overall accessibility can
be increased by high density TODs located at public transport stations and
corridors.
■ Discourage private vehicle use: Measures consist of removing fuel price
subsidies; raising the cost of driving through road and/or area pricing or by
introducing fuel taxes that incorporate externalities of carbon emissions,
pollution, and energy security; limiting parking provision and raising parking
charges; and introducing of networks of carpool lanes.

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■ Promote alternative transport modes: Studies show that promotion of alternative

transport modes tends to increase mobility, reduce congestion, lower energy
consumption and improve health. Pedestrian-friendly development could start
with a central commercial area such as Osu in Accra, where a pedestrian plan
had been prepared but never implemented. Plan for bicycle lanes as well.
■ Promote physically connective road network: Streets connecting large urban
blocks are less connected than those around smaller blocks. Increased
connectivity reduces vehicle travel by reducing travel distances between
destinations and encouraging walking and cycling.
■ Manage traffic before building new roads: Studies show that new roads
frequently generate additional traffic; it is often said that "urban areas cannot
build their way out of congestion". New roads should be considered as the last
option only after softer measures are adopted to improve traffic management.
■ Promote digital connectivity: Digital connectivity that enables virtual
transactions—for meeting, shopping, banking, and learning—can eliminate or at
least reduce the need to travel. Improving digital connectivity is a priority in more
remote rural parts of the city-region.
■ Adopt a grid-based model for urban expansion: Even if the density of existing
cities is increased, a large part of the future population will need to be
accommodated in new expansion areas. NSDF suggests that future expansion
areas be laid out in a grid, a form that has been used since the days of Rome
and applied with success in Manhattan, Milton Keynes New Town, and
elsewhere. Box 6 describes one concept for grid development, although there
are many others.

Box 6 A grid-based concept for urban expansion

Peter Calthorpe, an American New Urbanist, developed a modular concept for urban expansio n
that may be applied, with desired modifications, to the physical expansion of Ghana's city -
regions. The one-mile square (2.58 km2) module includes a hierarchy of roads and urban
centres. The four types of roads range from transit boulevards and major throughways down to
local streets. The arterials and boulevards allow for through-traffic with an option to enter or
bypass a commercial centre—this permits access to walkable neighbourhoods and urban town
centres without cutting them off from local pedestrian movement. The network alleviates traffic
congestion and creates walkable, transit-serviceable neighbourhoods, with green spaces
around neighbourhood edges.

The model includes town, village and neighbourhood centres. Walkable town and village
centres are placed at the crossroads of the transit boulevards and avenues. Residential
neighbourhoods are directly accessible to these centres by local connector streets as well as
the avenues. Industrial, warehouse and other auto-oriented uses are places close to the
throughways.

Each type of centre has an appropriate scale and type of access. The town centre is pedestrian-
friendly as well as accessible to the boulevard’s through-traffic and transit line. The villages are
directly accessible by foot, bus, car, or bike from their surrounding neighbourhoods while their
couplet streets permit car access to retail shops. Car- and truck-oriented uses are placed at the
intersections of the throughways away from the transit and away from transit and mixed use
centres.

The concept is not meant to be implemented without being adapted to fit the surrounding
terrain, which would have contextual constraints such as rivers, hills and other features. The
modular concept can seamlessly grow over time from lightly developed residential areas to core
urban areas, depending on market demands.

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Source: The Urban Network, a new framework for growth; Peter Calthorpe

3.7 Urban Networks 47

Urban networks may be defined as a spatial form comprising cities, towns and rural
settlements that are within a reasonable distance of each other 48. Unlike
agglomerations or conurbations, whose boundaries can be clearly delineated, urban
networks typically have 'variable' or 'fuzzy' boundaries.

The lower the distance from one 'side' of a network to the other, the easier it is to
plan and develop. Some experts suggest this distance should not be more than 75
km to 100 km, others suggest it should not take more than an hour. Other success
factors are the network's population density and number of settlements 49.

Urban networks have a proven effect on urban development. Studies show that
towns that are surrounded by others tend to grow faster than isolated towns, and
they suggest two possible reasons for this affect. First, investors and migrants may
make locational decisions in two steps: selecting between different networks then

47 NSDF uses the term "urban network" although other terms such as "urban cluster" and "urban zones" are used
in the literature and have the same or similar meanings.
48 What constitutes a "reasonable" is a subjective matter that depends not only on transport modes and time-

distance but also on individual perceptions. This suggests that reasonableness should be established empirically
by asking people directly.
49 City Cluster Development: Toward an Urban-Led Development Strategy for Asia; K. Choe and A. Laquian;

ADB, 2008
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choosing between its individual towns. Second, a town in a network would have
greater and more diverse job opportunities, and therefore retain its population and
experience less out-migration, especially during economic downturns 50.

The Asian Development Bank has been promoting an urban network approach to
development since 2008. According to ADB, the approach is "a process of economic
and social development through which... human settlements become linked together
functionally, structurally, and spatially to form an integrated urban region" ADB
maintains that such an approach "enhances the developmental potential of cities
and towns ... by strategically linking their development through efficient provision of
urban infrastructure and services and innovative financing techniques" 51.

Given the success of this approach in other countries, NSDF advocates an urban
network development approach in Ghana. While population and economic activities
are likely to continue to concentrate in and near the largest metropolitan areas, the
intensity of this development may be balanced by promoting growth in urban
networks around regional cities.

NSDF identifies eight potential urban networks that are centred around STMA,
Tamale, Cape Coast, Sunyani, North-East (Bolgatanga-Bawku), Aflao, Ho-Hohoe
and Wa. These networks are identified based on the following criteria: (i) a
maximum distance of 100 km between the most distant urban settlements; (ii) the
presence of a regional capital52; (iii) the presence of at least one grade 1 or grade 2
urban centre; (iv) at least one settlement on the proposed rail network and
connected to the proposed expressway system; and (v) possessing a higher than
average rural population density.

Urban networks have many potential benefits. These include realisation of urban
synergies and inclusive development; more efficient and affordable services; more
diverse job and housing opportunities; stronger attractiveness for investment;
improved capacity to solve urban problems; concentrated and balanced urban
development; reduced out-migration; and improved functional links. More
specifically, the planned development of urban networks can lead to:

■ urban synergies and more inclusive development if the cities, towns and
villages in these networks identify and reinforce each other's strengths and
compensate for weaknesses, so that they have more to offer together than they
do as individual urban entities;
■ more efficient and affordable services if they are provided in an integrated
manner for the whole network rather than for individual cities, towns, and rural
villages. Network members can jointly plan and share the cost of services—such
as public transport, education and health facilities as well as unique services
such as theatres and libraries—that may be unaffordable by one urban
settlement alone;
■ more diverse employment and housing opportunities if they improve their
transport infrastructure and public transport services. This would serve to
integrate the labour market and enable specialization and complementarity
among the network members, thus providing more diverse employment
opportunities and housing options;

50 Urban Clusters as Growth Foci: Evidence from the Analysis of European Urban System; Boris A. Pertnov;
Isreal-Dutch Regional Science Association Workshop; Jerusalem; November 2008.
51 City Cluster Development: Toward an Urban-Led Development Strategy for Asia; K. Choe and A. Laquian;

Asian Development Bank; 2008

52 Except in the case of Alfao.

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■ higher attraction for investment if the economies of network members are

integrated to achieve a greater economic weight to compete with larger cities for
private investment (or justify provision of public facilities) especially in area-wide
development projects involving urban infrastructure and services;
■ greater capacity to solve urban problems such as environmental pollution that
do not respect the political and administrative boundaries of individual cities,
towns and villages;
■ concentrated and balanced development if they identify and support planned
urban development in rural villages that are close to and can be integrated into
existing built up areas; identify locations near to trunk roads where villages can
be permitted to grow into freestanding, new urban settlements; and discourage
development in the rest;
■ reduced urban and rural out-migration if they establish strong urban-rural
economic linkages that may include farmers' markets and physical links including
improved feeder roads and internet connectivity;
■ improved functional links if they encourage individuals and their
organisations—governmental, private sector and civil society— to interact,
cooperate and form partnerships to help achieve objectives. Network member
settlements could start with simple forms of cooperation such as exchanging
experiences and advice on solving similar problems, then move on to advanced
forms such as joint strategies, actions or investments. Areas for cooperation may
include cultural events, tourism, economy, educational exchange, climate
change adaptation, natural environment and physical infrastructure.

Implementation of urban networks may not require a new tier of government but
could be managed through partnerships between local- and district-level authorities.
Participation in the networks could be voluntary, flexible and pragmatic. The primary
responsibility for planning and developing these networks would rest with the
authorities and stakeholders at the regional, district, and urban settlement levels,
with the support of national government. For example, the national government
could support urban settlements to draw up partnership agreements and intervene
where urban networks that cross administrative boundaries.

Urban network planners and managers will need to engage their citizens and private
firms in the promotion, planning and functioning of the networks. However, the
success of the networks depends on the ability of people to cooperate and act as
promoters of their areas.

NSDF proposes that the government create and support an association of urban
networks with the aim of sharing learning and best practices. Initially, priority
attention should be afforded the networks that are most keen to be established.
After progress can be demonstrated, attention will have to be given to the networ ks
in the most disadvantaged areas.

3.7.1 Sekondi -Takoradi Urban Network (STUN)

STUN definition and connectivity
The Sekondi-Takoradi Urban Network (STUN) includes all or part of six districts:
Sekondi-Takoradi (STMA), Ahanta West, Shama, Wassa East, Mpohor and
Komenda Edna Eguafo Abirem.

STUN is 80 percent urbanised and is one of the more populous urban networks.
STUN comprises six urban settlements that are on average only 26 km apart and
range in size from about 6,000 to 590,000 inhabitants. Sekondi-Takoradi, with 90
percent of the urban population, is the most populous. It is only 23 km from Agona
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Nkwanta with 14,000 people; 17 km from Mpohor with about 11,000 people; and 28
km from Daboase with about 6,000 people. Dixcove and Daboase are the furthest
apart (50 km) while Daboase and Assorkaw Essaman are the closest (10km).
STUN’s also has 227 rural communities with a population of 120,000. Some 83
percent of the rural population is within 5 km from the main coastal trunk road
connecting STUN to Accra and beyond.

STUN's demographics
STUN's population, both urban and rural, is increasing rapidly. With only four
percent of Western Region’s land area, its share of regional population grew from a
quarter to a third between 2000 and 2010 and could well reach 50 percent by 2035.
Its total population and urban population grew faster than that of the nation and the
region, 4.8 and 4.6 percent per year; its urban population grew by about 220,000
people and may increase to about 760,000 by 2035. All of its urba n settlements are
growing, with the exception of Daboase. STMA, known as the "oil city" since the
recent discovery of oil, grew at three percent between 2000 and 2010—by 210,000
people over the decade. Agona Nkwanta and Dixcove grew at 3.4 and 2.8 percent
respectively while Mpohor grew slowly (1.4%).

Between 2000 and 2010, in contrast to most of the country, STUN's rural population
grew at 6.5 percent annually, from about 65,000 to 120,000 and may reach half a
million by 2035. This rate of growth was significantly higher than the national rural
average of 1.3 percent and strikingly higher than the national urban population
growth rate. This may be due to an increase in rural based activities such as small
scale mining and plantation of rubber and oil palm.

STUN is the densest network in the country, with about 8,400 people per square
kilometre (p/km2) in 2010.

STUN strengths and potentials

STMA boasts many assets and features. It is the hub of a region endowed with
considerable natural and mineral resources, particularly the recently discovered oil
and gas off the shore of Western region. The oil and gas sector is expected to grow,
but as it is generally not labour intensive, it may not directly provide a large number
of jobs. Yet the upstream and downstream activities—construction and operation of
harbours, supply bases, power plants and the service sector —are expected to
provide jobs.

New projects related to the oil and gas sector include: port deepening and upgrading
handle larger ships and provide new logistical support and storage facilities; a gas
pipeline; a gas processing plant at Atuabo; a power station and agro-chemical
fertilizer plant at Domini Lagoon; a 1600-acre oil refinery and storage facility at
Pumpuni (west of Takoradi); a connection to the West African Gas Pipeline at
Aboadze in Shama district; a support facility east of Sekondi for oil and gas on-shore
safety and environmental and search and rescue; and an upgrade of the airport
facilities. The above developments are expected to have knock on effects and
induce other development activities including offices and light industrial zones for oil
service companies, supply chain services, real estate, insurance,
telecommunications, banking, and weather forecasting.

Low-cost electricity—from existing and planned thermal power plants—is expected

to attract investment, particularly in energy intensive industries. This may encourage
further investment in petrochemical industries, which can be accommodated in the
Free Zones at Shama and East of STMA, at Apowa and Pumpuni west of STMA,
and at Domini Lagoon west of Bonyere in Jomoro.

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The gas pipeline extension may induce investment and development in the mining
areas of Tarkwa and Prestea Huni Valley.

STMA itself has a number of strengths. Located on the Trans-African Highway about
310 km from Abidjan (and 220 km from Accra), a trip between the two now takes
less than 4 hours by car and 30 minutes by air; a trip to Cape Coast takes less than
90 minutes—and the proposed new expressway and rail line will shorten travel times
considerably. The existing rail line runs through the city and connects Takoradi to
the port at Sekondi, and when rehabilitated and extended it will provide transport
within the STUN commuting area. STMA is also well served by a fair number of
hospitals, polyclinics and other health centres. It has two tertiary educational
institutions and a sufficient number of secondary and primary schools. It also has
several sites that are designated as industrial and commercial activities most of
which are adjacent to main roads or the rail line.

STUN has multiple strengths that can be summarised as follows:

■ Strong economic base comprised of oil extraction and production activities and
petro-chemical related investments, centre for the production of cash crops such
as rubber and oil palm, presence of the Takoradi port and related export and
import activities, and some of the finest beaches, touristic attractions and hotels
in the country;
■ Large population and high density that presents opportunities for private sector
investment and economical infrastructure provision; Sekondi-Takoradi
metropolis, which anchors the network, is the fastest growing grade-1 centre in
the country;
■ Good internal connectivity. With the exception of Mpohor, the 95 km trunk road
connects all urban centres and more than 80 percent (78 km) of the trunk road
network are national level trunk roads.
■ Good external connectivity. The network connects other parts of the country and
beyond by road, air and water. The major road connectivity between Ghana,
Ivory Coast and Togo passes through the network linking Sekondi-Takoradi to
major cities such as Accra, Abidjan and Lomé. The airstrip/airport in the
metropolis facilitates air travel between the network and major cities in the
country, Accra, Kumasi and Tamale. The Takoradi Harbour also enables water
transport between STUN/Ghana and the international community.

Key problems
A recent STMA spatial development plan, prepared with support of Global
Communities, identified problems and opportunities in the city. Key problems
include: traffic congestion, particularly on the coastal road in the built-up part of the
twin city; inadequate public transportation options; inadequate urban services, public
facilities and housing; high risk of floods and inadequate protection of natural areas;
poor civic design. Problems related to the port include poor access and congestion
and lack of land for port and port-services expansion.

Key strategies
The STMA plan adopts a ”structured continuity” concept that (i) promotes re-
development of existing areas and extension of already-developed areas and (ii)
restricts peripheral development not served by existing infrastructure. The plan also
advocates a "two-centre city"—the Takoradi CBD and the Secondi port. It defines
four, nested, growth zones: zone 1 comprises the two city-centres; zone 2 is the old
residential areas including fishing villages as well as public and commercial facilities;
zone 3 includes new residential areas, farms and vacant land; and zone 4 is mainly

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farm and parks. While the structure plan does not include a map, its key spatial
recommendations, which are endorsed by NSDF, include the following:

■ a green belt to preserve existing open space, including wetlands;

■ CBD strengthened with upscale offices and retail;
■ upgraded historic core areas to include improved housing;
■ sub-centres developed as activity nodes;
■ mixed-use development along main radial corridors;
■ public transport to reduce urban sprawl and reliance on private vehic les;
■ land allocated for small and medium scale enterprise;
■ redeveloped derelict and vacant land and properties.

Recognising the strengths of STUN and the opportunities its presents, NSDF sees
the need for further strengthening the connectivity between the network and major
cities in Ghana and beyond. The following proposals have been made.

■ a new expressway to reduce travel time between Sekondi-Takoradi and the

major cities such as Kumasi and Tamale;
■ a new railway connection between the port of Sekondi-Takoradi to northern
Ghana and Burkina Faso, passing through Mpohor (which is within the network),
Kumasi and Tamale; and
■ a new railway connection from STUN to Accra and further to Togo.

Further, STUN being part of Western region, is the region that in 2011-2, developed
the first and only Regional Spatial Development Framework under the three tier
planning model that matches the NSDF findings in broad terms. Other adjacent
Structure and local plans have also been developed by TCPD. The purpose of this
framework and plans was mainly to accommodate the gas and oil industry with other
prevailing socio-economic activities and the sensitive environment characterising
Western region.

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Figure 3.6 STMA Urban Network
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3.7.2 Cape Coast Urban Network (CCUN)

The Cape Coast Urban Network (CUN) is a distinct urban network owing to the
presence of the regional capital around which is clustered a sizeable number of
urban and rural settlements. Nevertheless, all or part of CCUN may also be
considered as belonging to the Sekondi-Takoradi Urban Network, only 60 km away.

CCUN extends over all or part of seven districts—Cape Coast Metro, Mfantsiman,
Ekumfi, Komenda Edina Eguafo Abirem, Abura Asebu Kwamankese, Lower Twifo
Denkyira and Ejumako Enyan Esiam. Between 2000 and 2010, its population grew
by 140,000 from 420,000 to 560,000 and is projected to reach 760,000 inhabitants
by 2035.

CCUN, which is 57 percent urban, increased its urban dwellers from 220,000 in
2000 to 320,000 in 2010 and may reach 560,000 by 2035. The urban population is
distributed over 13 urban settlements with populations that range from about 5,000
to 130,000. CCUN's urban population is concentrated along the coast; seven coastal
settlements—Cape Coast, Elmina, Komenda, Saltpond, Moree, Yamoransa,
Biriwa—account for three quarters of the urban inhabitants.

CCUN's urban settlements are, on average, only 24 km apart. With a population of

130,000, Cape Coast is the most populous. It is only only 23 km from Saltpond with
around 40,000 inhabitants, 30 km from Mankesim with 38,000, 12 km from Elmi na
with 23,000, 6 km from Moree with 23,000 and 28 km from Komenda with 15,000
people. The longest distance, 58 km, is between Mankesim and Komenda and the
shortest, 2 km, is between Moree and Yamoransa.

The network’s rural population, distributed over 340 rural settlements, increased
slightly—from about 200,000 in 2000 to 238,000 in 2010, slightly faster than the
national and regional average—and is projected to decline by about 30,000 by 2035.
Over 90 percent of the rural population is within 5 km from a trunk road.

CCUN's total and urban populations grew moderately between 2000 and 2010.
CCUN's annual growth rate of 2.8 percent was just above the national average but
below that of the region. Although CCUN gained about 140,000 people during the
decade, its share of the region's population decreased slightly from 27 to 25 per
cent. Its urban population grew at 3.6 percent annually, below that of the region and
the nation.

Annual growth rates of individual urban settlements varied widely from about 1 to 4.8
percent. Cape Coast and Yamoransa grew rapidly at 4.7 and 4.8 percent,
respectively, faster than the national urban average. Mankesim, noted for its vibrant
market, also grew rapidly (4.1%). Kissi, Abrem Agona and Moree grew between 2.7
and 4.2 percent while Biriwa and Elmina grew at only 1 and 0.9 percent respectively.
One new urban settlements, Jukwam, emerged between 2000 and 2010.

CCUN’s density is about 7500 p/km2. Compared to the regional and other networks
such as TUN and STUN, CCUN is less dense. The network’s density could reach
10,300 by 2035 if infilling is promoted rather than urban expansion is pursued.

Strengths
CCUN has several strengths which include the following.

■ Home to major tourism attractions, including Cape Coast and Elmina castle,
some of the country's finest beaches, resorts and hotels, and a gateway to

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Kakum National Park, not far away. These assets present enormous potential for
stimulating the local economy.
■ Highly specialized in the education sector, with the University of Cape Coast,
a renowned public university and several leading second cycle institutions, and a
high concentration of teachers. CCUN is well positioned to become a knowledge
hub of Ghana and perhaps West Africa.
■ Strategically located between two major large cities, Accra and STMA, and
on the Trans West African Expressway, anD within a moderate distance from
Kumasi.

Existing and proposed connectivity within the network

The major internal mode of transportation is by road. With the exception of Abrem
Agona and Abakrampa, all the urban settlements are connected by the trunk road
network, which is about 60 percent (95 km) national, 3 per cent inter-regional (5 km)
and 37 percent regional (60 km). Mankesim, Abura-Dunkwa, Abakrampa, Kissi and
the coastal settlements are served by national-level trunk road. However, with the
exception of the coastal trunk, the surface condition of roads requires massive
improvement.

By national trunk road, CCUN directly connects the three largest cities in Ghana –
Accra, Kumasi and STMA. The major trunk connectivity between Ghana and
Burkina Faso and the coastal trunk linking Ghana to Ivory Coast and Togo pass
through the network.

With the economic opportunities which stem from the strategic location of CCUN,
there is the need to further strengthen both the internal and external connectivity.
The following proposals have therefore been made.

■ a new expressway from CCUN to large cities such as Accra (further to Lomé),
STMA (further to Abidjan), Kumasi and Tamale (further to Burkina Faso);
■ a new rail connection from CCUN to STMA and Accra, which could facilitate the
transport of goods to and from the two harbours; and a new rail connection from
CCUN to northern Ghana and further to Burkina Faso passing through Kumasi.

Other recommendations include:

■ stronger urban growth containment particularly around Cape Coast, Elmina and
Komenda to prevent their built-up areas from merging;
■ infill development particularly in Elmina and Saltpond to repair their fragmented
built-up areas.

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Figure 3.7 Cape Coat Urban Network

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3.7.3 Tamale Urban Network (TUN)

TUN definition and connectivity
The Tamale Urban Network (TUN) is one of the most compact networks,
accommodating about 620,000 people in an area of about 4,100 km2. The network
includes Tamale North Sub-metro and Sagnerigu districts and parts of eight more—
Savelugu Nanton, Kumbugu, Tolon, East Gonja, Gonja Central, Mion, Karaga and
Gushiegu53. About 52 percent of TUN's inhabitants now live in urban areas and this
may reach 66 percent by 2035.

TUN has five urban settlements whose populations range from 5,000 to 270,000.
But they are close neighbours: on average, only 23 km apart. Savelugu, the second
largest settlement with 31,000 people, is only 24 km from Tamale. Even closer are
Nyankpala with 8,400 people and Nanton with 5,700, only 15 and 20 km from
Tamale, respectively. Pong Tamale, with a population of 5,100, is the most distant at
31 km, but it is only 7 km from Savelugu.

Most of TUN's 530 rural settlements are clustered around northern and north-
western parts of Tamale towards Savelugu. The rural population of about 300,000
inhabitants is expected to lose 20,000 people by 2035 with the rural share of the
networks population falling from 48 to 33 percent.

TUN's demographics
TUN is growing and urbanizing at a moderate rate. Between 2000 and 2010, its
urban population grew at an annual rate of 3.1 percent, somewhat less than the
national urban average of 4.2 per cent. Over 80 percent of the urban population is in
Tamale. Tamale and Nanton grew faster than the national average and are
expected to grow further by 180,000 and 10,000 respectively by 2035. Nanton,
which gained urban status in 2010, is the fastest growing settlement in the network.
Savelugu grew at 2.4 per cent. Nyankpala hardly grew at all and is projected to lose
over 7,000 people by 2035. Nonetheless, as it is only 15 km from Tamale, it may
have potential as a satellite town.

TUN is one of the densest networks in the country. In 2010 its density 54 was about
8,300 p/km2 and may reach 11,400 p/km2 by 2035. This could be attributed to the
compact form of the network.

TUN strengths and potentials

TUN’s multiple strengths include the following:

■ Tamale, at the centre of the network, appears to be the strongest urban centre in
the SADA region;
■ Compact form and relatively high density could reduce the cost of infrastructure
provision;
■ Huge agricultural potential;
■ Huge potential for solar energy;
■ Large areas of grassland that could be used for more productive uses including
grazing, agriculture and solar energy production.

TUN connectivity: The only mode of transport in the network is by road. The urban
settlements are well served by 325 km trunk road of which a third (105 km) is

53Districts in 2012 boundaries (216)

54Population density for built- up areas
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national and two-thirds (220km) are regional. The national trunk road connects the
two major urban centres in the network, Tamale and Savelugu, and Pong Tamale.
The major north-south connectivity in Ghana and to neighbouring Burkina Faso runs
through TUN specifically connecting Tamale and Savelugu to major cities such as
Accra, Kumasi, Bolgatanga and many others.

Key strategies
Since connectivity within TUN appears to be fairly good, the NSDF intervention is
geared towards improving the connectivity between the network and other major
cities in Ghana and beyond. The following interventions have therefore been
proposed.

■ rail connectivity between Tamale and north-western Togo passing through major
urban centres such as Yendi, Zabzugu and Tatale;
■ rail and expressway connectivity between Tamale and Paga and further up to
Burkina Faso passing through Savelugu, Diare and Navrongo;
■ rail connectivity between TUN and Accra passing through Kumasi;
■ expressway connectivity between TUN and STMA passing through Kumasi;
■ strong urban growth containment policies to retain TUNs compact form and
increase its density;
■ new urban settlements at two intersections of the trunk roads and at the midpoint
of the trunk road between Yapei and Tamale.

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Figure 3.8 Tamale Urban Network

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3.7.4 Sunyani Urban Network (SUN)

The Sunyani Urban Network includes about 60 urban and rural settlements. Its
urban population grew from 586,000 in 2000 to 945,000 in 2010 and may grow to
over 2.5 million by 2035.

SUN's population is already clustered in sizeable urban areas that are relatively
close to each other. Sunyani, the regional capital, with over 123,000 inhabitants, is
only 50 km from Techiman, with 84,000 inhabitants and 30 km from Berekum, with
76,000 inhabitants. SUN also has four mid-size towns with over 20,000 people:
Dormaa Ahenkro with 37,000 inhabitants, Wenchi with 32,000, Mim with 25,000 and
Goaso with 21,000. Kintampo, with 42,000 inhabitants and about 60 km from
Techiman, may also be considered as part of SUN, although it is located somewhat
distant from the centre.

SUN is a relatively fast growing area. By 2035 it is projected to have 20 towns with
populations above 20,000. While Sunyani itself has grown at a modest 2.73 per cent
per year between 2000 and 2010, Berekum grew by 11 per cent while Techiman by
14 per cent, the fastest growing in the country. All five towns over 20,000 grew at
annual rates above 4.2 percent, the national urban population growth rate. In
addition to the growth of existing urban areas, ten rural villages grew into new urban
settlements between 2000 and 2010.

Towns that are sufficiently close may form mini-clusters within the larger network.
For example, Techiman, Tuobodum and Aworowa, with a combined population of
88,000 inhabitants, are less than nine kilometres apart. Mim and Goaso, with a
combined population of 47,000, are only 12 km apart. Duayaw Nkwanta, Bechem
and Techimanitia, also with a combined population of 47,000 inhabitants, are
between 8 and 13 km apart.

Dormaa Ahenkro is the centre of another mini-cluster with a total population of

87,000 inhabitants. The mini-cluster include five towns—Keremasu, Amasu,
Wamanfo, Wamfie, and Asutia—that are between 3 and 25 kilometres from Dormaa
Ahenkro with a combined population of about 40,000. In addition, there are about
ten built-up areas that are likely to have additional urbanised and urbanising
populations that have not been recorded as urban in the population census.

Almost all of SUN is contained in the Brong Ahafo Region except for a small section
in the Ashanti Region. As a region, Brong Ahafo has an above average annual
population growth rate of 2.4 percent, an average urban population growth rate of
4.2 percent, and a below average rural growth rate of 1.2 percent. Brong Ahafo
already has a sizable urbanisation level of about 45 percent. It is also one of the
more attractive migrant destinations, with some 20 percent of its population born
outside the region, the third highest after Greater Accra and Ashanti. It has attracted
relatively high numbers of migrants, particularly from Northern, Ashanti and Upper
West regions.

Brong Ahafo's economy is based mainly on agriculture, which has seen jobs
increase by 77 percent between 2000 and 2010, more than twice that of Ghana as a
whole. Nevertheless, other sectors have recorded job growth above the national rate
including accommodation and food service, education, real-estate and
professionals, transport, wholesale and retail. Certain districts in SUN have high
specialisation including mining in Asutufi South and North, construction in Sunyani
Municipal and Sunyani West, and wholesale and retail and finance in Techiman.

SUN has numerous strengths as follows:

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■ international connectivity to Côte d'Ivoire;

■ two strong cities of Sunyani and Techiman;
■ a highly productive agricultural area;
■ a forested setting with several forest reserves of about 220,000 hectares;
■ proximity to the Bui Development Zone and (low cost) electric power;
■ national tourist attractions such as Kintampo waterfalls and the Boabeng monkey
sanctuary in Fiema;
■ two large rivers.

International connectivity
The only international border between Ghana and Côte' d'Ivoire in the Brong Ahafo
region is at Dormaa Ahenkro. SUN is just a day's drive of two large and growing
cities in Côte d'Ivoire: Yamoussoukro at 450 km (about 6 hours), and Bouake at 500
km (about 7.5 hours). Agnibilekrou, with 60,000 inhabitants, is only about 45 km
from the border. Côte' d'Ivoire has two other towns with sizable populations that are
relatively close: Tanda, with over 105,000 people, is only 35 km from the border and
Bodoukou, with 45,000 inhabitants, is only 15 km from Sampa (although there is no
road connection).

Sunyani
Sunyani is the hub of the network. Its strengths derive from its history as colonial
district headquarters, its regional capital status, its attractive environment, and the
presence of public institutions and numerous tertiary educational institutions.
Sunyani also has a clean and well-maintained central business district, laid out in a
colonial-era is in a grid of streets, with a large collection of colonial architecture, new
buildings including three 3-star hotels, over fifteen modern hotels and hostels, the
high-rise Cocoa House, the Cathedral, the Queen of Peace Building, and the Knight
of St. John House. Sunyani's educational institutions include Sunyani Polytechnic,
the University of Energy and Natural Resources and the Catholic University College
of Ghana as well as satellite centres of University of Cape Coast, and KNUST.
Finally, Sunyani has a high-quality water supply and a serviceable airport.

With the above strengths, it is not surprising that Sunyani has attracted private
investment that includes the home offices of African Global Pharma Limited;
Newmont's Gold, a multi-national mining company; and branches of the Bank of
Ghana, Ghana Commercial Bank, Barclays Bank, SG-SSB Bank, Agricultural
Development Bank of Ghana, Ecobank Ghana and the National Investment Bank.

Techiman
Techiman may be considered as the networks' strong, second city. It is a leading
market town at the historical crossroads of trade routes and the navigable Tano
River. Being the fastest growing city in Ghana, its population doubled between 1970
and 1984, doubled again up to 2000, climbed to 84,000 in 2010 and has reached
104,000 by 2013. Key investments in Techiman include the not-yet-completed
modern culture centre, which will preserve the traditions of the medieval Akan
kingdom which spanned the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast.

NSDF proposed interventions

There are several interventions that can strengthen the Sunyani Urban Network.
These pertain to improving links with urban centres in Côte d'Ivoire and internal
connectivity within the network.

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The road connections between cities and towns in the SUN are relatively good.
Almost all are on the trunk road, and alignments are more or less direct. Yet a
doubling or more of urban population by 2035 coupled with increased private vehicle
ownership is likely to overstretch the existing road network. In addition, there is
evidence of significant levels of ribbon development on most trunk roads, which may
render road widening impractical and costly. Consideration may therefore be given
to improving the following road segments: Sunyani–Techiman, Duayaw Nkwanta–
Techimanitia, Berekum–Dormaa and Berekum–Wenchi.

Built-up area in the cluster largely reflects the size and location of the GSS urban
centres. Nevertheless, there are clusters of built-up areas that have no urban
settlement or rural settlement associated with them. These include the area north of
Duayaw Nkanta, around Dormaa. Several sizable urban settlements are not
connected to the trunk road system, including Yamfo.

Rural settlements are clustered around Sunyani and Techiman and should be the
target of rural urban linkage initiatives.

The NSDF-proposed expressway will greatly improve connectivity between Sunyani

and Techiman and Sunyani and Kumasi and later be extended to the Dormaa and
the Côte d'Ivoire border. The expressway will improve the link to the NSDF proposed
new future airport in the “triangle” area and the NSDF-proposed rail network would
strengthen the network between Dormaa and Kintampo.

SUN, endowed with a large number of forest reserves, is ideally situated to

implement sections of as well as benefit from the green infrastructure network.

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Figure 3.9 Sunyani Urban Network

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3.7.5 North-East Urban Network (NEUN)

The North-Eastern Urban Network, comprising all of the Upper East region and the
north-eastern part of Northern region, is one of relatively high urban and rural
population density. In addition, it is an area of high population growth.

In 2010, this area had 21 urban centres, 11 in Upper East region and ten in Northern
region. Between 2000 and 2010, the total urban population in Upper East grew from
160,000 to 220,000 while those in Northern region grew from about 64,000 to
94,000.

Three mini-urban networks may be identified within NEUN, based on the clustering
of urban and rural populations. Named after their most-populated urban settlement,
these urban networks may be called Bolgatanga, Bawku, Walewale and Gambaga.

Population
Between 2000 and 2010, three settlements grew faster than the national urban
population—Narongo (6.5%), Bunkpurugu (6%), and Wungu (5.3%)—most grew
faster than the national population and all grew faster than national rural population.
Bongo and Zebilla grew at an annual rate of less than one percent. Two villages
joined the urban ranks, Winkogo and Kparigu.

NEUN's future population is projected to grow to about 1.5 million by 2035 with
about 37 percent or 540,000 inhabitants in urban areas, and its rural population is
expected to reach almost one million.

Bolgatanga will remain NEUN's core city, with a population that may reach 136,000.
However, three other cities—Bawku, Walewale and Navrongo—are expected to
grow to 86,000, 83,000 and 71,000 inhabitants respectively. Four smaller urban
settlements—Bunkpurugu, Paga, Gambaga and Langbensi—may become towns
with populations of between 25,000 and 19,000 each. Four more are expected to
have populations between 14,000 and 11,000, namely Winkogo, Nakpanduri, Duus
and Pusiga. Garu, Zebilla, Sandema and Bongo will most likely remain small at
between 8,000 and 5000 inhabitants.

Economy
NEUN has several economic drivers. The main drivers are the trade, service and
transport sectors that exploit the border locations of Bolgatanga, Bawku, Navrongo,
Bunkpurugu and Paga. Mining companies will exploit opportunities provided by
significant deposits of manganese, iron ore, gold and limestone in the region.
Agriculture will continue to provide most of the network's jobs, and the sector will be
strengthened by the NSDF proposed agricultural growth corridor.

Opportunities for tourism development are provided by the border crossing traffic
and by the nearby attractions within and across the border, including the towns of
Tenkodogo and Koupéla, the Kaboré Tambi National Park in Burkina Faso, and the
Kéran National Park in Togo.

International road and rail links through the area will bring vehicles that need
maintenance and repair, and will justify the development of a major transport centre.
This centre will have to incorporate the railway equipment maintenance facility,
proposed by the Ghana Railway Master Plan.

The growth of NEUN's trade and commercial activities will depend in part on the
extent to which it links to the nearby urban centres in Burkina Faso and Togo.
Ouagadougou, Burkina's capital, with a future population of over 2.5 million, is only
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170 km from Navrongo. The capital has primary industries, food processing and
textiles enterprises and a market considered to be one of the largest in West Africa.
Moreover, Ouagadougou is an important centre for trade with Mali and Niger. Other
sizable urban centres in Burkina Faso, within 90 km of NEUN, include Tenkodogo,
with 50,000 inhabitants, and Koupéla, Kombissiri and Po, with a co mbined
population of 80,000 inhabitants.

Togo also provides potential markets and commercial partnerships. Dapaong—a

regional capital with nearly 60,000 inhabitants, and with a large livestock and
agricultural market—is only 64 km east of Bawku and thrives as an important urban
and transit centre for trade with Burkina Faso, Benin and Niger. Mango, with 41,000
inhabitants, is 122 km from Bawku.

Road infrastructure and travel distances

Some 90 percent of NEUN's future population will be within 50 km from the two
major cities Bolgatanga and Bawku. The existing 220 km of national and 130 km
interregional roads will be sufficient to connect the urban centres. The longest inter-
urban distances will be 125 km and 119 km to Bolgatanga and Bawku from
Nakpanduri and Bunkburudu /Yawgu respectively.

Three mini-networks may be identified within the cluster. Nalerigu, with 15,000
inhabitants, is only seven kilometres from Nagbo and Gambaga. Walewale, with
over 18,000, is only seven from Wungu, which is growing more rapidly.

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Figure 3.10 North-East Urban Network

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3.7.6 Aflao Urban Network (AUN)

The Aflao Urban Network comprises 22 urban settlements. Its urban population
grew from 207,000 in 2000 to 265,000 in 2010 and is projected to grow to about
620,000 million by 2035. AUN's largest town is Aflao with 37,000 inhabitants,
followed closely by Akatsi with 32,000. Other sizeable towns are Dzodze and
Analoga, both with around 22,000 inhabitants.

AUN's urban growth is generally higher than the national average. Between 2000
and 2010, six towns had annual growth rates above 4.2 percent, the national urban
average, including two with populations above 20,000. Akatsi grew at almost 5
percent while Mepe and Keta grew at 8 and 10 percent respectively. Alflao grew
more slowly at a modest 2.17 percent. Nevertheless, by 2035, Aflao and Akatsi are
projected to exceed 100,000 and 80,000 inhabitants, respectively.

Some urban centres are sufficiently close to form mini-clusters within the larger
network. One mini-cluster comprises Aflao, Dzodze and Akatsi, with a combined
population of 90,000 in 2010 and projected to grow to 165,000 by 2035. Dzodze is
only 24 km from Aflao and Akatsi.

Another mini-cluster is the Mete and Sogakope corridor with a combined population
of 37,000 in 2010 that is projected to increase to 95,000 in 2035. These two towns,
each with about 11,000 inhabitants, are only 20 kilometres apart, and between them
lie Battor Dugame and Adidome.

Strength
The Aflao Urban Network has several strengths as follows:

■ proximity to the large and urbanising areas of Togo and Nigeria through two
international border crossings to Togo at Aflao 55 and Dzodze. Aflao is only ten
kilometres from Lomé, a city of 840,000 inhabitants in 2012 and Dzodze is
roughly 32 km from Tsevie, a city of 55,000;
■ on the ECOWAS Lagos-Abidjan corridor and potentially crossed by the proposed
new coastal expressway and railway going between the lines defined by Mepe,
Akatsi and Dzoze and the line defined by Sogakope and Aflao;
■ an area of high scenic beauty and tourism potential, with the coast, Ramsar
wetlands sites and Volta river.

Weaknesses
Its weaknesses include:

■ only one bridge across the Volta River that reduces connectivity between areas
west and east of the river;
■ a sizable urban population, and built-up area, residing close to the coastline and
vulnerable to climate change impacts including sea level rise, erosion and salt
water intrusion. The urban population here includes Keta, Woe, Tegbi and
Anloga and a share of Aflao. Consideration has to be given to how this
population can be resettled, ideally within the urban cluster;
■ a sizable rural population residing close to the coastline is concentrated around
Akats-Abor, Klikor and Anlo-Afiadenyigb;

55 Stakeholders at the NSDF regional consultations for the Volta Region have indicated that the border crossing at Aflao may be
closed.
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■ several sizable urban settlements are not connected to the trunk road system
including Ehie town Yamfo;
■ rural settlements are clustered around the river from Akosombo to the coast,
particulary around Mepe, Big Ada, and Kassen and from Akatsi eastward around
Dzodze and Klikor;
■ There are two built-up areas without associated urban centres that are south of
Agortim-Kepetoe and a cluster of rural settlements in this area.

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Figure 3.11 Aflao Urban Network

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3.7.7 Ho-Hohoe Urban Network (HHUN)

The Ho-Hohoe Urban Network (HHUN) comprises 18 urban settlements. Its urban
population grew from 170,000 in 2000, when it had 12 urba n settlements, to 320,000
in 2010 and is projected to grow to about 1.25 million in 2035. HHUN's largest town
is Ho, the Volta regional capital with 112,000 inhabitants, followed by Hohoe with
74,000. The only other sizeable town is Kpandu with about 30,000; all others have
less than 12,000 inhabitants.

HHUN's urban growth rate was higher than the national average. Six towns had a
growth rates above 4.2 percent per annum, the national urban average, including
the three most populous. Hohoe grew at over 9.5 percent, considerably faster than
Ho's 5.4 percent. The other rapidly growing settlements are Peki, Avetile, Golokwati,
and Abotoase.

Some urban settlements are sufficiently close to form mini-clusters within the larger
network. One mini-cluster comprises Peki Avetile and Tsito with a combined
population of 20,000; they are only 6 km apart but without a direct connecting trunk
road.

The Ho-Hohoe Urban Network has several strengths as follows:

■ one international border crossings to Togo at a point 20 km north-east of Ho.

From here in Togo Kpalime, with 75,000 inhabitants, is only 16 km away;
■ potential to connect Kpalime to Hohoe, only 20 km from the road in Togo
Similarly, Badou, a town of 20,000, is about 9 km from the trunk road north of
Kadjebi;
■ high scenic beauty and high tourism potential with key features including Lake
Volta and Lake Volta river, areas with the highest elevation in Ghana.

HHUN weaknesses include:

■ poor connectivity to regions on the west side of the lake and with the need of
more and better ferry crossings;
■ straight-line distances between urban settlements that are considerably shorter
than the length of the connecting roads. For example, the straight line distance
between Ho and Hohoe is only 60 km while the road distance is 75km, and the
straight line between Hohoe and Kpano is only 26 km compared to a road
distance of 38km.

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Figure 3.12 Ho-Hohoe Urban Network

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3.7.8 Wa Urban Network (WUN)

There are only six urban settlements in the Wa Urban Network, and only Wa had more
than 50,000 inhabitants. Jirapa and Tumu had more than 10,000, but at more than 100
km from the other urban settlements, Tumu is not considered to be part of WUN.

Four of WUN's urban settlements are relatively close to one another. Hamale and
Nandom are about 15 km apart, Nandom is 30 km from Lawra, and Lawra is 25 km from
Jirapa. At 57 km from Jirapa, the nearest urban settlement, Wa may be too distant from
the others to function as WUN's core, even though it is the regional capital. Moreover,
Wa had a low growth rate between 2000 and 2010. A better location for a centre may be
at the intersection of the north and south trunk roads about 16 km east of Lawra.

Map 2 on figure 3.13 shows numerous, sizeable built-up areas without names, meaning
that they were not identified as urban settlements in the 2010 census. Nevertheless, they
are likely to be urbanising rural settlements. These are mainly around Wa, with about 20
instances between Jirapa and Wa.

Rural settlements are clustered around Nandom, east and south of Lawra. The
populations of rural settlements may be encouraged to migrate to the urban centres of
WUN or—if they receive support and improved access to basic services—remain in their
villages.

Between 2000 and 2010, urban population growth rates in WUN varied widely. Growing
at 4.6 percent per year, Jirapa was by far the fastest growing settlement, followed by
Hamale at 2.7 percent. All the others grew at less than 1.2 percent, with Wa at only 0.6
percent. Nevertheless, the built-areas around Wa suggest urban growth around its
periphery.

The Wa Urban Network has several strengths as follows:

■ close proximity to four international urban settlements in Burkina Faso with a total
population of over 3 million: Ouagadougou, Bobo Dioulasso, Hounde and Boromo;
■ it lies on an important trunk road and proposed rail line that runs from Kumasi to
Burkina Faso;
■ proximity to two national parks in Ghana, Gebele and Mole as well as Koulbi National
Forest and Bontioli Reserve Forest in Burkina Faso.

Proposed interventions are:

■ Improve connectively between the urban centres of WUN by upgrading the national
level trunk roads and the regional level trunk road between Lawra and Nandom and
Lawra and Jirapa;
■ upgrading feeder roads around the urban centres.

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Figure 3.13 Wa Urban Network

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3.8 Rural Development

Rural areas can be broadly divided into those that are near to urban areas, and
those that are more distant. Those that are near to cities and towns can become an
integral component of urban development.

It is essential to ensure that urban and rural areas formulate and successfully
implement development concepts in partnership, which largely present development
opportunities. Rural-urban relationships near more urbanised areas differ from those
in more rural areas. In more urban, densely populated areas, rural communities are
under substantial urbanisation forces that often include unplanned, haphazard and
fragmented development, loss of farmland, and loss of rural character. The line
between what is urban and what is rural becomes increasingly blurred.

A key role of spatial development is to achieve a good balance between urban

development and protection of countryside and farmland. Urban and rural areas are
closely interconnected, especially in densely developed regions. People in rural
areas can benefit from the services and cultural activities of cities, while people in
cities can benefit from the leisure and recreation value of rural areas.

In less densely populated rural areas, particularly those that are distant from
metropolitan areas, are challenged not by retaining their rural character but by
retaining their population. Moreover, out-migration from these areas threatens the
viability of existing and provision of new public and private services.

Urban and rural areas are intrinsically interdependent due to complex flows of
people and services. A strong, spatially balanced urban structure needs to be
matched by specific strategies for rural areas and strengthened rural communities.

This strategy sets out in broad terms how rural areas will support and drive the
attainment of more balanced regional development. It will be necessary to amongst
other do the following.

Secure agriculture, where it has the capacity to remain strong and viable, by
maintaining the maximum possible number of family farms, while at the same time
ensuring that smaller farmers have the opportunity to supplement their farm income
through off-farm work.

Diversify rural employment options and stabilise population through resource based
development in sectors such as forestry, fishing and natural resources, enterprise
and local services; tourism development through quality market-responsive
products, enhanced access and co-ordinated promotion of a tourism product, which
offers a range of complementary visitor experiences; and protecting landscape,
water resources and habitats, including with involvement of local communities. Rural
areas near protected areas or with natural and cultural heritage should take part in
the operation and protection of these areas.

Strengthening Communities given that 49 % of the population resides in rural areas.

The proportion of people living in rural areas has been declining, particularly where
agriculturally based employment is contracting and which are too weak to attract or
support alternative sources of employment. The strength and integrity of many rural
communities is under stress as a result.

Ghana needs to retain a substantial proportion of its population in rural areas, but in
vibrant, lively communities. To do so they will need to be supported. Two main types

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of responses are proposed. Settlement policies are needed that take into account
varying rural development contexts. Policies are needed for areas with declining
populations as well as policies to deal with areas in which there are overspill issues
associated with proximity to urban centres.

3.8.1 Strengthening Environmental Qualities

Rural areas contain some of the most important national resources in terms of the
natural environment and landscape as well as highly important elements of natural
heritage. The sensitive development and conservation of these resources and
heritage is essential to the underpinning of strengthened rural economies and the
national economy. The resources include: agricultural land, water resources, and
forests. There are good lessons amongst other from India.

Types of Rural Areas

There are five broad rural area types and suggestions of a range of policy responses
to be developed in more detail at regional and local levels for each type. Agencies
need to develop spatial frameworks for rural areas, which allow for targeting to
ensure that the range of development programmes available are co-ordinated to
maximise benefits. Examples of these programmes include:

 urban and village renewal schemes, water services infrastructure

programmes and measures to strengthen the tourism sector. Focusing and
co-ordinating these different programmes will increase the resulting benefits;
 Combine and re-plan fragmented farms to form cohesive and larger units to
facilitate mechanisation and modern farming techniques or farming
industrialisation;
 promote ‘farmers markets’ and provide suitable sites and facilities for
markets in areas that are accessible to large numbers of people and
produce;
 diversify farm economies and promote rural business development
 enhance the development of high value landscapes for possible eco-tourism
destinations including farm-stays or agro-tourism;
 improve rural access to work through such means as livelihood training,
business advice, childcare and local public transport;
 invest in ICT services to help to address communication difficulties in remote
areas;
 provide public transport in rural areas and facilitate movement by walking
and cycling;
 Support housing upgrades and new housing development that is
concentrated within existing settlements that respect their character and
landscape setting;
 encourage the co-ordination of resources to tackle poverty and promote
social inclusion.

For a Scheme of this magnitude and importance and the impact it could have in the
future and change of the very face of Rural Areas in a developing country like India,
proper background research and planning has to be undertaken for the success of
such project. The Private Partner selected after properly analysing their financial and
operational abilities to undertake PURA projects shall identify a Gram Panchayat, a
cluster of geographically contiguous Gram Panchayats for a population of about

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25,000– 40,000. Whereas, the cluster would be the project area, there may be sub-
projects to cover each of the Panchayats within the cluster. Alternatively, a large
single Panchayat could individually provide critical mass to make the project viable.
In the pilot phase, the Private Partner is given the flexibility to identify and select the
Gram Panchayat(s) for undertaking PURA projects based on their familiarity with the
area or past experience of working at the grassroots level. In this identified PURA
area, the Private Partner shall plan for the development/re-development of selected
infrastructure services along with economic activities, after undertaking baseline
studies. Nevertheless, most of agricultural production is based on traditional
practices with low yields. Future viability of the rural population will depend in part on
raising the agricultural incomes and improving the quality of life of rural population
through better access to services. These are some of the lessons from India.

A decentralised polycentric settlement structure will be greatly assisted if the socio-

economic function of rural areas as it can be ensured through access to
infrastructure and knowledge, which can increase economic attractiveness and
diversification. However, diversification and alternative sources of income are goals
hard to achieve. One possible strategy is to ensure universal internet connections in
rural areas.

The Rural Development Minister in February 2012 launched the restructured PURA
scheme that combines rural infrastructure development with economic regeneration
in a Private Public Partnership (PPP) mode and seeks to harness the efficiencies of
the private sector. He slammed the former president concept of PURA (Providing
Urban Amenities in Rural Areas) as a failure. The Minister said that while the PURA
Launched by the President has failed, the reworked PURA will succeed. The
Minister was optimistic about the success of the new PURA because of the
difference in the objectives. He was of the view that, now the focus was on water
supply, sanitation, physical infrastructure rather than knowledge connectivity. Most
importantly support to the success is sustained by major transport corridors.

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Figure 3.14 Rural population clusters, road density and crop area density
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3.9 General spatial development policies

NSDF recommends an overall policy of concentrated development. Key strategies to
implement this policy would include the following:

Promote the Accra Capital Region as a world-class city while maximising the
benefits this can bring to the nation as a whole, and develop regional and lower
order urban centres to serve more of their regional communities’ needs locally.

Promote existing urban settlements and discourage new ones: This will include
measures to strengthen their role, encourage infill and densification, but plan for
their expansion, and restrain development outside main urban corridors. Where rural
settlements are solitary, dispersed and distant from urban areas, discourage their
growth above the 5,000 urban population threshold; instead, encourage migration to
the closest urban settlement instead of those more distant.

Promote larger / discourage smaller settlements: Larger settlements will be able

to support more diverse and better quality public and private services than smaller
ones; their people will have lower needs to travel to other settlements for services;
they will be denser, have better public transport services, less use of cars, and
generate lower emissions; in general, they are “greener” than smaller settlements in
the sense.

Promote urban settlements along major transport corridors: Concentrating

population and economic activities in urban settlements along the major transport
corridors will improve the economic efficiencies of both.

Plan for integration of rural settlements into expanding urban areas: Identify
rural settlements that are likely to be subsumed by the expansion of nearby urban
areas. Planning measures may include regularising feeder road network, land-
pooling, guided land development, re-plotting and re-blocking, and advanced
identification of land for infrastructure and services.

Protect agricultural land and forests from settlement development, identify and
designate land with high or potential agricultural value, allow only agricultural use of
designated agricultural land, protect most productive agricultural land and forest
from further settlement development.

Maintain and improve the efficiency of main expressway network: Extend

transport infrastructure in the main urban corridors, promoting high-occupancy
vehicles and improving public transport provision improving facilities and priorities
for pedestrians and cyclists on urban streets.

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Volume II

Chapter 4

Important National
Initiatives

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4 Important National Initiatives

The Role of Transport in Economic Development cannot be tampered with. Efficient
transport is a critical component of economic development, globally and nationally.
Transport availability affects global development patterns and can be a boost or a
barrier to economic growth within individual nations. Transportation investments link
factors of production together in a web of relationships between producers and
consumers to create a more efficient division of production, leverage geographical
comparative advantage, and provide the means to expand economies of scale and
scope. Transport’s contribution to economic development includes the following:

 Network effects—linking more locations exponentially increases the value and

effectiveness of transport;
 Performance improvements—reducing cost and time for existing passenger and
freight movements increases transport’s contribution to economic growth;
 Reliability—improves time performance and reduces loss and damage, thus
reducing economic drag;
 Market size—access to wider markets adds to economies of scale in
production, distribution, and consumption, thereby increasing economic growth;
 Productivity—transport increases productivity gained from access to a larger
and more diverse base of inputs such as raw materials, parts, energy, and
labour, and broader markets for more diverse outputs.

Transport has affected economic development from the beginning of human

civilization. Economic development focused on the confluence of transport systems -
early cities grew up on natural bays and ports, and on rivers and lakes where
transport was available. Romans built roads to unify and provide access to their far-
flung empire. Geographic characteristics such as proximity to oceans, seas, and
waterways, plains, mountains and the location of oases defined early transport
systems, e.g. the “Silk Road” went from oasis to oasis, and city to city, where there
were no reliable water or road routes, other examples are the different Salt Roads.

The industrial revolution generated new transport demands, which required higher
volumes of coal, iron ore, and other materials; this led to canal construction that
extended water transport, and to early railway development.

4.4 A national and international expressway system

4.4.1 Need for and benefits of a national expressway system
While Ghana's trunk road system connects all the regions and urban centres, it
suffers from many deficiencies. For example, some inter-regional and regional
connections are missing, some links between urban centres are indirect, highways
have too many direct accesses, roads pass through urban centres, ribbon
development slows down traffic and is unsafe. Other deficiencies such as
unregulated ribbon development along the roads, which render widening costly,
must be avoided and mitigated by local planning intervention and regulations. The
deficiencies reduce the efficiency of the trunk road network, resulting in longer trips
as well as increase in fuel consumption, harming connectivity between urban
centres and create obstacles for transport and economic development.

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To meet the growing demand for mobility and connectivity, many countries have
introduced fully controlled-access, multi-lane, divided expressway systems that are
separate from their trunk road systems. For example, the USA has the interstate
highway system, Germany has the autobahn, UK has motorways, China has
expressways and South Africa and Tanzania have freeways.

A national expressway system can benefit the economy and improve the quality of
life, as demonstrated by a study of the USA interstate highway system 56. The study
found that the expressway system significantly improved economic efficiency and
productivity. For example, it reduced freight cost by increasing speed; enabled "just
in time" delivery which in turn reduced warehousing costs and increased
manufacturing efficiency; and expanded the market by improving inter-regional
access. Expanded markets increased retail competition that in turn lowered prices
and increase selection. It also enabled companies to supply their products less
expensively over a larger geographical area. Further, by reducing costs, labour and
capital, investments became more efficient, which encouraged business expansion,
and job creation.

Faster travel also brought more job and housing options within reach and made it
possible for shoppers to take advantage of lower prices or larger selections that
were available at more remote locations. Finally, evidence from the USA and other
countries shows that an expressway system is the safest component of a transport
system with fewer accidents, deaths and injuries.

Expressways should only be provided where justified by demand and planned so as

to avoid negative impacts on the natural environment and intrusion into urban
neighbourhoods. Alignments should be identified well in advance of expected
construction so as to restrict development in along the right-of-way. Where
appropriate, expressways, rail and gas pipelines could share the same reserve.

Ghana has initiated its own expressway-type development. For example, the new
Accra–Winneba Highway, George Walker Bush Highway and Tema Motorways are
designed to near 'expressway standards and the Ghana Department of Highways is
considering others 57.

4.4.2 Components of NSDF proposed expressway system

NSDF proposes a national system of expressways that will include upgraded,
existing highways and new segments 58. The upgraded highways include the two
Trans-African Highways (TAH)—along the coast and running north-south. These
expressways would connect to the national transport centres and future intermodal
transport system that will include rail, air and ferry. The four new expressway
segments are:

■ Accra–Kumasi city-region expressway as Phase 1 of the Ghana African Highway

link Accra–Ouagadougou;

56The Best Investment Ever Made: A tribute to the Dwight D Eisenhower System if Interstate and Defense Highways, Wendal
Cox and Jean Love, June, 1996
57 Ghana Department of Highways, September 2014
58 NSDF uses the term expressway for a highway class only accessible for motor vehicles with normal speed over 70-80 km per
hour. Expressways provide an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, on-grade intersections or property access. They
are free of any at-grade crossings with other roads, railways, or pedestrian paths, which are instead carried by overpasses and
underpasses across the expressway. Entrance and exit to the expressway are provided at interchanges by ramps, which allow
for speed changes between the expressway and arterial roads and collector roads. On the controlled-access expressway,
opposing directions of travel are separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffi c barrier or grass.
Elimination of the sources of potential conflicts with other directions of travellers in high ways dramatically improves safe ty, fuel
consumption and travel times. Most technologically advanced nations feature an extensive network of f reeways or motorways to
provide high-capacity urban travel and high-speed travel through in rural areas between urban centres.
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■ Kumasi–Paga expressway as the Phase 2 of the Ghana African highway link

Accra–Ouagadougou;
■ The Sunyani loop (Techiman–Sunyani–Kumasi);
■ Upgrade of the TAH 7, Trans–West African Coastal Road.

The proposed north-south expressway between Accra and Ouagadougou may be

divided in two segments for phased implementation: the Accra–Kumasi link and the
Kumasi–Paga link.

Accra–Kumasi expressway: Ghana Highways Authority (GHA) has identified as a

priority, a new Accra–Kumasi link with an alignment that runs parallel to the existing
Accra–Kumasi national trunk road N1 59. NSDF proposes an 'improved' alignment
that would be 8 per cent shorter than GHA's and run through the centre of the
'triangle' formed by Takoradi, Kumasi and Accra. The centre of the triangle would be
strengthened as a highly suitable site for a new city as well as for an international
airport that would serve all three triangle cities.

A journey by car from the triangle's centre to each city, about 110 km in length,
would take about one hour and by intercity train about 40 minutes. A new city or
town at the centre might take some of the development pressure away from the
triangle cities and share services with them.

Kumasi–Paga expressway: The Kumasi–Paga segment would complete the

central, north-south expressway and connect the port cities of Accra–Tema and
STMA to Kumasi, Techiman, Tamale, Bolgatanga and further on to Ouagadougou
and Bobo Digalosso in Burkina Faso, Bamako in Mali and Niamey in Niger. The
highway would link the major Ghanaian cities and support development in the cities
and towns along the route. It would also expedite transport of agricultural produce to
the major markets in the country and strengthen Techiman as an important West
African market. In some sections, the expressway could use the alignment of the
existing highway—for example Kintampo–Buipe and Savelugu–Walewale—but
needs a bypass around all major towns and cities. This expressway would connect
the Trans African Highways: the Dakar–Ndjamena and the coastal highway Dakar–
Lagos.

The Sunyani loop: The Sunyani loop has two-segments. One segment connects
Kumasi on the north-south expressway to Sunyani, Berekum, Dormaa—all part of
the Sunyani Urban Network—and eastward to Côte d'Ivoire. The other segment runs
from Sunyani to Techiman to the north-south highway. The loop would reduce travel
time between Sunyani and Kumasi to between 60 and 80 minutes, which is an
acceptable commuting time. It would also strengthen the Sunyani Urban Network,
which has national importance for: (i) providing an urban growth alternative to the
four large cities, (ii) being the centre of high-value, high-output agricultural
production, and (iii) having Techiman as an important market hub and one of the
fastest growing urban centres. In addition, there are important urban centres in Côte
d'Ivoire on the other side of the border.

Accra city-region expressway system: This system would consist of four radials
from and three rings around Accra and link to Secondi-Takoradi, Cape Coast and
two outer ring roads around Kumasi. The system also links the two sea ports to
Boankra inland port.

ECOWAS Trans–West African Coastal expressway: The ECOWAS Trans West

African Coastal highway is presently being planned to connect Africa's largest

59 Ghana Highways Department, October 2014.

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megapolitan area comprising the coastal cities of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin
and Nigeria60. A map of the proposed alignment of the highway is not available, but
it is understood it may align or use the existing national trunk roads that run along
the coast. NSDF proposes a second east-west expressway that would be parallel to
the ECOWAS coastal railway line through the centre of the 'triangle' (Figure 4.1) and
on to Dunkwa and Asankrangwa. This system will also link to Boankra Inland port.

Figure 4.1 Two options for alignment of the Trans West African Coastal highway

Source: NSDF Study 2014

The expressways should be developed only when justified by traffic demand.

However, the alignment of the express ways and the land reservations should all be
made within the present plan period.

4.5 Improve connectivity with new and improved trunk roads

There is a need to improve the roads between major urban centres, industrial areas
and agricultural production zones. The trunk network has in general a good
coverage, but has to be reinforced in some areas. Figure 4.2 shows the areas where
road links should be improved.

60http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/07/how-africas-new-urban-centers-are-shifting-its-old-
colonial-boundaries/277425/
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Figure 4.2 Areas for improvement of trunk road links

trunk road types

Source: NSDF Study, Road and Highway Authority 2012 and GSS data 2010

Improve SADA trunk road system: In order to improve the connectivity in the
SADA area, which is particularly weak, the following trunk road improvements are
proposed (map 1 figure 4.3):

■ new inter-regional road between Wa and Tamale (I-14);

■ new and upgraded inter-regional road between Wa and Bolgatanga (I-11);
■ new segment of national trunk road between Bimbila and Tamale (N-9);
■ upgraded trunk road Yendi–Bawku as an alternative to the central corridor route;
■ upgraded trunk road on the N-11 between Bolgatanga and Bawku;
■ upgraded regional road on the I-11 between Nakpanduri and Walewale;
■ improved connection between Gushiego, Karaga and Tamale.

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Figure 4.3 New and improved road links in SADA zone and Lake Volta area

Map 1 - SADA zone Map 2 - Lake Volta

Source: NSDF Study, 2014

Improve connectivity around and across Lake Volta: Lake Volta presently acts
as a barrier between the Volta Region and the central corridor, Ashanti and Brong
Ahafo regions. The impact of the barrier can be reduced through the following
interventions:

■ strengthen the Kumasi, Ejura, Atebubu connection to Yeji and Kwadwokurom;

■ modernise and increase the capacity, frequency, and attractiveness of the Yeji
and Kwadwokurom ferry crossings;
■ improve road connections around the lake;
■ move the ferry crossing from Dambai to Kpetchu, which will reduce the travel
time east-west;
■ develop a new road and ferry crossing between the northern part of the Eastern
region to Dominase–Koforidua.

Improved connectivity between the Volta, Ashanti and Brong Ahafo will have
numerous benefits. It will support development around the lake and improve the
environment for tourism, particularly around this part of the lake close to Kumasi and
Accra. It will also unleash the areas of agricultural potential by improving agriculture
connectivity with the markets in Techiman and Kumasi. Finally, it will also provide an
alternative to the coastal corridor for movement between West African countries,
specifically, from Atakpamé in Togo via Techiman to Yamoussoukro in Ivory Coast.
The improved connectivity aims at strengthening development in the central parts of
these West African countries.

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Figure 4.4 Proposed ferry crossings and roads at Lake Volta

Map 1 - Ferry crossings at Kpetchu Map 1- Ferry crossing at Dominase

Source: NSDF Study, 2014

Improve connectivity in Western region: There are six opportunities to improve

the road network in Western region. These new links would promote more
interaction between urban centres and better connectivity to the Takoradi (map 1 on
Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5 Western region road improvements

Map 1 - Road improvement in Western Region Map 2 - Improved roads in Brong Ahafo
8

1. Buako–Wiawso 7. Awufia-New Dorbo

2. Wiawso–Diaso 8. Sampa-Banda
3. Wiawso–Asankrangwa
4. Manso–Bandae
5. Bandae–Tarkwa
6. Tarkwa–Takoradi

Source: NSDF Study, 2014

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These improvements will enhance interaction between the urban settlements in the
region and the communication to Takoradi. There is also an opportunity to improve
road links in Brong Ahafo along the western border from Adwufia in the south
towards the north to New Drobo and from Sampa to Banda just south of the Bui
Dam. These improvements aim at supporting the links to areas with agricultural
production (map 2 on Figure 4.5).

Improve the Ho - Akanu border crossing: The southern part of Volta Region is
located close to Lomé, the Togo capital, which provides a sizeable market for
produce from Volta Region and development of trade. Ho is located only 106 km
from Lomé. The NSDF considers this option and emphasises on improved
connection along the R10 link.

4.6 A national and international rail network

4.6.1 The need and benefit of railroads
Railways are an efficient transport mode—concentrating people and goods and
transporting them over a fixed route using one engine and multiple rail cars.
Transport of heavy cargo is cheaper on rail than on road, and low transport costs
improve the competitive positions of shippers and, in particular, help marginal
producers be more competitive. Similarly, passenger transport by rail can increase
labour mobility—expanding the labour pool and economic development outward
from urban centres. In addition, modern railways are considered as a green
transport alternative, requires less land than highways, alleviating road congestion,
reducing road maintenance costs, and reducing road deaths and injuries.

Recognizing these benefits, the Ghana government has decided to upgrade and
expand the national rail network. Accordingly, NSDF proposes refinements to the
railway development plans prepared by the Ghana Railway Master Plan project and
the draft NIP. It considers the role that the railways can play for: (i) linking urban
settlements; (ii) strengthening urban nodes to promote concentrated development;
(iii) improving access to job opportunities and urban services, and (iv) supporting
economic development through more efficient freight transport between production
centres and consumption markets.

4.6.2 The NSDF proposed railroad network

The proposed rail network would extend over 4,300 km, almost double the length of
NIP's and 30 percent more than GRMP's (map 1 on Figure 4.6). Like the draft NIP
and GRMP proposals, the network includes a modernised and re-aligned existing
railway, strengthening the historic links between the 'triangle' cities. It also includes
new segments from Kumasi to Paga (at the Burkina Faso border) and integrates the
rail network with the Lake Volta inland water transport system. Unlike the GRMP and
draft NIP, the network does not include Techiman‒Sawla segment. It includes a line
through the northern with a connection to Togo and several new links in the more
densely populated and urbanised south. NSDF proposed new links comprising the
following:

■ a modern, high-speed line between Accra and Kumasi running through the
centre of the “triangle”, with links to Cape Coast and Takoradi, Bolgatanga and
Bawku, and on the ECOWAS railway system at Ghana's border with Togo and
Burkina Faso;
■ links to the cities in the neighbouring countries such as to Korhogo in Côte
d'Ivoire and to Zabzugu, Kara and Sokode in Togo;

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■ new alignment of the proposed ECOWAS coastal railway line from the centre of
the "triangle” to the Côte d'Ivoire border;
■ links to areas with significant mineral deposits.

The priority rail links include the Accra‒Kumasi and Takoradi‒Kumasi lines because
they would strengthen the connections between the two largest cities and connect
the sea ports to Kumasi and the Boankra Inland port. The Accra–Kumasi line also
supports the economic development and job creation for the population growth
anticipated in the “triangle”. It also would enable efficient transport of the solid waste
generated in Accra and Kumasi to a solid waste management facility that could
include recycling and waste-to-power components.

Agricultural areas in Upper Western and Eastern regions as well as agricultural

projects in the proposed agricultural corridor will benefit from the central railway to
Paga, passing through and linking to large urban markets in Kumasi, Techiman and
Tamale. With a maximum of 8-hour travel time, the railway will link the northern
urban settlement system creating access to urban markets from the rural areas and
the possibilities of sharing private and public services, education and health. Some
trains will stop at all stations, providing local transport service, and others will stop at
the main cities only, providing express service.

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116 Figure 4.6 Railroad network options - NSDF, NIP and GRMP - and phasing
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4.7 Two international airports

The Government would like its international airport services to be competitive with
those of its neighbours in West Africa. However, constructing and maintaining
modern airports is costly, in part because modern passenger and cargo aircrafts are
bigger and heavier, in part because today's passengers expect better quality
service, and partly due to more stringent international technical and security
requirements. An international airport, for example, could cost between USD 700
million to over 1.4 billion. For example, the new runway in Atlanta alone cost USD
1.2 billion.

A decision to develop a new international airport must not be taken lightly. Yet
Ghana has four locations which have been discussed as possible sites for an
international airport. These are KIA (operating), Tamale (being developed), Kumasi
(under consideration), and Prampram (under consideration at location 1 on the map
below). It is unlikely that Ghana would be able to support the costs of developing
and operating four international airports. It is also unlikely that the domestic and
international demand would be enough to attract international carriers to service
multiple airports.

Accordingly, given the principle of balanced development and the shape of Ghana
as a vertical rectangle with its height about double its width, NSDF recommends that
only two international airports be developed in the framework period: one in Tamale
and another in the southern part of the country, and preferably in the middle of the
triangle to attend to the maximum population.

The choice of a suitable location for an

international airport in the south may also be
based on balanced development and on the
access by the population. The Prampram site
has the advantage of being delineated and close
to the nations' capital. However, NSDF considers
that the centre of the “triangle” at (2) on the map,
presents a viable and perhaps preferred option.
This location is roughly at the centre of the
overall and urban population in the south. The
location would be efficient combined with modern
fast railway and express road connections to the
“triangle” cities making access to the airport
possible in less than 50 minutes from Accra,
Kumasi, Takoradi and Cape Coast.

An international airport in the “triangle” area

would eliminate the need for new international
airports in Kumasi, Cape Coast/Takoradi and Accra. In addition, it may also be
economic to redevelop the present airports in Accra and Kumasi for national flights
only61 as well as the local airports / landing strips in Takoradi, Sunyani, Wa,
Bolgatanga and Ho would be maintained for emergency services, smaller aircraft
traffic and taxi flights.

Within a distance of 200 km, the two international airports at Tamale and the
'triangle' would be accessible by 85 percent of the population. Within the same

61In Europe national flights less than 400km are being substituted by railway journeys, which are considered cheaper, less time
consuming and more environmental friendly.
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distance, a two international airport option at Tamale and Prampram would be

accessible by only 65 percent of the population.

An airport in the centre of the “triangle” would not only provide international aviation
services to the “triangle” cities but would also stimulate the development of the
“triangle” centre area, the site of a proposed new city.

The economic impact of the international airport at Tamale in the north could be
strengthened if it were provided with cold storage facilities (for export of agricultural
produce), aircraft maintenance facilities, and aviation-specific training facilities. New
renewable energy may cater for this, and enhance it mainly for cargo flights.

NSDF has identified attractive locations for the development of three forms of
renewable energy plants: biomass, solid waste-to-energy, and solar.

4.7.1 Biomass energy

Buipe and Tamale provide attractive locations for new biomass energy plants,
because they are located on or near several transport that can collect wood and
crop residues from the northern regions as well as from Brong Ahafo and Volta.
Biomass energy plants can complement national energy production but must be
located to closer areas with production of sufficient amounts of biomass.

Figure 4.7 Biomass energy sites Power Plants

Future Thermal

Thermal in construction

Thermal

Hydro

Solar

Planned solar

Source: NSDF Study 2014, based on data from Energy Commission

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4.7.2 Solid waste power plant

The area between Kumasi and Accra, including the triangle, provides an attractive
area for siting a modern solid waste power plant, provided the rail network is
developed between them. Such a plant would have sufficient delivery of waste,
could efficiently recycle and handle dangerous waste produced in the industries and
support the health care sector in the triangle area.

4.7.3 Solar Energy

NSDF finally points a development of solar energy systems and farms in the
northern regions as started by VRA in Navrongo. In this context Tamale should be
seen as a future centre for development of the solar energy power supported by
national and international cooperation agreements and include investment in
education and training opportunities to strengthen this sector in Tamale.

4.8 Telecoms
The main challenge for the telecom sector is the unequal distribution of the services
countrywide and lack of education and training to exploit fully the ICT opportunities.
ICT must be considered as a prioritised development sector to enhance all social
and economic areas of the community development.

Well documented experiences show that the use of mobile phones is applicable in
all sectors of the population where telecom masts can ensure the coverage of the
network. Small solar panel system also makes it possible to charge mobile cell
phones in areas without electricity supply. Development of the fibre network makes
via the improved and more secure access to the internet, communication and
interchange of data becomes even more efficient.

NSDF suggests maximum attention to improved distribution of telecom masts in

remote areas as well as the need to enhance education and training for the use of
the ICT all over the country and be included basic education.

To promote development of and use of ICT in the northern regions the NSDF
suggest the establishment of a special junior pioneer ICT and IT training centre
established in Tamale. The pioneers will through a special designed basic education
and ICT programme be trained in the use and the role of Information and
Communication Technology in development.

4.9 New Airport City at Centre of Triangle

NSDF has identified a unique urban development opportunity at the centre of the
golden triangle—an airport and airport city. This section provides a briefly describes
the new city/town movement and its key success factors, the emerging trend of
airport cities, Ghana's existing and planned new towns, and NSDF's concept for the
new airport city development.

4.9.1 Brief history of the new city/town movement

The planned development of new towns started in the UK after World War II with the
aim to decongest larger industrialized cities, rehouse people in freshly built, new and
fully planned towns that were nearly completely self-sufficient. Since then, the UK
has developed 32 new towns with a present population of about 2.5 m people.
Other countries also developed new towns, including the United States France,
Germany, Italy, Belize, Russia and Sweden, amongst others. In the 1950s and 60s,
developing countries built new towns in Pakistan (Karachi), India (Chandigarh),
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Brasil (Brasilia), Tanzania (Dodoma), Nigeria (Abudja) and Ghana (Tema). While the
new town movement largely stalled in the 1980's, a few countries, notably China and
India are planning thousands of new towns.

The overall aim of new towns was to divert population from congested urban areas
on to green field sites. Some new towns were built to demonstrate a new and
improved urban structure that could provide models to improve existing towns.
Finally, some towns were created for regional economic development purposes.

A review of new towns in UK found that they had an impact on the regional
economies in which they were located. For example, manufacturing employment
grew much faster than the national average and the town attracted investment from
international firms including high-tech industries. The review also found that there
was no ideal size for the new town, and that size depended on access to other
centres and towns. New towns were able to attracted high calibre appointees to run
them, staff to work for them and consultants to undertake commissions for them,
and professional and academic attention.

A review of the Festac (new) Town in Nigeria is aslo relevant. Festac was planned
on a 1,770 hectare site to accommodate about 140,000 people in a model township
within metro Lagos. The study found that more people live in the town than originally
planned, the town helped to reduce the housing shortage, and provided housing for
people in different income groups, social background, religion and tribes.

According to Hall and Ward62, there are 12 key factors for successful new towns,
three of these relate to the location and the rest to the design. Those that relate to
location are: (i) top-quality transport links, especially to existing urban centres; (ii)
availability of sufficient land for greenfield development; and (iii) sufficient distance
from existing large scale settlements to guarantee, as far as possible, self-
containment.

4.9.2 Airport city concept

Many countries have or are planning airport cities, or aerotropolis (airport-centred
urban economic regions). One source lists over 80 airport cities or aerotropolises
that are in operation or in development 63. Most airport cities evolve organically—due
to land availability, good surface transportation access, growing air traveller
consumer demands, airport revenue needs, new business practices, and site
specific commercial real estate opportunities—although some are planned.

Airports are no longer have single function facilities but are becoming multimodal,
multi-functional enterprises that generate considerable commercial development in
and beyond their sites. Non-airport functions include passenger terminals with
shopping malls and corporate headquarters. Some major airports now have more
office space and employment than CBDs (for example, CBD Rossypole in the
middle of Paris CDG airport).

Airports tend to attract investment and therefore generate jobs. A 2009 study of
employment scale and industry mix around the USA's 25 busiest passenger airports
found that 2.8 percent of all jobs were located within a 2.5-mile radius, 6.8 percent
within a 5 mile radius, and 17.2 percent within a 10 mile radius—with wages and
salaries at these radii accounting for 3.4, 8.2 and 21.9 percent of the total.

62 By Hall and Ward, In Sociable Cities, the legacy of Ebenezer Howard; Peter Hall; 1999.
63 http://www.aerotropolis.com/files/AirportCities_TheEvolution.pdf
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4.9.3 Ghana's existing and planned new towns

The new town idea is not new to Ghana. In 1951, a decision was made to develop a
new town on the site of a small fishing village about 25 kilometres from Accra.
Tema, the new town, had two purposes: to provide Accra with a port and to fulfil the
needs of the Volta River Project. In 1962 President, Kwame Nkrumah,
commissioned the Tema Development Corporation to proceed with the development
and engaged Doxiadis Associates, an international consultancy to develop the plan
for a projected population of 180,000 in 1990. Over the following decades, Tema
grew into the industrial hub of Ghana and one of the best-planned cities in West
Africa.

Two other new towns are presently being planned: King's City, about 10 km from the
existing built-up area of STMA, and Appolonia near Prampram, about 30 km from
the centre of AMA. King's City is planned on a 960 ha site to accommodate over
75,000 residents in 22,000 housing units, with an overall density of 78 p/ha.
Appolonia project, officially launched by His Excellency John Dramani Mahama the
President of Ghana in July 2012, is planned for 88,000 people on a 941 ha site at a
density of 93 p/ha. Both new towns are sponsored by the Renaissance Group—a
Russian-based investment bank—that is developing other real estate projects on
greenfield sites in African cities including Tatu City in Nairobi, Kenya; Kiswishi, in
Lubumbashi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and Roma Park, in Lusaka.

4.9.4 New city at the centre of the 'triangle'

The centre of the historic 'golden triangle' formed by Accra, Kumasi, and Sekondi-
Takoradi has special importance. It is already the point that is closest to largest
urban (and rural) population in Ghana; the centre is most accessible from this
population and the population is most accessible from this point. It is also near to the
coast.

NSDF suggests that four national infrastructure initiatives noted above would have
synergies between each initiative and create the conditions for the development of a
new town at this point. These initiatives are the expressway, the rail network, and
the airport.

New expressway and high speed rail links from the centre to the three large cities—
as well as to other urban settlements along these routes—would greatly reduce the
travel time from the centre to each city to about 40 minutes.

The location meets the criteria on new town success noted above. The new
expressway and rail would provide the "top-quality transport links to existing urban
centres. It is sufficiently distant from these and other settlements so that it would be
self-contained and not merge with other settlements. Further, the proposed site
south west of Achiasi has sufficient land for greenfield development.

The new town would provide several important benefits:

■ a population counter-magnet for people that might otherwise move to the large
cities or to the coastal area between Winneba and Cape Coast. Diverting and
even attracting population from coastal areas would help to protect the natural
resources and support its development for recreation and international tourism.
■ greater interaction between the 'triangle' cities and the world to create a
competitive economic regional centre in the West African context. The people
who would be most attracted to live and work in the new city would be those who
have business in more than one triangle city and the world.

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■ a model urban development and management centre that would incorporate

state-of-the-art features and management processes that other urban areas
could emulate, including smart-growth, transit-oriented development, ecological
green design, well-planned industrial areas, affordable housing, and sufficient
public and private services.
■ regional economic development around the city would ensure that the jobs
opportunities be directed at people who are already residing in the area. The
transport and other service infrastructure would be developed not only for the
new town but coordinated with the development of new road structure and
expressways inside the triangle area ensuring that the other urban settlements
with development potential are being benefitted.

4.10 Options for three new ports

The spatial expansion of the two existing ports at Tema and Takoradi is physically
constrained. Redevelopment costs may trigger a decision to search for new options
for port development. NSDF proposes three areas to be reserved for future
expansion of the sea port activities. These areas have a number of advantages.
They are near to deep water, close to existing ports, relatively free of existing urban
development, and have sufficient land for the development of inland facilities
including access to rails and roads (Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8 Future land reserves for development of harbours

Source: NSDF Study 2014

Two of the expansion areas are located east of the Tema port: one at Akaplabanya,
68 km from Tema, and other at Adina, close to the Togo border. The later might be
developed as a joint Ghana-Togo project. The proximity of the Akaplabanya area to
the lower Volta River and Akosombo inland port provides an opportunity to connect
to the inland water transport system by either rail or canal. The expansion area near
Takoradi port is located 37 km to the west at Cape Three Points and has a central
location for the oil and gas industry. All areas could be easily connected to the future
West African coastal highway and railway.

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4.11 Green infrastructure Network

4.11.1 Green infrastructure concept
A green infrastructure network (GIN) is a new type of spatial intervention. It is a
network of green places and water systems that delivers multiple environmental,
social and economic values and services to urban and rural communities. It is
simultaneously an ecological network, a wildlife corridor, a river buffering system, an
enhanced forest reserve network, a recreational asset and a visual amenity. GINs
provide the counterpoint to urban development and anchor the urban centres while
at the same time protect and help restore natural systems a nd open spaces that
serve as an environmental life support system for urban settlements.

The value of GINs, particularly in and near urban areas, is becoming increasingly
recognised by health professionals, water managers, planners, policy makers and
designers around the world. The rapid expansion of towns and cities contains a risk
of creating unliveable, unhealthy environments. The contention is that human
habitats need to be healthy and friendly places that use and recycle resources
wisely, are clean, safe and accessible, are protected as far as possible from extreme
weather conditions, and where natural systems are not only recognised and valued
for the critical functions and services they provide, but are assisted in delivering
these services.

Green infrastructure networks have been designed and implemented at a wide

variety of scales stretching from the neighbourhood to continental. Figure 4.10
provides examples of green infrastructure networks in Poland; Prince George's
County and Montgomery County in Maryland, USA; New York Metropolitan Area;
and Europe.

The Green Infrastructure Network system consists of the following:

■ Protection and sustainable use and management of existing ecological assets

including water resources;
■ Pursuing opportunities to restore, enhance, expand and better connect existing
elements of the natural environment and ecosystem;
■ Sensitive design, construction and maintenance of the transportation network,
electricity distribution system, and oil and gas pipelines to enhance the network;
■ Green infrastructure components that reduce the burden on existing, and the
need for additional, storm water management and wastewater treatment facilities
such as pipes and sewers;
■ Planning urban development at locations and in an urban form that enhances the
natural environment rather than being at odds with it;
■ A planning mind-set that strives to minimise environmental impacts of land use
and transport planning decisions and maximize potential enhancements to the
natural environment.

4.11.2 Benefits of a Green Infrastructure Network

If the future urban population is accommodated in urban areas that are interweaved
and penetrated by a green infrastructure network, then regions, districts, and urban
and rural communities could benefit in several ways.

■ Community Benefits - A GIN could help minimize the physical impacts of

urbanization by promoting a more compact urban pattern. Communities would
maintain their natural visual amenities, creating a civic identity and becoming a
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source of community pride, and the landscape heritage of regions would be

protected. A robust network would also include outdoor recreational and
educational facilities, both active and passive, promoting community interaction
with the environment.
■ Mobility Benefits - A GIN could reduce the impacts from transportation projects,
while still accommodating mobility needs. Roadways could be more carefully
integrated into the natural system. Public transport could be linked to a well-
developed network of non-motorized transport on GIN trails, increasing mobility
alternatives for the region’s residents.
■ Economic Development Benefits - A GIN could boost the economic potential
of tourism, leisure, recreation and cultural activities. Attractive and usable open
spaces also enhances the physical character of an area and can result in
increased property values. Green technology options can also reduce costs
associated with flooding and water quality degradation. Pedestrian and bicycle
paths through the network will encourage the use on non-motorised
transportation. Parts of the network will be opened to urban agriculture and
provide open space for recreation.
■ Environmental Benefits - A GIN can help improve watershed, health and
enhanced ecosystem functions, by both protecting the natural environment from
development and mitigating the impacts of development where it is needed. It
will reduce the fragmentation of ecological habitats and raise the level of
biodiversity. It will improve air quality and moderate temperature extremes. GIN
can also serve to limit the need for “engineered” flood control solutions and
moderate the impact of flood events. River valley ecosystems will be improved,
ground water replenishment, it will be strengthened and the incidence and
severity of flooding reduced. The river buffer component will protect and restore
water quality, particularly near urban areas, by keeping polluted storm water out
of rivers.
■ Lifestyle Benefits - A GIN would provide a network of recreational amenities,
contributing to health and promoting participation. It also could provide a wide
variety of cultural, social and community facilities and activities that promote
education and awareness of the environment. Improving physical and social
inclusion through these amenities it is particularly beneficial for young, disabled
and older segments of the populations.

4.11.3 Ghana's green infrastructure network

The proposed GIN concept in Ghana incorporates all protected areas, the coastline,
main rivers and river valleys and lakes. It also can include new connectors between
these elements using green corridors along existing and new roads and railroads.

The over 260 protected areas in Ghana include

forest reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries
and wetlands sites covering an area of about 42,000
km2 (see map beside). The over 100 main river
segments, with a total length of over 7,200
kilometres, will be buffered from development; the
buffer's width will be determined by the location
context and may vary from a hundred meters to
several kilometres. The rivers and their buffers will
serve to link most of the protected areas. Similarly,
there will be a green buffer around Lake Volta and
other lakes and at the coast.

A cattle drive corridor can be designated at the

request of stakeholders in the northern regions who
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point at that, presently. Cattle are driven from Burkina Faso southward into Ghana
and come into conflict with farmers along the route. A designated corridor can be
part of the green infrastructure network and serve to attenuate this conflict.

The river, lake and coastal buffers will serve to link most of the protected areas as
well as connection of most urban settlements to the green infrastructure network.
Nevertheless, there are instances where there are no natural elements that can link
fragmented protected areas and a new "green link" will be required. In places where
roads are suitably aligned, the road corridor may be widened to function as a green
link. NSDF estimates that about 270 of such links will be needed to complete the
network, links will average about seven kilometres, and the total length of all links
will be just over 2,000 kilometres.

The green infrastructure network as defined above will come close to and ideally
penetrate into urban areas (map 2 on Figure 4.9). Urban authorities will need to
determine how their cities and towns will relate to the national level green
infrastructure. It is expected that the network will become part of urban greenbelts
and networks of urban greenways. The greenways could have trails and bicycle
lanes and link to urban public open space and park network as well as incorporate
urban agriculture areas. The GIN will go into urban areas where it may incorporate
urban parks, road verges, and public and private gardens.

4.11.4 Implementation
Implementation of a county-wide green infrastructure network must be led by the
public sector (local authorities, government agencies). Nevertheless, it is unlikely to
be successful unless the initiative has strong partners in the private sector
(landowners, developers), and civil society and communities. Regional, district and
local authorities will need to give high priority to green infrastructure in their SDFs,
structure and local plans. Sectoral agencies, especially the Forest Commission,
MOFA, GRIDA, VRA, GHA and Ministry of Water, Works and Housing will all have a
role to play in planning and maintaining the GIN.

Stakeholders will need to prioritize the areas and links that will be included in the
network. Communities must help identify existing green infrastructure elements as
well as the best places for new connections, routes and linkages.

The whole network will be implemented over a period of decades and use the
concept as a guide not as a blueprint.

Green Infrastructure Principles

One organisation provides useful principles to guide the design and development of
a green infrastructure network. These are:64

■ Integration: green infrastructure is fundamental to urban planning and design

frameworks for both new growth areas and redevelopments;
■ Nature-based: green Infrastructure use natural processes to provide essential
services and functions that improve the quality of urban water, air, soil, climate
and wildlife habitat;
■ Collaboration: the design, development and maintenance of green
infrastructure require open and on-going collaboration between government,
industry and communities;

64Green Infrastructure: Life support for human habitats; Martin Ely and Sheryn Pitman; Green Infrastructure
Project, Botanic Gardens of South Australia; 2014
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■ Evidence-based: green infrastructure policy, planning and design are grounded

in science and the lessons of experience, and are informed by emerging
practices and technologies;
■ Capacity: green infrastructure requires commitment to building motivation,
knowledge, skills and access to resources.

Implementation activities
The following activities are suggested to implement the green infrastructure network:

■ Increase public understanding of the green infrastructure concept and

awareness of its benefits with respect to protection areas, biodiversity,
ecosystem services, economy, and quality of life and understanding of how
green infrastructure can contribute to other policies' objectives relating to flood
control, carbon storage, energy efficiency, and human health;
■ Provide leadership and guidance to regional and district authorities, use and
adjust existing regulations that promote aspects of green infrastructure, such as
in investments in flood control, river buffering, and urban food protection;
■ Promote primary research into the benefits of green infrastructure (including
health benefits in urban and peri-urban areas) and better monitoring and
reporting of the effectiveness of related policy initiatives;
■ Collect and maintain “best practices” information—including benefits and
successful examples of open space protection, private sector “green”
development, and “green” municipal practices—and distribute widely;
■ Improved data collection methods to support the principle of “measuring to
manage”, to ensure a better and regular data and analysis of green infrastructure
elements at multiple scales;
■ Support mapping and the use of indicators to measure the variety of benefits
that green infrastructure interventions generate. The mapping and indicators
would help channel green infrastructure investments to areas where they are
most cost-effective and help raise private funds to support green infrastructure
initiatives;
■ Develop “model” green infrastructure codes and regulations to address or
Implement the river buffer component, maintaining and protecting natural
features during site development, reducing impervious surfaces and storm water
runoff impacts, and tree planning.

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Figure 4.9 Ghana Green Infrastructure Network Concept 4-127

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Poland Prince George's County, Maryland, USA Montgomery County, Maryland, USA

New York Metropolitan Area Green corridor through farmland Europe

Figure 4.10 International examples of green infrastructure networks

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4.12 Proposed Agricultural Growth Corridor

4.12.1 Agricultural Growth Corridor concept
Agricultural Growth Corridors (AGC) are a relatively a new concept that emerged out
of the World Economic Forum in 2009. The concept, aimed at regions with
subsistence agriculture practices and with unrealised agricultural potential, it
supports the conversion of land into commercial agriculture at an industrial scale.
The idea is that provision of strategic infrastructure—roads, railways, irrigation,
storage, processing and ports—will attract Investment and facilitate the development
of commercial agriculture.

Key requirements for an AGC include the following:

■ availability of large areas of land for industrial agriculture;

■ established infrastructure (roads, irrigation, warehouses, improved seedling);
■ linkage to ports and other countries;
■ strong private sector;
■ accessibility and proximity to large urban markets;
■ small-holder farmers.

Access to ports is vital for the export of agriculture produce and importing inputs
such as fertilizers and agricultural machinery.

Smallholder farmers are an important component of an AGC. AGCs are not meant
to put existing farmers out of business but to encourage larger commercial
enterprises to engage them as out-growers, train and equip them with modern
farming methods, and provide them with higher incomes than they would generate
on their own.

Several African countries have developed successful agricultural growth corridors

(Figure 4.11). These include: Tanzania (Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor);
Mozambique (Biera Agricultural Growth Corridor, Nacala Corridor, and Zambesi
Corridors). In addition, Nigeria, with assistance from USAID, has designed the Lakaji
growth corridor spanning from Lagos through Kaduna and ending in Kastina.

4.12.2 Agricultural Growth Corridor in Ghana

Ghana could learn from these successes and start the process of developing its own
agricultural growth corridor. NSDF has taken the first two steps and has (i)
determined that Ghana has all the preconditions to establish agricultural growth
corridor and (ii) defined its possible boundaries.

Major Infrastructure including truck road, warehouses, and irrigation: Ghana

has an existing, central, national-level trunk road that runs from Accra to Bolgatanga
that efficiently connects ports, international borders and major urban markets,
particularly Accra, Kumasi, Tamale, and Techiman. High production levels are
higher around these areas, demonstrating their importance to encouraging
confidence in farmers to produce more.

The same trunk road links production areas to the port in Tema, from where it can
be easily exported. Conversely, imported farm inputs like fertilizer and hybrid
seedlings can be transported from the harbour via this trunk road to farming centres.
The road links to international borders with Togo and Burkina Faso, facilitating
exports to these places. Already Ghana exports maize from Techiman to Burkina

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Faso and all the way to Niger and Chad. Likewise, rice is exported to Lome and
other border towns in Togo. Basically, the presence of this trunk road is a massive
boost for the establishment of an AGC.

Institutions with similar agricultural project: The definition of a GAGC area is

influenced by the existence of private investments in agriculture within the area and
other institutions with agricultural investments. These include investments by
companies like GADCO, which has massive investments in rice plantations in the
Volta region and offers assistance to out-growers. In the three northern regions,
AgDevCO, a British NGO, is supporting farmers to improve production of maize, rice
and soy and SADA and Feed the Future projects are working to increase yield and
crop area.

Major markets linked to ports and international borders: Most of the major
markets in the country that will offer convenient areas for demand and supply of
agricultural goods are located in the AGC. The Kumasi central market is the biggest
in the country. Others include markets in Accra and Tema, Tamale and of the
busiest which is Techiman market that links international markets in Burkina Faso,
Niger and Chad.

Major population concentrations to guarantee demand: The present population

within the proposed AGC is about 14 million people, or 57 percent of the national
population, with more than half of these (8.6 m) residing in urban centres. This
population presence spanning from Tamale, Techiman, Kumasi, Koforidua, Accra
through to Tema is more than enough to provide the necessary demand for produce
that may come out from within the corridor.

Availability of land and potential production sites: The major economic activity
of all the regions in GAGC, apart from Greater Accra and Ashanti, is agriculture.
The two biggest regions in Ghana (Northern and Brong Ahafo regions) cultivate only
10 and 16 percent of their respective lands into crop production. These factors will
enhance the establishment of the agricultural growth corridor. Additionally, the most
predominant activity in the whole of the three northern regions is farming.

Agricultural growth corridor - two options

NSDF provides two options for the Agricultural Growth Corridor (Figure 4.11),
although there are many other possibilities. Both options are centred on the same
main trunk road spine and both cover approximately the same area. Option 1
comprises the area within 50 km of the trunk road, while option 2 comprises the
districts that are located next to the trunk road.

Implementation

The promotion of the GAGC concept should be spearheaded by MOFA with policies
that will initiate it implementation. To make the GAGC concept operational, a level of
public-private coordination with respect to agricultural development and investment
is required, this has eluded Ghana in the past. The corridor concept provides a
tangible platform for this collaboration. Interested stakeholders can consider the
formation of an Agricultural Growth Corridor Advisory Council to serve as a platform
for collaboration between the public and private institutions investing in projects
along the corridor. The Advisory Council could serve in an advocacy and
coordination capacity, improving the investment environment along the corridor and
attracting new investment (domestic and international).

■ Development of Infrastructure: Central to the development of the corridor

concept are roads, irrigation, ports and railways since the lack of these and
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storage facilities is often cited as a major barrier to agricultural development and

food security in Ghana. However, it is important to ask what kind of infrastructure
is required to benefit farmers in the country. Private capital is not interested in
investing in infrastructure, although companies are happy to be paid to build it.
In this regard, GOG should take the initiative in securing the means through
which infrastructure can be provided in the growth corridor.
■ Small scale farmers as out growers and contract farmers: Promoters of all
the corridor concept, along with the World Bank and FAO, constantly emphasise
how they want to help smallholder farmers gain access to credit, farm inputs and
protection for their land rights and speak of major benefits for them and for local
communities. Ghanaian farmers within the corridor can reap the same benefits
as those of the rubber and oil palm out growers in Western region of Ghana. In
the same way, existing farmers in the corridor will be grouped as out growers
and accorded the necessary benefit. This is also being practiced in Fervie in the
Volta region for rice growers.
■ Public Private Partnership (PPP): The government should consider the PPP
as the foundation for its AGC. AgDeCo, the company that developed investment
blueprint for SACGOT, operates in Upper East region and has initiated support
for farmers in the region. The government should look for such partnership to
propel the implementation of the GAGC.

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Nigeria Lakaji growth corridor Tanzania Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor Mozambique Beira Corridor

Figure 4.11 International examples of agricultural growth corridors

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Figure 4.12 Figure 4.9 Agricultural

Agricultural Growth
Growth Corridor Corridor
Concepts - two options

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4.13 Proposed urban food sheds

Urban populations are growing and expanding, often consuming farm land. This
means that cities need to field more people on less land or land that is further away.

To address this trend, NSDF promotes the concept of "foodsheds". A food shed
refers to the farms, processing facilities and distribution networks within a certain
distance to a city that sustain the flow of fresh food to nearby populations. Figure
4.13 provides example of food sheds in North America.

The benefits of a food shed are the following:

■ food grown nearby reduces transportation costs, energy, and potential

disruptions.
■ locally produced food is more nutritious; fruits and vegetables lose 40 percent of
their nutritional value within three days of being harvested.
■ the greater access to fresh produce, the less likely we are to suffer from diet-
related illnesses such as obesity and diabetes

NSDF has identified the cities where food shed planning is a priority. Two size food
sheds are considered using 50 and 70 kms radius. A food shed with a 50 km radius
covers an area of about 7,800 km2 while one of 70 km radius covers 15,300 km2.
(Figure 4.15 shows a food shed with a 70 km radius around major urban
settlements).

The left hand chart in Figure 4.15 shows the land cover type distribution within an
area of 50 km from the city centre of the twenty largest cities, those over 50,000
inhabitants. Cities are shown bottom to top from the most to least populated. Larger
cities tend to have a lower share of cropland than the smaller ones. The pattern is
similar for cropland within 70 km of the city centre.

The right-hand chart shows that larger cities have more people per hectare of
cropland, or less cropland per person. For example, with a food shed of 50 km
radius, Accra and Kumasi have 15 and 13 persons per hectare of cropland,
respectively, while Cape Coast and Tamale have only 2 and 1 respectively. When
the food shed radius is increased to 70 km, Accra's ratio falls to 5 and Kumasi's to 3
persons per crop hectare.

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Crop land area

as % of cell area

Figure 4.13 Seventy (70) km radius foodsheds around main urban settlements

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Figure 4.14 Land cover type within 50 km of centre of urban area / persons
per crop hectare at 50 and 70 km of centre

Source: NSDF Study 2014 based on Forestry Commission Satellite Imagery and GSS population
census

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San Francisco Foodshed New York City food shed Toronto's foodshed

Oakland urban agriculture assessment Tennessee regional foodshed Philadelphia foodshed

Figure 4.1 Example of food sheds in North America

Figure 4.15 International examples of foodsheds

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North-East
Network

Tamale
Wa Network
Network

Sunyani
Network

Ho-Hohoe
Network
Kumasi
City-Region
Aflao
Network

Accra
City-Region

STMA Cape Coast

Network Network

Figure 4.16 Integrated spatial development concept

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Volume II

Chapter 5

Implementation

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5 Implementation

1. Action plans and time lines (scheduling of initiatives and interventions)

2. Land management and planning

5.1 Policy tools for influencing urban growth

There are several policy tools for influencing urban growth in some areas and
discouraging it in others. Among the most important tools are (i) infrastructure
investment, (ii) land use and development policies; (iii) preferential political
treatment, including designation of district capital status, and (iv) deployment of
public personnel.

Infrastructure investment includes key new and upgraded trunk infrastructure and
basic infrastructure including public and private funded projects. Infrastructure that
improves connectivity between regions and cities and their rural hinterlands—such
roads, highways, ports and water transport, and airports—can have a major impact
on urban growth, making it economic to develop previously remote or inaccessible
areas, facilitating trade, migration, and private sector investment. Other major
infrastructure projects such as power generation and oil refineries provide the
energy, often at lower cost, for driving the economy. They also attract labour during
the construction phase that often remains in place afterwards. Large social
infrastructure initiatives also include tertiary education facilities, internet, and optical
fibre and telecoms technologies.

Land use and development policies can influence growth by making priorities to
development in defined zones and corridors. Land use planning and regulations can
control acquisition and use of land for settlement development and regulate for how
much land the local governments in each planning period must provide and prepare
for urban development, following the guidelines in the regional spatial development
frameworks and local level plans. The local government needs to be allowed
general development quota corresponding to the natural population growth and
special development quota corresponding to special in-migration and urbanisation
demands following development priorities.

Preferential political treatment is where the national land use planning authorities
in the regional and district spatial development plans distribute allowed land quota
for permitted urban development to the local governments, taking into consideration
existing densities, development potential, available land, and land use planning
preparedness. The government could support districts with larger urban populations
to coordinate policies and encourage urban areas in close proximity to work
together or even aggregate into larger entities. Preferential treatment includes
granting districts higher status (municipal or metropolitan) based on the size of their
population along with more political autonomy to make own decisions, or creating
new districts along with designating a settlement as its new district capital.
Government could also give financial support or pressure by regulating the
provision of infrastructure and services only to the local government with
development according to the overall development priorities, making it harder for
individual smaller cities to pursue more rapid growth and urban sprawl.

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Deployment of public personnel: This includes deploying sectoral staff as well as

urban planning department's staff. Areas that are rapidly growing would have more
and more highly qualified urban planning staff.

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Volume II

Chapter 6

NSDF Phasing and Cost

Estimates

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6 NSDF phasing and cost estimates

6.1 Introduction
This section of the NSDF presents an implementation schedule for the
establishment of new needed urban areas and infrastructure in the plan period
including planning and project preparation as well as the implementation cost
estimates to meet the future development challenges.

The implementation schedule takes into consideration existing and proposed

development projects and includes infrastructure projects proposed by the NSDF.
Finally the section presents some consideration on the relation between the need
for investment in infrastructure and the expected economic resources available for
the generation of the Ghana GDP during the plan period. Some proposed transport
projects planned in the NSDF are not included in the implementation time schedule
for the plan period 2016 - 2035, as they are considered to be implemented well
beyond 2035. However, the areas and cost estimates of needed land and project
preparation have been included.

6.2 Phasing and population growth

The phasing and cost estimates of the NSDF, consider the demands created by the
expected population growth and urbanisation in Ghana, as well as infrastructure
planned by the sector ministries and the draft NIP. These have been reviewed and
improved and new infrastructure could hence be proposed by the NSDF. The cost
estimates have been partly takes from the draft NIP and partly collected from similar
types of projects in Africa and other developing countries. Cost calculation of basic
urban infrastructure needed for new urban areas such as roads, water,
environmental sanitation and electricity have been included while the cost for
housing, education and health infrastructure are not included.

As detailed in the NSDF Volume 1, the NSDF has adopted the high figure of 42
million for the national population by 2035, considering that prior projections of
population growth underestimated the population growth 65. This figure translates
into an average annual population growth rate of 2.19 percent over the period 2010
to 2035.

NSDF uses the figure of 72 percent as the anticipated urbanisation level in 2035,
which results in an urban population of about 30 million when applied to the high
population variant of 42 million.

Such a projection can obviously not be precise. However, it has been informed by
thorough analysis and the trend is very clear. Ghana population will grow
considerably and the growth and the rural – urban migration might increase the
population in urban settlements with up to 17.5 million new citizens.

This development will demand serious consideration on development priorities and

resolute decision making, in both national and local governments, to meet the urban
development challenges. Besides, the expected growth will increase the demand
for basic infrastructure drastically, as well as the need for improved and efficient
land use planning and development control.

65 For example, the actual population in 2010 was about 5 percent higher than GSS's high-variant projection made in 2000.

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6.3 Future distribution of population in Ghana

NSDF has made a projection on the distribution of the population growth in selected
urban centres and other urban areas in the regions (Table 6.2). An average
population growth rate has been calculated and used to distribute the population
growth in the 4 sub-periods of the 20 year NSDF.

For the urban centres stated, NSDF has also calculated the demand for land for
new urban areas. The aim was to provide the local governments with estimates of
the requirements for land for developed and the corresponding actions. The
demand for land has to be considered in relation to the existing available land and
land demands. In low dense areas the existing land area might be used more
efficiently avoiding the need to sprawl on new land. As mentioned, NSDF also
projected the need for residential land and the cost to prepare the service
infrastructure in these future residential areas, and included it in the overall NSDF
implementation plan (Figure 6.1).

Population growth and distribution in settlements

The population growth is distributed over the settlements with over 50.000
inhabitants in 2010 and in the other urban settlements and grouped by region. The
NSDF also considers the establishment of a new town with 500.000 inhabitants in
the “triangle area” within the plan period. The need for urban area has been
calculated per inhabitant using TCPD standards and the area required for
development has been distributed accordingly. The projection shows that Ghana
will need to develop around 54,100 ha of new urban land of which 40.1% (21,700
ha) will be needed for residential areas to cater for the population growth between
2016 and 35. Some of the land will be developed by the private developers.
However, since between 60 and 80 percent of the Ghanaian families depend on
very low incomes, the public sector must also be involved in the preparation of
sufficient viable low-cost residential land for development.

The regional and local government can use the NSDF projections to consider how
and where to prepare these new urban areas to accommodate the future
population.

NSDF has prepared an implementation schedule in Figure 6.1). In this schedule all
existing development plans prepared by the sector ministries and the draft NIP have
been located in the schedule according to their implementation periods. The
majority is scheduled to take place within the NSDF plan period 2016 -20, but some
projects, such as the water and sanitation plan runs through the plan periods 2016 -
25.

The NSDF proposed infrastructure project has been distributed having in mind the
existing projects and their costs and their priorities. NSDF proposes three new
power plants, but plans the implementation later in the NSDF planning period,
hence, coordinating with the development of transport infrastructure.

NSDF has given priority to the proposed improvement of the existing roads and
plans construction of new roads in later phases of the plan period. Expressways
have been planned for implementation in the end of the plan period. However the
planning of the alignments and the acquisition of land have been planned to take
place as a continuous process all through the plan period.

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On the other hand, NSDF gives priority to the renovation of the existing railways
and the construction of a new railway between Tema and Boankra Accra. Another
similar priority is given to the development and improvement of the inland water
transport.

Concerning the implementation plan for the development of new urban areas, this
development has been planned to follow the projected population growth, which
means that new urban and residential areas have to be planned and prepared right
from 2016. The implementation plan has included the cost of plan preparation and
acquisition of land for the developments.

The implementation of the New Town has been planned to start in 2025, but the
planning of the new urban area and the acquisition of land will start earlier. The
planning will also include the location of an area for an eventual development of a
new international airport and for a modern solid waste treatment and power
generation plant as well as the alignments for the railways and expressways that
will run through the area.

The general development of the water and ITC sector projects are planned to be
implemented continuously throughout the planning period in tandem with the natural
protection and climate change mitigation plans along rivers and water body banks.

Figure 6.1 NSDF implementation and development cost plan

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Figure 6.3 presents the NSDF implementation plan. The implementation plan has
been divided into 4 sub plan periods of 5 years each, running from 2016-20, 2021 -
25, 2026-30 and 2031-35. The plan includes projects from the important
infrastructure sectors and focuses also on the need for the preparation of new
urban development areas. The implementation plan in total includes development
projects at a cost estimate of 268 Bn US$ equalent to an average of 13.4 Bn US$
per year. The projected GDP for the period is 2,379 Bn US$ with an average of 119
Bn US$ per year.

The cost of NSDF implementation plan and the distribution of identified

development projects have been compared to WB considerations on suitable
priorities according to the development needs.

6.4 Evaluation of needed resources for infrastructure

development
The NSDF has evaluated the availability of funds for new and improved
infrastructure in Ghana in the period 2016 to 2035. For the projection of the Ghana
GDP, the NSDF has used the growth rates suggested by IMF in 2014 for the
development of the economic development made by IMF 2014. The projected GDP
is shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Projected GDP development in Ghana 2105 to 35

The NSDF has also considered the World Bank's AICD Projects' suggestions for
investment in needed infrastructure proposed for African countries. In general
Africa’s infrastructure networks increasingly lag behind those of other developing
countries and are characterized by missing regional links and stagnant household
access to services.

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The WB has with the Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD)66, created a
project to support future improvements of infrastructure services in Africa and
provide better empirical foundation for prioritizing investments and designing policy
reforms in the infrastructure sectors in African countries. The report suggests the
needed priorities related to investment in the sectors power, water & sanitation,
transport, ICT and irrigation. In 2010 the project presented a report describing the
needs for infrastructure investments in Africa and suggesting needed levels of
investment goals in relation to development of the different African economies.

Ghana could be located between two categories of economies in Sub Sahara

Africa, non-fragile low income countries and resource rich countries. Non-fragile
low-income countries need to allocate, on average, about 23 percent of their GDPs
to build and sustain a basic infrastructure platform. The resource-rich countries are,
in principle, much better placed to meet their infrastructure spending needs.
Meeting the infrastructure needs of the middle-income countries seems to be much
more manageable. These countries should be able to meet their infrastructure
spending needs with 10 percent of GDP. They are also much stronger in asset
maintenance and institutional efficiency and they have more urban populations
which facilitates the creation of the infrastructure.

According to the report, Ghana would have a need for investment in infrastructure
at a level of 12.5% - 21.5% of the GDP per year respectively. Maintenance and
running cost would occupy around 3% to 5.5% of these investments. The public
sector is advised to cover only between 3% and 5.75 of the investments, while the
private sector and donors should finance the remaining needs. Figure 6.3 shows
the proposed needs for spending in infrastructure:

Figure 6.3 Infrastructure spending needs

Source WB AICD: Africa´s Infrastructure, Time for transformation 2010

NSDF has compared the NSDF planned implementation cost estimates, including
the projected expenditures for development projects in the draft NIP, with the
proposed guidelines from the WB AICD project. In the plan period 2016-20 the
planned expenditures are 9.5 % of the GDP in this period. This budget is the
proposed level by WB AICD project but over the public level of 5%, which means

66The World Bank is implementing the AICD under the guidance of a steering committee that represents the
African Union, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), Africa’s regional economic communities,
the African Development Bank (AfDB), the Development Bank of South Africa (DBSA), and major infrastructure
donors. http://www.infrastructure africa.org.

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that the private sector must have an important role to play to complement the public
investments. In case this is not possible, considerations will have to be made to
stretch the implementation costs over the plan period 2016 to 25.

For the plan period 2021-25, the NSDF projected implementation cost estimates,
including the draft NIP investment plans, only reach 5% of the projected GDP. This
will according to the WB AICD guidelines be too low to sustain the needed
economic development of the country, but should be within the range of the public
investments. For this period, possibilities of more private sector involvement and
investments will have to be encouraged.

For the plan period 2026-30 and the plan period 2031-35, the projected
implementation cost estimates only make 2.9 % and 2.6 % of the projected GDP for
the respective planning periods. For these plan periods, more ambitious
development projects will have to be considered both for public and private
investments.

Development plan priorities

Concerning the distribution of investment between the different sectors: power,
water & sanitation, transport, ICT and irrigation, the distribution of the investment in
the NSDF implementation plan is 29, 28.5, 38.5, 1 and 2.5 percent, on each sector
respectively. This is different from the distribution suggested by the WB AICD
Project as seen in the following Table 6.1, where it might be suggested that the
focus on additional investments should be more on power, ICT and irrigation
projects.

Table 6.1 % of investments in sectors 2016-35

Suggested priorities for investment

in infrastructure according to needs
WB AICD NSDF
proposal
% %
Power 44 29
Water and sanitation 24 28.5
Transport 20 38.5
ICT 10 1
Irrigation 4 2.5
In all 100 99.5
Source : WB and AICD project and NSDF Study

NSDF projected needs for investments in infrastructure 2016-2035

As shown in Table 6.1, NSDF has projected the needed investments in the
infrastructure taking into account ongoing and planned projects as well as proper
NSDF future infrastructure projects. The following Table 6.2, gives a more detailed
description of the budget lines in Figure 6.1, it is also embedded within the MS Exel
sheet in appendix 1.

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Table 6.2 Description of Budget Lines provided in Figure 7.1 and in Annex 1

A WB study suggests the investment in infrastructure for an average African country to 12.5% of
Row ii: where 5% might be invested by the public sector and the remaining 7.5% by private sector.

The NSDF has projected the future urban population 2016-35 and the estimated urban population
Row iv: growth is presented in the four NSDF plan periods.

Sums the needed development plans such as structure - and local plans to be prepared in the 216
municipalities and districts during the plan period and include the cost of preparation to an average
Row 1.1: cost of around 90,000 Ghana Cedi per plan. Contributions from developers are not included.
Presents the needed investment in infrastructure in the new demanded residential areas
calculating the area by using the TCDP land need standards and using calculated cost of
infrastructure per km2, including roads, sewage, electricity and water systems. The NSDF only
considers the investments in residential areas, since the public participation in this development
will be high as the majority of the population is without means to contribute to the initial
development. The other urban functions might have a considerable contribution from private
Row 1.2: sector and developers.
All investments in infrastructure need maintenance and this has a cost to ensure continuous well-
functioning infrastructure. The cost of maintenance is depending of the type of infrastructure.
NSDF has used a WB study suggestion of 7% for investment in basic infrastructure. The cost is the
global cost and does not take into consideration any reduction by consumer payments, fee or
Row 1.3: contributions.
This row gives the estimate cost of land for residential development in the NSDF plan period using
TCDP standards for population densities and an average price of land in the outskirts of the urban
areas in all regions. The price of land has been included as public participation and will be necessary
to ensure well planned residential areas for the vast low income population demanding
Row 1.4: settlements in the plan periods and reduce land conflicts.

This budget line presents the suggested NIP investments in energy generation concentrated in the
Row 2.1: two first plan periods 2016-25 according to their implementation schedules.
Row 2.2- Presents the NSDF investment in NSDF proposed power plants in the plan periods using an average
4: cost of 600 million US$ for the construction of a power plant.
Presents the cost of maintenance and running cost of the energy investments, which is quite high.
The cost does not take into consideration consumer fees and sale of energy, which will reduce the
Row 2.5: actual maintenance and running cost.

Row 3.1- Presents the suggested NIP investments in water sector projects during the period 2016-2015
2: according to their implementation schedules.
Row 3.3: Presents NSDF estimation of investment in irrigation to develop agriculture in the period 2026-35
Presents the needs for investment in urban water and sanitation using a WB estimation of the
needs per year projected to the plan period 2026-35. The period 2016-25 is expected to be covered
Row 3.4: by the planned ongoing projects.
Presents the cost of maintenance and running cost of the water sector infrastructure using a cost
Row 3.5: equivalent of 2% per year as suggested by the WB.

Presents the suggested NIP investments in ICT sector projects during the period 2016-2020
Row 4.1: according to their implementation schedules.
Presents the NSDF estimate of needed investment in ICT during the plan period 2021-35 according
to the WB suggestions for investment in ICT. These investments will primarily be done by the
private sector although the public sector will have responsibilities for development of the
Row 4.2: important ICT development in education and public sector in general.

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Row 4.3: Presents the needed investment in maintenance and running cost of ICT infrastructure.

Presents the suggested NIP investments in road sector during the period 2016-2025 according to
Row 5.1: their implementation schedules.
Row 5.2: Presents the cost of planning and preparation of new road projects 2016-25.
Presents the cost of acquisition of land 2016-25 for the NSDF suggested expressways. The price
estimate has been calculated based on market prices for farm land January 2015 according to
Row 5.3: Business Ghana Real Estate, 0.218 million US4 per km2.
Presents the cost of construction of the NSDF proposed expressways needed around Accra and
Row 5.4: Kumasi to handle distribution of road traffic 2025-30.
Presents the cost of construction of the NSDF suggested expressway Accra - Kumasi to connect
Row 5.5: these principal cities and link them to new airport development in the “triangle”, 2026-35.
Row 5.6- Presents the cost of construction of the NSDF suggested trunk road improvements and
7: construction of new trunk road links in Ghana in the period 2016-25.
Sums the needed expenditures in maintenance of the existing and new constructed roads in the
NSDF planning period 2016-35. Eventual income from toll roads has not been included. It is
Row 5.8: suggested that for all sectors GoG have to give thorough considerations to cost-recovery.

Row 6.1: Presents the cost of studies and preparation of the railway alignments and projects 2016-35.
Presents the cost related to acquisition of land for adjustment of existing and new railway
alignments according to the NSDF. The price has been calculated based on market prices as for new
Row 6.2: roads alignments Row 5.3.
Calculates the price for the renovation of the western railway line Takoradi - Kumasi based on costs
Row 6.3: presented in paragraph 7.4.2 Railways.
The row presents the estimated cost for the renovation and activation of the urban railway lines
2016-2025 on existing alignments Kumasi – Ejisu – Konongo and the railway stretch Accra -
Row 6.4: Koforidua.
Presents the priority new investment 2021-25 in the construction of the railway from Tema to
Kumasi and Boankra inland port as a single track in the first phase and with the alignment prepared
for high speed trains and later a second track. The railway also links to the proposed New Town and
Row 6.5: the site for the proposed new airport in the centre of the triangle.
Presents the construction of a new railway connection between Tema and Akosombo 2016-20. This
railway stretch aims at linking Tema port to the Akosombo inland port and also complements the
Row 6.6: Accra urban railway system.
Presents the second new national priority railway construction running from Kumasi / Boankra to
Tamale. The stretch aims at improving connectivity between Tamale and the northern regions to
the southern part of Ghana as well as extending the cargo transport on rail to Tamale from where
Row 6.7: cargo transport to the land locked countries temporarily must continue on road.
Presents the final stage of the national priority railway between Tamale and Paga connecting the
seaports in Tema and Takoradi with Burkina Faso and other land locked destinations. This railway
line also links efficiently the northern regions to the southern part of the country and supports any
Row 6.8: development in areas along the line.
Distributes the cost estimates of maintenance and operation of the national railway network in the
Row 6.9: four stages of the NSDF plan period.

Row 7.1: The Airport Authorities have ongoing projects, these have been scheduled in the period 2016-20.
Ghana needs for planning and preparation of renovation of the airports have been estimated and
Row 7.2: distributed through the NSDF planning period i.e. 2016-35.
The authorities are modernizing the existing airports for the service during 20 years. However, a
new international airport has to be prepared and acquisition of land has to be undertaken. The
NSDF schedules the acquisition of land in the NSDF Phase 2021-25, using the market price of
Row 7.3: farmland in the southern part of Ghana in 2015 to estimate the cost.
Row 7.4: The authorities also have to establish new regional airports and the implementation has been

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scheduled in 2021-35.
A new international airport has to be constructed to meet future increasing demand for air traffic.
The NSDF has suggested a location of a new airport in the “triangle”. An airport located in this area
with high speed train and express way connection to the main cities will give the optimum
coverage. NSDF has scheduled the planning and preparation of this airport to take place through
Row 7.5: the entire NSDF plan period.
NSDF has scheduled the construction of the new airport to take place by the end of the plan period
2031-35 to ensure that high efficient railway and expressway connection to Accra and Kumasi also
Row 7.6: linking to Tamale are established.
Row 7.7: Presents the maintenance and running costs of the airports according to the investments schedule.

The corresponding Ghanaian authorities have planned improvement of the existing seaports and
Row 8.1: fish landing sites which will take place 2016-25.
However due to expected increasing cargo traffic on the seaports, NSDF has scheduled further
Row 8.2: improvement projects also in the period 2026 -35.
NSDF expects that new seaports might be needed due to traffic congestion in and around the
existing sea ports located in urban areas, and plans for the acquisition of land for to two possible
future sites where the coast presents sufficient deep waters. The land prices are calculated at the
Row 8.3: market price for farmland in 2015 in the southern part of Ghana.
Presents the maintenance and running cost for the corresponding investments made in the sector
Row 8.4: during the NSDF plan period.
Presents the planned investment in renovation and improvement of the inland water transport
Row 8.5: scheduled to take place in the period 2016-20.
NSDF considers the development of the inland water transport as a priority matter to promote
green transport and lower transport costs between the southern and northern parts of Ghana, as
well as to the land locked countries. The development of the inland water transport is, further on,
Row 8.6: expected to be an important driver for development of the lake area.
An important improvement of the inland water transport is dredging of canals where needed in the
northern part of the Volta Lake to ensure traffic on the lake all year round. NSDF considers this a
priority matter to ensure the success of the inland water transport and has scheduled the project
Row 8.7: to be implemented in the period 2016-20.
Presents the needed maintenance and running costs of the inland water transport infrastructure
Row 8.8: following the investment schedule.

Presents the costs related to acquisition of land for the NSDF suggested development of the New
Row 9.1: Town for 500.000 inhabitants located in the middle of the “triangle” between Accra and Kumasi.
Presents the costs related to the needed studies and planning of the projects scheduled to take
Row 9.2: place during the entire NSDF plan period.
Presents the needed investment in urban infrastructure such as roads, water systems, sewage and
electricity in developing areas. Expected income from sale of the land, plans and infrastructure to
Row 9.3: developers is not included.
Row 9.4: Presents the needed expenditures in maintenance and running cost of the urban infrastructure.

Climate change is a challenge for the future living conditions in Ghana as well as for both flora and
fauna. Mitigation has to take place. NSDF considers as a priority project the development of forest
protection zones along the rivers and water bodies, which also will function as links between the
Row forest areas for human recreation and protection of wildlife. NSDF is in the planning period
10.1: planning for 4000 km river and water body bank.
Presents the needed maintenance cost of the afforested areas along the riverbanks, which will
Row create job opportunities along the rivers. Eventual income from sustainable use of the afforested
10.2: area, are not included.

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6.4.1 Definition of cost units for land and infrastructure

Land for new development

NSDF made an estimation of average land prices in the regions using partly
detailed information of land prices from Lands Commission Central Region 2013
which has information on land prices in the urban areas of the region. NSDF has
used farm land prices from a study of the market prices for farm land for sale in
Ghana in December 2014 using the internet. In the calculation of the cost of land for
urban development, NSD has used the low national average for urban land and the
average farmland prices for land for infrastructure projects.

Table 6.3 Average hectar price for land acquisition

NSDF Study 2014 based on the Lands Commission CR and market prices

Energy
NSDF has used the cost of the existing planned energy projects prepared by the
Ministry of Energy and presented in the draft NIP. The existing projects have been
distributed in the implementation time schedule according to the respective plan
periods. For new power plans, NSDF has used a unit cost estimate per power plant
of 600 million US$.

Roads
NSDF has used different average calculation of road constructions. The prices are
presented in 2014 prices. A WB report in 200067 looked at 93 roads projects and
found an average price of 597,000 US$ per lane-km. A third study from 2008 looked
at prices in 25 road projects constructed in Angola, Burkina Faso, Mozambique and
Uganda68 and found prices ranging from 577,000 to 847,000 US$ per lane km. An
AfDB project from May 2014 found prices from ranging from 191,000 to 501,000
US$ per lane km69.

The NSDF also looked at the prices presented in the NIP 2013 plan using average
prices between 247,000 and 1,285,678 US$. The NSDF study has used an average
of these prices equivalent to 661,000 US$ per lane km, acknowledging in the
meantime that the prices have to be evaluated with the variation expressed in the
examples mentioned above. The studies above also show that longer roads are
generally cheaper to construct than shorter roads.

The NIP has budgeted for the investment of 14.9 billion US $ in the period 2013-20
equivalent of 2.13 billion US$ per year for roads.

67 Roads works Costs per km, Source WB Reports, Rodrigo Archondo-Callao

68 Unit Costs of Infrastructure Projects in Sub-Saharan Africa; WB Africon ,June 2008
69
Study on road Infrastructure Costs: Study on unit costs and overruns costs of road infrastructure projects in Africa; AfDB
May 2014.

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Railways
To calculate the cost of rail construction, NSDF has used the cost per km of single
track used by the Consultants in the preparation of the Ghana railway master plan
2013. In 2014 prices would be 5.7 million US$ per km for a single track railroad.
Renovation of existing railway lines has been estimated to 5.5 million US$. NSDF is
aware that the price might be lower as for the Nigerian coastal railway of 1420 km
double track, which in 2014 has been agreed to be constructed by the China
Railway Construction Corp. Ltd. (CRCC) for 11,970 million US$ at a cost of 4.25
million US$ per km single track.

NIP has estimated the needed investment in renovation of rail infrastructure to 4.8
billion US$ in the period 2013-20 making it 0.69 Billion US$ a year.

Airports
The construction cost of airports and especially an international airport would be
high. The last generation of intercontinental airplanes have increased in size and
weight. Some with up to 573 tons (Airbus 380), as well as high freight capacity, and
only a runway for the largest aircrafts might cost around 1.2 billion US$. Further on,
the continuous necessary maintenance cost will be considerable. International
airports require more complex terminal facilities to accommodate passenger
transfers. They also tend to have greater concentrations of business facilities, such
as shopping, conference centres and hotels, which demand high airport capacity. A
key factor affecting investment in international airport facilities is the need for an
increasingly wide range of alternative transport systems, such as fixed rail links, to
support growing passenger and freight flows and to minimise localized traffic
congestion.

The Spanish Government has as an example invested 1.2 billion US$ in the
development of the Malaga airport designed for 12 million passengers a year.
Malaga is an intensive tourist destination in Europe.

The NSDF has used the cost estimates of 1.6 and 0.5 billion US $ for the
construction of Ghanaian international and national airports of international
standards, respectively. NIP has budgeted for 1.6 billion US$ for the period 2013 -
20 for upgrading the existing airports and establishing another international and
regional airport Tamale.

Ports
West Africa is expecting a considerable increase in trade over the next decades
and all ports are being modernised to meet the future challenges. The Ivory Coast
Government intends to modernise the Abidjan seaport for 2.5 billion US$ to handle
2.25 million TEUs a year. The Lekki Deep Sea Port is being considered in Lagos on
an area of 800 ha at a cost of 1.5 billion US$. Also the modernisation of Togo
Terminal in Lome is budgeted to 567 US$ (€450)70 million, and is being
investigated. The mid-term throughput target is one million containers per year for
Lome. The Government of Morocco is also considering a future investment of 8
billion US$ in the seaports of Casablanca and Tanger-Med and Nador.

The Ghanaian Harbour Authorities have prepared a master plan considering

investment of 2.5 billion US$ to double the capacity before 2018; i.e. with an
increased capacity of 2 million TEU a year 71. NIP 2013 suggests the investment in

70 Port Finance International 13.11.2013

71 Bloomberg news Nov 2013.

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new port infrastructure to 3.7 Billion US$ during the next 7 years, equivalent to 0.5
billion US$ per year. NSDF assumes a considerable increased demand for
transport to and from the region due to the internal economic development and the
advantageous location of the Ghanaian ports for transport to the land locked
countries. NSDF also assumes a continuous need for modernisation of the ports
and considers 2.9 billion US$ needed for new investments during the planning
period at a rate of 290 million per year.

Inland water transport

NIP has budgeted 254 million US$ for the development of the Inland Water
transport on Lake Volta from 2015-20 equivalent to 49 million per year. NSDF has
used this amount for the budget in the plan period adding 160 million for dredging in
the northern part of the Lake making the investment, in total, equivalent to 83 million
US $ per year based on a cost from an analysis in Australia on dredging7.

Climate change mitigation by afforestation

Afforestation is considered an efficient way to counteract the desertification of land
and climate extreme weather conditions, as well as reduce the risk of flooding in
areas affected by waters from the afforested area. To calculate eventual cost of
afforestation activities NSDF has used costs from an Eritrean tree planting project.
The tree planting activity might cost about 2400 US$ per ha and the following
continuous maintenance of the replanted area another 580 US$ per ha per year 72 or
24.6% of investment. Afforestation of 100 km2 river bank, = 200 km river, per year
with forest belt as green corridor or link of 500 m width, would cost 24 million US$.

The cost does not include eventual values from benefits or cost recovery that might
come out as a result of the activity, for example reduced risk of flooding or
productive activities related to planned and controlled use of timber or combined
afforestation and agriculture or cash crop activities.

Attached in Annex 1, is a table of the estimated cost relevant to the main

infrastructure projects identified in MS-Office Excel sheet (Table 6.1 above), a
Scoping of the Strategic Environmental Assessment of the NSDF in Annex 2, and a
study implemented by the NSDF study team of the Slum Areas in Accra is found in
Annex 3. Most of the bibliography and sources of data are in foot note or labelled.

72 WOCAT, experiences from tree planting in Eritrea 2014

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Volume II

Annex 1

MS Excel Table of
estimated cost relevant to
the main infrastructure
projects identified

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Volume II

Annex 2

Strategic Environmental
Assessment of the Ghana
NSDF (2015-2035)

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