Chapter 21

FELDSPAR (FELSPAR)
The name feldspar has come from the German “feld” meaning field and “spar” meaning
stone. Feldspar is a group of minerals which are primarily high-silica aluminosilicates with
varying amounts of sodium, potassium and calcium and a large number of combinations. The
common feldspars are orthoclase (potassium feldspar, K2O.Al2O3. SiO2 ), albite (sodium
feldspar, Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2) and anorthite (calcium feldspar, CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2). Albite and
anorthite are completely miscible and one may progressively merge into the other forming an
isomorphous series known as plagioclase series with each of them occupying the two end
positions. Members of the plagioclase series are:

1. Albite (100-90% albite and rest anorthite)

2. Oligoclase (90-70% albite and rest anorthite)
3. Andesine (70-50% albite and rest anorthite)
4. Labradorite (50-30% albite and rest anorthite)
5. Bytownite (30-10% albite and rest anorthite)
6. Anorthite (10-0% albite and rest anorthite)

Out of the feldspar minerals, only orthoclase is monoclinic while the rest are all triclinic.
But, there are two triclinic variations of orthoclase, namely, microcline and anorthoclase
(contains sodium in addition to potassium). Hyalophane and celsian are two relatively rare
barium-containing feldspars.
Feldspars especially orthoclase are the most abundant rock forming minerals in the
earth’s crust making up about 60% of igneous, 30% of metamorphic and 10% of sedimentary
rocks. The sodium- and potassium-bearing acidic feldspars are common in acidic rocks like
granite, pegmatite, syenite, etc., while the basic calcium-bearing ones are found in basic rocks
like basalt, gabbro, etc.
From the economic point of view, the most significant are the two potassium feldspars
(orthoclase and microcline) that occur as segregations in large masses. Generally, microcline
is included in orthoclase as they cannot be differentiated without microscopic examination.
Some of the other varieties have only some minor uses. In the commercial circle, orthoclase
(including microcline) is generally understood by the name feldspar. Massive quantities of
feldspar of commercial importance are mostly found in pegmatite, which is its main source.
168 Kaulir Kisor Chatterjee

HISTORY
In India, the history of mining of feldspar from pegmatites of Rajasthan and Karnataka is
as old as the pottery and porcelain industries of Delhi, Gwalior, Hassan, Bangalore and
Mysore areas. But the first record of organized mining dates back to 1904 when Burn and
Company started its quarrying operations in Lameta Ghat near Jabalpur in central India.
However, official records of production are available since 1930. Since then the history of
production can be tracked from the following table.

Year Production
1930 390 tons approximately
1935 665 tons approximately
1945 950 tons approximately
1950 1,800 tons
1960 10,613 tons
1968 35,261 tons
1970 34,568 tons
1980 60,190 tons
1990 64,794 tons
Year ending March 2001 179,574 tons
Year ending March 2006 322,929 tons

World production has increased from about 600,000 tons in 1944 to tons to 13 million
tons in 2000.

CRITERIA OF USE
The properties relevant to different industrial uses of feldspars are as follows.

1. Chemical characteristics: The potassium feldspars orthoclase and microcline

(K2O.Al2O3. SiO2 ) theoretically contain 64.7% SiO2, 18.4% Al2O3 and 16.9% K2O.
In nature, potassium feldspars also contain some soda. They are a ready source of
alumina in certain processes. They are resistant to acids. Oil absorption is low.
2. Colour and optical properties: The common colours of orthoclase are white and
flesh red; cream, buff brown, red , green, etc. colours are also rarely seen. Plagioclase
feldspars show different colours depending on the relative amount of sodium and
calcium and also inclusion of other foreign constituents like hornblende, hypersthene
and magnetite; they often show a rainbow-like play of colours (e.g., albite,
labradorite). Lustre is vitreous to pearly. Refractive index of orthoclase varies from
1.5194-1.525 (c.f., linseed oil 1.48, ordinary glass 1.53, diamond 2.42).
3. Physical properties: Specific gravity of commercial orthoclase ranges from 2.56-
2.58, and hardness of all the feldspars varies from 6.0-6.5 (depending on content of
soda). Orthoclase breaks in sub-conchoidal to conchoidal fracture pattern.
4. Thermal property: Commercial orthoclase melts at temperatures varying from 1225-
12600C. The higher the content of soda, the lower the melting temperature (pure
 Feldspar (Felspar) 169

albite melts at 11000C). It is an effective flux for materials melting at higher

temperatures.
5. Electrical properties: Orthoclase, and to a lesser extent sodium feldspar, has the
ability to stabilize electric arc.

USES AND SPECIFICATIONS

Before using, some of the natural feldspars are subjected to processing for removal of
iron compounds, mica and quartz which are considered deleterious in many uses. The
principal uses are :

1. Ceramics and glazing

2. Bone China
3. Glass
4. Enamel
5. Abrasive
6. Refractory
7. Welding electrode
8. Gem

These are discussed as follows.

1. Ceramics and glazing: The word “ceramic” derived from Greek originally meant
fired and fused common clays. But in modern usage it includes some other inorganic
materials mixed with clays in different forms (common clay, china clay, ball clay etc.) which
are fired together and fused, though clay still remains the core component. The original
ceramic products (e.g., bricks, potteries) made only of clay were hard and resistant to heat and
chemicals, but at the same time porous and brittle. Today, ceramic products are not only hard
and resistant to heat and chemicals but also nonporous and strong, and the product range
includes stoneware crockery, vitreous tiles, sanitary ware, ceramic tower packing materials
(rings, saddles, honeycombs, etc. used for processing and storing chemicals), water filter
candle and porcelain.

Manufacturing process: The principle of the manufacturing process, in essence, consists

of mixing quartz or silica sand, one or more types of clay, feldspar and some flux (soda) with
30-40% water. This mixture is ground, thoroughly agitated, filter pressed, moulded into the
required shape, dried and then fired to a temperature ranging from 1200-15000C depending on
the product hardness required. Different ceramic products can be prepared by varying the
types of clay and their proportion in the mixture. The role of orthoclase feldspar is to adjust
the fusion temperature of the raw material mix by virtue of its intrinsic alumina content and
also its usual impurity soda.

Specifications: Alumina, which is an integral constituent of the feldspar (as also of the
clay), has some advantages. Although it has a high melting point, but at even below the firing
170 Kaulir Kisor Chatterjee

temperature (13000C) it melts imperfectly to become a highly viscous fluid, facilitating a

coherently bonded non-porous product.
Fe2O3 and TiO2 (over a period of time) make the product coloured and so they are
objectionable. Besides, TiO2 has a high melting point and it will unnecessarily increase the
firing temperature.
Alkalis are deleterious. Sodium and potassium in the form of carbonates combine with
silica at the firing temperature to form silicates which are water soluble. Presence of these
silicates in the ceramic product, obviously, will not be desirable.
MgO is highly refractory in nature and so is undesirable in white ware, because white
wares, by definition, are non-refractory in nature. Besides, it is hygroscopic, absorbing 120%
of its volume of water slowly over a period of time.
Lime (CaO) is highly hygroscopic. So, if it is present in clay, the product will absorb
water ourse of time on exposure, and ultimately, crumble. Also, at 11000 C (i.e. below the
firing temperature), CaO reacts with alumina and silica and forms new compounds, mostly
silicates. Some of these silicates lower the fusion point of clay. Moreover, lime makes the
melt more fluid and it reduces the range between softening and flowing temperature.
Sometimes this range may be as short as 400C only. The result is that it becomes difficult to
control the temperature of the furnace to remain within this range. For these reasons, lime is
very objectionable.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has, in 1981, stipulated the specifications as:
Fe2O3 0.5% (max), CaO + MgO 1.0% (max), K2O (in the form of alkalis) 9% (max), Na2O (in
the form of alkalis) 6% (max), K2O + Na2O (both in the form of alkalis) 13% (max), and PCE
8 to 10 (roughly equivalent to 13000C). However, the Indian industries use feldspar of
different qualities for different products as follows:

(a) Sanitary ware : K2O (in the form of alkalis) 11-14%, Na2O (in the form of alkalis) 2-
7%, Fe2O3 0.25% (max)
(b) Insulators : K2O (in the form of alkalis) 11-12.5%, Na2O (in the form of alkalis) 4%
(max.), Fe2O3 0.48% (max)
(c) Ceramic Tiles : K2O (in the form of alkalis) 9%, Na2O (in the form of alkalis) 4%,
K2O+Na2O 14% (max.)(Both sodium and potassium feldspars are used)
(d) Crockery ware : K2O (in the form of alkalis) 12.15%, Na2O3 3.7% , Fe2O3 0.10%

Glazing: If the product is to be a glazed one, then it is glazed before firing. The purpose
of glazing is to provide a uniform firmly adhering coating on the surface of the ceramic body
concealing defects such as pinholes, bubbles, etc. The glaze is made of the same ingredients
but with a predominance of quartz and feldspar. The ingredients are mixed, finely ground and
mixed with water, and this mixture is the glaze. The moulded raw body of the product is
dipped into the glaze and then fired to a temperature of about 14000 C. Colours and
decorative designing, if required, are painted after glazing and before firing.
Glaze may be “raw glaze” or “fritted glaze”. Raw glaze consists of insoluble material
applied as such (soluble components crystallize in the mixture and cause blemishes on the
treated surface), while fritted glaze is heated beforehand to cause chemical change in the
components. Glaze should not only melt but also spread uniformly.
Here also the role of feldspar is to adjust the fusion temperature of the raw material mix
by virtue of its intrinsic alumina content and also its usual impurity soda. Fe2O3, CaO and
 Feldspar (Felspar) 171

alkalis are the most objectionable constituents for the same reason as in the case of the
ceramics.
2. Bone China: Bone China is a special translucent variety of glazed porcelain first
introduced in England in 1794. It is a sophisticated fine product using tri-calcium phosphate
[Ca3(PO)2] obtained by burning bone, as the most fundamental raw material. The bone ash in
the right proportion acts as a flux, but when in excess, it increases refractoriness. Some of the
lime of bone first reacts with china clay to form anorthite, while the P2O5 reacts with other
compounds to form glass. For making bone ash, cattle bone is first crushed, washed and then
subjected to heating in a highly oxidized condition by slowly increasing the temperature to
900-10000C, whereby most of the organic matter is removed. The calcined bone is ground
with water to a very fine size, allowed to age for a few days, and then dried to a moisture
content of 10-15%. This bone ash contains a little organic matter which, combined with fine
size, gives it some plasticity. The industry prefers the ash of cattle bone because it is iron-
free.
For manufacturing Bone China, the raw material mix consisting of 45-50% bone ash, 25-
30% china clay, 25-30% feldspar (flux) and about 5% ball clay (plasticizer) is first mixed
with water and ground; then the slurry is de-watered by filter-pressing, shaped according to
the product desired and slowly dried, and finally biscuit fired at a temperature lying within a
carefully controlled short range of 1250-13000 C.
The biscuit is then glazed using colourless transparent glaze. The glazing material
consists of borosilicate and white-burning china clay with some feldspar to act as a flux.
China clay helps the glaze to remain in suspension. Glaze is applied to the biscuit by either
dipping or spraying, and then fired at a temperature 1050-11000 C, i.e., lower than the biscuit
firing temperature.
The firing temperature—both at biscuit and glazing stages—is very critical in case of
Bone China. Under-firing leaves open pores and cannot bring the all-important translucency,
while over-firing produces blisters on the surface. And it is for this reason that the role of
feldspar becomes very important.
3. Glass: Physically, common standard glass is an amorphous, hard, brittle and
transparent substance and chemically, it is a mixture of the silicates of sodium, calcium and
magnesium. The composition of typical ordinary glass is [18Na2O.2MgO.8CaO.72SiO2].
Essentially, the process of manufacture of glass consists of melting a mixture of silica
sand, soda (Na2CO3), dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3), limestone (CaCO3), carbon (coke) and
broken waste glass (called cullet) at 1400-15000C, and then cooling it first to a thick viscous
liquid at 800-9000 C. The function of carbon is to combine with the excess oxygen and to
provide heat while the soda, lime and broken glass act as fluxes lowering the melting point of
silica from 15800 C to 14000 C. Feldspar is also added to the charge as a source of alumina for
process control and for supplementing soda for fluxing. Matching of the refractive indices of
feldspar and glass is an additional advantage. Green-coloured microcline is used for making
green glass.
Alumina, which is an integral constituent of the feldspar, has some advantages. Although
it has a high melting point, but at even below the firing temperature, it melts imperfectly to
become a highly viscous fluid and, thus, prevent devitrification. However, its supply has to be
carefully controlled by adjusting the total feldspar added. Similarly, though some alkali is
beneficial to supplement the fluxing action of the soda in the raw material mix, excess Alkali
172 Kaulir Kisor Chatterjee

will affect both the process and the composition of the glass and so its content beyond a limit
is not desirable in the feldspar.
Lime has a tendency to form crystals, and one of the functions of MgO is to prevent this.
By combining with the lime. So additional CaO getting into the melt through feldspar is
undesirable, and CaO is considered a deleterious constituent in the feldspar. Excess MgO will
also affect the final composition of the glass. Fe2O3 is a colouring matter and is also
deleterious.
The specifications stipulated by the BIS in 1981 with respect to iron and alkali are: CaO
+ MgO 1.0% (max), Fe2O3 0.5% (max), K2O (in the form of alkalis) 9% (max), Na2O (in the
form of alkalis) 6% (max), K2O + Na2O (both in the form of alkalis) 13% (max). For high-
quality glass the industries limit the Fe2O3 to 0.3 percent.
4. Enamel: Chemically, enamel is a complex mixture of silicates, borates and fluorides
of some metals like sodium, potassium, aluminium etc. It is a glaze coating on metallic
surfaces so as to give protection to the latter against high temperature and corrosion. It is
prepared by mixing borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O), quartz, feldspar, fluorspar, soda (Na2CO3),
sodium nitrate, oxides of cobalt, manganese and nickel and an opacifier substance (e.g., tin
oxide, titanium silicate, antimony trioxide). In this mixture, borax (23-34%), quartz (5-20%)
and feldspar (28-52%) are the dominant components. This mixture is ground, melted and
quenched in water to yield a glassy mass. To this glass are added clay and more quartz
powder and the mixture is finely ground to powder and made into a slurry with water. This is
called “enamel slip”. Metallic objects are dipped in it and fired to about 9000 C. Two to three
such enamel coats are usually applied. Colour effects can be produced by addition of
colouring oxides of metals (e.g., iron, chromium, cobalt, uranium etc.) to the melt before it is
quenched. Role of feldspar is primarily as a fluxing agent and also as a source of alumina.
5. Abrasive: Hardness and sub-conchoidal to conchoidal fracture makes it suitable as a
mild abrasive for use as a scouring material. An added advantage is that the silica in the
powder is in a combined state (and not in a free state) which makes it health-friendly (free
silica powder can cause silicosis). It is also used in vitrified grinding wheels made of clay-
feldspar bond.
6. Refractory: Refractory materials are defined as those resistant to heat and having a
melting temperature of not less than 15800 C. The function of refractory lining on a furnace
wall is not only to withstand high temperature, but also to withstand temperature fluctuation,
and to resist penetration, abrasion, and erosion by hot gases and molten materials in the
furnace. Feldspar as such is not a refractory material, but it has strong resistance to acids, and
it is added to fireclay to increase acid-resistance of firebricks.
At high temperatures, free silica reacts with CaO to form beta di-calcium silicate which
may undergo rapid inversion to gamma form with considerable expansion resulting in
crumbling of the refractory. Besides, lime itself lowers the fusion temperature and it also
reacts with the alumina of the feldspar forming low-melting calcium alumino-silicate. Hence
both free silica and alumina are objectionable. Fe2O3 melts at a relatively lower temperature,
and hence it is also objectionable. Alkalis also lowers the fusion temperature, and hence is
deleterious. The Indian industries specify less than 1.5% Fe2O3 and 11-12% Na2O3+K2O
(derived from the alkalis) in the feldspar.
7. Welding electrode: According to the definition of the American Welding Society,
“Welding is a metal-joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to suitable
temperature with or without pressure and with or without the use of filler metal”. The
 Feldspar (Felspar) 173

mechanism of welding is based on electron emission. In this, the electron discharge takes
place in the form of an arc. When electricity is passed though two electrodes (cathode and
anode) in contact with each other, and then the contact is broken by moving them a little
away, the resistance and consequently the potential, increases so much that the tips of the
electrodes begin to glow. The temperature at the tips increases rapidly, and electron emission
takes place. The high energy electrons associated with the temperature ionizes the air in the
gap between the electrodes. This ionized air becomes an electrical conductor and current
flows from one electrode to the other. This is the mechanism of arc discharge. The
temperature of the arc may be of the order of thousands of degrees (20,000-50,0000C). If the
broken pieces of a metal are placed in the arc, then they will fuse and join together, and this
process is known as welding. The most common type of welding is arc welding. In this,
electrodes made of rods of covered metal are used. The covering serves both electrical and
metallurgical purposes. Electrically, the covering insulates the rod from accidental contact
with adjacent material; metallurgically, the covering may provide gas- and slag-forming
ingredients to protect the weld from the air, and it may also supply de-oxidizers or alloying
material resulting in sound welds.
The strong ability of orthoclase to stabilize electric arc and also to act as a fluxing agent
are the key. In arc welding, finely ground (60-200 micron) orthoclase constitutes 5-10% of
the coating mixture of the electrodes. It forms a low-melting slag, which covers the weld
metal protecting it against oxidation. It also stabilizes and smoothens the electric arc. Fe2O3 is
the most objectionable constituent, because it reduces to iron which causes generation of eddy
currents, destabilizing the arc. Indian industries specify the maximum limit of 0.3% Fe2O3.
Indian industries prefer low-soda feldspar containing 1-3% Na2O, but in some countries
sodium feldspar is used. Sodium feldspar is less effective as an arc-stabilizer, but more
effective as a fluxing agent.
8. Gem: Gem includes both precious and semiprecious stones. The criteria that make a
gem are:

(a) Rarity: By the law of demand-supply, the scarcer a commodity is, the higher is its
value.
(b) Durability: The combination of hardness, toughness and acid-resistance makes a
stone durable.
(c) Colour and optical properties: Colour, lustre and optical dispersion are the most
important parameter of beauty.
(d) Clarity: Small bubbles, cracks and other flaws reduce the clarity of a gem, and
consequently, its value.
(e) Cut: Natural gems are mined as rough stones. They need to be cut into well-defined
faces and the faces are polished to produce their characteristic sheens and optical
effects. The cutting requires a very high degree of skill, particularly when the
individual pieces are small. Minimum loss of stone is to be ensured during cutting.
(f) Specific gravity: The value/volume ratio depends on this parameter.
(g) Caratage: The larger a gem is, the rarer and, hence, more valuable it is. So the
individual weight of a piece is important for determining its value.
(h) Certification: For a common retail buyer, the physical and optical properties of gems
make little sense, and he is most concerned, besides size, with the colour and sheen
as judged with naked eyes. But both these characteristics can be replicated by
174 Kaulir Kisor Chatterjee

unscrupulous people. So for him certification by some trusted authority or agency

assumes importance.
(i) Aggressive marketing: The demand of gems being elastic, almost any gemstone can
be sold irrespective of colour and cost, provided the basic criterion of rarity is met.
(j) Therapeutic value: Gems are traditionally believed to possess some indirect
beneficial effects on body and mind if worn on the body. This branch of therapy
known as gemmotherapy works on the hypothesis that different gems, when worn by
a man on his body, react differently to different kinds of cosmic rays having different
effects on the health of his mind and body. Besides, some gems have been found to
produce beneficial effects on the human skin.
(k) Beliefs and superstitions: Gems, many people believe, bring luck or misery to lives.
(l) Stability of value: Economic phenomena like inflation, stagflation, recession and
even political instability which exercise adverse impact on other manufacturing and
processing sectors, do not affect adversely the demand of gems, particularly the high-
value ones.

Feldspar actually does not qualify to be a precious stone, but some of its varieties are
marketed as semiprecious stones after cutting and polishing, the main criteria being durability
due to moderate hardness and acid resistance, vitreous to pearly lustre, attractive colours and
therapeutic value as claimed by gemmotherapists. The gems are:

(a) Amazonite (“Sifri” in Indian language): It is the green-coloured microcline.

(b) Moonstone (“Chandrakanta” in Indian language): It can be any of the plagioclase
feldspars which shows rainbow-like play of colours. Gemmotherapists claim that
moonstone, when worn on body, can mitigate epilepsy and heart and gastric
problems.
(c) Sunstone (“Atoshi” in Indian language): It can be any of the plagioclase feldspars
which shows bright shining yellow colour.

9. Other uses:

(a) Non-skid dust: Ground feldspar is used as non-skid dust for sprinkling on oily floors.
(b) Paint: Feldspar is used as an extender and a filler because of its colour, lustre,
refractive index (near to that of linseed oil), acid-resistance, low oil absorption and
low cost.
(c) Plastics: The hard silicate in the form of feldspar improves abrasion resistance and
weather resistance of plastics.
(d) Battery: Addition of a small amount of feldspar helps in stabilization of the current
flow.
(e) Coal washing: Used as an additive to magnetite to adjust the specific gravity of the
medium.
(f) Steel alloy: Used as a flux
(g) Dentistry: High-purity feldspar is used in making an artificial tooth.
(h) Source of potash: (Discussed in the chapter on potash).