Activity-2 3.

Set the multimeter by rotating the knob

Aim at
proper resistance range according to the value sd
To measure resistance, voltage (a.c./d.c.), current (a.c.)
the resistance to be measured.
and check continuity of a given circuit using multimeter.
4. Insert one end of black lead in the
commo
Apparatus Required terminal marked on the multimeter and one end
A mulimeter, carbon resistors of different values,
standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator of 2 V, 4 V
one of red lead in the + ve terminal of the multimeter
5. Touch free ends of both the leads and adjust zern
and 6 V, a step down transformer of 2 V and 4 V, adjuster till the multimeter shows full scale
resistor of 100 ohm to make a.c. circuit, a one-way key. deflection and reads zero ohm.
Theory 6. Now separate the two lree ends of both the
the terminals of the given
leads
A multimeter is a three-in-one instrument which is used and touch them to

to measure a.c./d.c. current, a.c./d.c. voltage and resistance R. Record the resistance reading
resistance. Its panel is divided into five sections. Each from the multimeter.
section has a dillerent range by which we can measure 7. Repeat the above steps with other given
resistances R and R3.
from micro (10") to mega (10°) range. The section and
8. Compare the measured value of resistors bv
the range in one section can be changed by rotating the
multimeter and find the value by decoding the
knob as follows: colour coding.
1. For change in ammeter range: By the rotation of
B. Measurement of d.c. voltage:
the knob, shunt resistances of different values in the
Take a source of direct current like a battery or a
circuit come in parallel with the coil.
2. For change in voltmeter range: By the rotation of battery eliminator of potential difference say 6 V.
the knob, series resistances of ditferent values in the
circuit come in series with the coil.
3. For change in ohm-meter range: By the rotation of
the knob, different resistances in the circuit come in
series with the multimeter cell.
Fig. 4. Multimeter set in d.c.
Procedure voltage measuring mode
A. Measurement of resistance: 2. Set the multimeter knob to d.c. voltage range
1. Check and mark the given three resistors as (0-10 V).
R, R and R. 3. Insert one end of the black lead in the common
2. Record the colours of I, II, III and IV bands terminal marked on the multimeter and one end
marked on each resistor and find their of the red lead in the +ve terminal of the
resistances with the help of colour coding. multimeter.
4. Touch the free ends of two leads (black and red
negative and positive terminals of batte
ww
eliminator.
5. Switch on the battery eliminator to next vae
and record the voltage given by multimeter.
Fig. 3. Multimeter set in
resistance measuring mode
 Activities 57
6. Change the tapping of the eliminator to next
value and record the voltage
and one end of the red lead to d.c./a.c. knob and
given bby
multimeter. set its range to 500 mA.
7. Repeat the above steps with other values of
3. Close key K and note down the reading of the
tapping of battery eliminator.
of a.c. voltage: multimeter on d.c./a.c. current scale.
C. Measurement
1. After zero seting of multimeter, set the
multimeter knob to appropriate range of a.c. K
voltmeter (10 V).
Multimeter
ww
R

Fig. 7. Multimeter set in a.c. current measuring

Fig. 5. Multimeter set in a.c.
mode
voltage measuring mode
E. Checking of continuity of given circuit:
2. Connect the free ends of two leads of the
multimeter to the ends of secondary coil of the 1. Choose any circuit, i.e. a metre bridge in
given step down transformer. potentiometer or any resistor to check the
3. Switch on the transformer circuit and record the
voltage from the multimeter on a.c. voltmeter. continuity.
4. Repeat for the other a.c. voltages of step down 2. Set the selector knob of the multimeter to
transformer and record the readings in resistance of range
observation table.
measure mega-ohm.
3. Connect free ends of two leads of the multimeter
D. Measurement of current (d.c./a.c.):
to the chosen circuit. The pointer of the
1. Proceed as for d.c. current measurement
by
connecting leads of the multimeter in series with multimeter shows a deflection, which indicates
an appropriate circuit as shown in fig. 6. the continuity of the chosen circuit.

Resistance Metre bridge/Potentiometer

box

Lead Lead

Fig. 8. Multimeter set for

checking continuity
4. Similarly, check the
Fig. 6. Multimeter set in d.c. current we can
continuity of the
measuring mode other components.
2. Adjust the multimeter at zero setting. Insert one
end of the black lead to the common terminal

Observations
Table for measurement of resistance

Name of colour of rings Resistance Resistance as Difference

Resistors according to colour measured by
used I IV (2)
coding (2) multimeter (2)

Ra
58 Physics Lab Manual (Class 12)
Table for measurement of a.c./d.c. voltage
Value of voltage Value of voltage Difference
Nature of source of Observation serial between the measured by 6-V
e.m.t. number terminal of the multimeter V (volt)
source (volt)
1

d.c. source 2
3
1

a.c. source 2
3

Result
. The value of the carbon resistor calculated by colour coding and measured by multimeter is same
within the experimental error limits.
2. The value of voltage (a.c./d.c.) measured by the multimeter and the value of voltage marked o

(a.c./d.c.) source is same within the experimental error limits.

Precautions
rea-
1. Mulitmeter is a very handy instrument which can be damaged by using it carelessly. Therefore,
the instructions carefully before using it.
2. The alternating current should be passed for minimum possible time. 1
3. Select the appropriate parameter (current, voltage or resistance)
to be measured and select
appropriate range.
4. In measuring d.c. current or voltage, leads should be connected to proper polarity.

Sources of Error
I. Zero adjustment may not be accurate when we measure
resistance using multimeter.
2. Selection of function switch may be inappropriate.
3. The scale/range used in reading of voltage/current may not be proper.
Activity-4 terminal of the ammeter to a rheostat, resistor
key,
Aim terminal of the battery in
and then to the positive
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit. shown in fig. 11.
series with each other as
voltmeter in with the given resistor.
parallel
3. Connect
Apparatus Required 4. Insert the plug in key and adjust the rheostat so that
resistor, deflections and
A battery, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a a one-way ammeter and voltmeter show some

wires.
key, a rheostat, sandpaper, connecting record their readings which give current flowing
through the circuit and potential dropP across the
Theory
resistor.
In any electric circuit, an ammeter is always connected in
to be 5. Assembly of electric components in the electric
series with the circuit in which the current is
measured and a voltmeter is always connected in parallel circuit is complete.
to the two points of a circuit across which potential
Result
difference is to be measured.
1. The circuit is working properly, therefore assembly
Procedure
of all the components in the electric circuit is correct.
1. First ofall, draw a neat and clean circuit diagram as
2. This circuit is used for measuring an unknown
shown in fig. 11.
resistance.
Battery Ammeter Rheostat
HHH A { www. Precautions
Key
1 The insulation of the ends of the connecting wire
should be removed by a sandpaper.
2. All connections should be neat and tight.
Resistor
ww 3. Ammeter should be connected in series in the circuit
R
4. Voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the
given resistor.
Voltmeter
5. Ammeter and voltmeter should be connected in a
Fig. 11. Electric circuit using given
components circuit in such a way that the current should enter
from their positive terminals and leave from the
2. Connect the negative terminal of the battery to the
negative terminals.
negative terminal of the ammeter and positive
 64 Physics Lab Manual (Class 12)

Activity-6
Aim
Scan
OA
the QR Code
for visual presentation of activity
To draw the diagram of a given
open circuit comprising 2. Draw a and clean circuit diagram for the
neat
at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, given
key, ammeter and open circuit as shown in fig. 15.
voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected
in proper order and correct the circuit and also the 3. On checking the circuit and its
circuit components, we find
diagram. that:
(a) Ammeter is connected in parallel instead of series.
Apparatus RequiredH
A (b) Voltmeter is connected in series instead of parallel.
battery or a battery eliminator of range 0 to 6 V, a key,
a rheostat, a d.c. ammeter
(range 0-2 A) and a d.c. (c) In voltmeter and ammeter the current is entering
voltmeter (0-3 V), resistance wire and from negative terminal instead of
connecting wires. positive terminal.
4. Draw neat circuit
Theory a
diagram correcting the errors as
shown in fig. 16.
An electric circuit is a
conducting path consisting of
5.
electric components between the two terminals of a cell Rearrange the components of the circuit accordingto
or a
battery. An electric circuit is said to be an the circuit diagram and then connect them
open
circuit when no current is drawn from it. If current is accordingly.
drawn from the cell or battery
in the circuit, then the 6. Insert the plug in the key and check the reading of the
circuit is called closed.
ammeter and voltmeter.
Procedure 7. Change the resistance by moving the siding contact
1. Suppose and check that the reading of the ammeter and
an
open circuit comprising a
battery
eliminator, a rheostat, a key, an ammeter and a voltmeter is changing accordingly or not.
voltmeter is given as shown in fig. 14.

Key Battery Key

Battery eliminator V Rheostat
wwm-
Rheostat
Ammeter (A
R (Resistance)
Resistance
wwwwww

Voltmeter
Fig. 16. Circuit diagram with components connected
properly in order

Voltmeter
Key
Ammeter Battery eliminator Rheostat

Fig. 14. Given set of circuit

components
Resistance
Battery Key
wwww
Rheostat
Voltmeter(
R (Resistance)
wwwww

Ammeter Voltmeter
Ammeter
Fig. 15. Circuit diagram with wrong combination Fig. 17. Given set of circuit components connected in proper
order
 Activities 65

Observations
1. In open circuit shown in fig. 15 voltmeter and ammeter are not connected properly and current

enters from negative terminal and leaves from the positive terminal.

2. When voltmeter and ammeter are connected properly in circuit fig. 16 both shows proper reading
the rheostat.
and change their readings in accordance with the change in resistance by
Result
1. In circuit diagram in fig. 15, the ammeter and the voltmeter are not connected properly.
voltmeter are connected properly.
2. In circuit diagram in fig. 16, the ammeter and the
Precautions
1. The insulation from the ends of the connecting
wires should be removed by a sandpaper.

2. All connections should be neat and tight.

series with the battery and current should enter from its positive
3. Ammeter should be connected in
terminal.
terminal and leave from its negative
to the points across which the potenial has to be
4. Voltmeter should be connected
in parallel
measured.

variable resistor, therefore its sliding terminal and one of its base terminal
5. Rheostat is used here as a
should be used in the circuit.

Sources of Error
connected properly.
voltmeter may not be
1. Ammeter and
from positive terminals
and leave from negative terminals of the meter
ers.
2. The current may not enter
be connected properly.
3. Rheostat may not
 Activities
Acivity-1
forward bias and does not conduct when it is in
Aim
reverse bias. It emits light while conducting.
To identifya diode,
an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor
3. Transistor: A transistor is a three terminal
from a mixed collection of such items.
and a capacitor semiconductor device. Therefore, it can be identified
Apparatus Required easily byits having only three legs
appearance
(terminals).
Acollection of diodes, an LED, multimeter.
a transistor, an IC, a
4. Resistor: A resistor is also a two terminal device. It
resistor, a capacitor and a
conducts direct current as well as alternating current.
even when the terminals of the
Theory It conducts equally
A diode, an LED, a resistor and a
capacitor are the two battery connected across it are reversed.
5. IC: An integrated circuit (IC) is a multi-terminal
terminal devices, a transistor is a three terminal device device which mostly has a flat back. It is formed by
while an IC is a multi-terminal device.
1. Diode: A diode is a two terminal semiconductor
integratingmultiple components on a single silicon
wafer. It can be easily identified by its appearance
device which conducts only when it is in forward bias having multiple legs (terminals).
and does not conduct when it is in reverse bias. A 6. Capacitor: À capacitor is also a two terminal device
diode does not emit light while conducting. which does not allow continuous supply of direct
2. LED: A light emitting diode (LED) is also a two current through itself only but allow continuous flow
terminal device which conducts only when it is in of alternating current through itself also.

Coloured rings

Silver ring-

Red Green silver

Orange
(a) Junction diode (c) Resistor Chip
(b) LED
Plastic case

Black
Anode Cathode dot Notch Smal

Electrolytic
dotPin 1
() Integrated circuit (IC)
Mica capacitor (e) Transistor
capacitor
(d) Capacitors
Fig. 1.

Procedure 3. Take a multimeter and adjust its selector switch at the

position R to check the continuity. The black probe
First of all look at the collection of given components, metal end is inserted in common terminal and red
any component has multi-terminal, i.e. more than
probe is inserted in positive terminal.
chip, then it
nree terminals and has a flat back like a
is an IC. 4. On touchingthe two ends of the given components to
2. is a the two ends of the probe, the given results are
Component has three terminals (legs)
obtained:
transistor.
106 Physics Lab Manual (cilass 12)
(a) If meter needle shows a definite deflection in (c) If meter needle shows a deflection only inone
both conditions in forward bias and reverse bias direction, i.e. conduct only in one direction and
on connecting the ends of the component to thee emit light, then it is an LED.
ends of the multimeter probe and then reversing (d) If meter needle shows a full scale deflection
the terminals), then it is a resistor. with passage o
(b) If meter needle shows a deflection only in one initially but decreases to zero
time, then it is a capacitor.
direction, i.e. conduct only in one direction
without emitting light, then it is a diode.

Observations
Tablefor identification of the given components with the help of number of terminals
S. No. No. of terminals (legs) Component
1 More than three legs IC (Integrated Circuit)
2 Three legs Transistor
3 Two legs Resistor, Capacitor, Diode and LED

Table for identification of the given components with the help of current flow
S. No. Possibility of current flow
Component
Current flows in one direction and emits no light Diode
2 Current flows in one direction and emits light LED
3 A steady current flows in both directions
Resistor
4 Initially high current flows but decays to zero with passage of time
Capacitor
Precautions
1. The metal ends of
probes
should be inserted properly in multimeter.
2. Strong current should not be
passed the through components.
3. Students must handle the multimeter
4.
carefully since it is very sensitive.
Polarity should
be reversed for
identifying the items, e,g. diode, LED etc.
5. Multimeter shows zero resistance on
touching its metal leads. If it does not show zero resi tance-

bring the printer to zero using zero adjustment knob on the multimeter.
6. While checking resistance, the metal ends of
multimeter leads should not be touched by th
f the
otherwise body resistance in parallel with the
resistance.
component resistance affects the vaue
Sources of Error
1. The metal ends of
probes may not be connected properly to the components.
2. The zero adjustment of multimeter may not be done properly.
 Activity-2
Aim resistance of the transistor between these two legs
to: shown by the pointer is low or high. Now interchange
multimeter
Use of
base of transistor the leads of the multimeter touching the two extremne
A. identify
B. distinguish between n-p-n and p-n-p type transistors legs of the transistor and further note, whether the
resistance of the transistor shown by the pointer is
see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a
C. low or high. There may be two possible conditions:
LED
diode and an
() If the resistance of the transistor is observed high
D check whether a given electronic component (e,g.
in both the cases, then the central leg of the
diode, transistor or 1C) 1s in working order. transistor is base and two extreme legs are
Apparatus Required emitter and collector. Its reason is that emitter-
collector junction offers high resistance in both
Civen transistor, diode, LED, IC, multimeter.
the directions.
Theory i) If the resistance of the transistor is observed low
A multimeter is an instrument which can measure in one direction and high in other direction, then
current in amperes, voltage in volts and resistance in one of the two extreme legs of the transistor is
ohms. It is also called an AVO meter, i.e. ammeter, base.
voltmeter and ohm-meter. It has two leads, one black 4. Now to identify, which of the two extreme legs of the
and other red, each has a metallic end. Black lead is transistor is the base, we assume the two extreme legs
connected to common terminal and red lead to positive
as left leg and
terminal of the multimeter. The range of the multimeter right leg.
5. Now touch one of the two leads of the multimeter to
can be selected by a rotatory switch on it.
the left leg and other lead to the central leg of the
Procedure transistor and note whether the resistance of the
A. To identify base of transistor: transistor between left and centralleg is low or high.
Now interchange the leads of the multimeter
L. First of al, insert the metallic end of the black lead
into common terminal and metallic end of the red touching left and central legs of the transistor and
lead ir to positive terminal. again note that whether the resistance of the
2. transistor is low or high. There may be two possible
Adjus the multimeter by the selector switch in
conditions:
resistance range.
3.
(i) If the resistance of the transistor is observed high
Now adjust zero ohm switch, till the pointer of the
in both cases, then the right leg is the base of the
multimeter comes to zero mark of resistance scale,
transisto.
when ends of two metallic leads are short circuited (i) If the resistance of the transistor is observed low
placed in contact). To identify the base lead of a
transistor, touch the two leads of the multimeter to in one direction and high in other direction, then
the extreme two
legs of the given transistor. Note the the left leg is the base of the transistor.
108 Physies Lab Manual (Class 12)

0. Read the value of current in the multimeter

forward current is indicated by the deflection i The
tel
the
multimeter.
Com Com Black
Probes of
multimeter
Red lead Red -6V Battery
Red lead eliminator
n
Black lead Black lead, Diode-

Fig. 4. To observe unidirectional flow of current

in a diode

11. Now reverse the terminals of the battery and record

(a) (b) the value of current in the multimeter. No electr
current is observed in the multimeter which indicate
Flg.2. that the flow of electric current in junction diode
unidirectional.
A
(b) For LED:
12. Replace the junction diode by the given LED and
om Com repeat steps 9 to 11. It is observed that the currer
flows through the LED in forward biasing and a
emits light but after reversing the terminals of the
Red lead Black lead
Redlead battery, no current flows through it and it does not
Black lead R emit light. This indicates that the flow of currem
through an LED is also unidirectional.
High resistance in D. To check whether a given electronic component
both shows that
in 3 and 2 one is eg. diode, transistor or IC) is in working order
emitter and the other 13. (a) For junction diode: Repeat steps 9 to 11.
collector (1 is base)
(a) (b)
junction diode allows the flow of current in forward
bias but does not allow flow of current in reverse bia
Flg.3 then junction diode is in working order. If it allow
the flow of current in both bias but does not allon
B. To distinguish between n-p-n and p-n-p flow of current in both bias, then junction diode is not
transistors: in working order.
6. We have identified the base of the transistor earlier. (6) For transistor: Select any two terminals ofte
Now touch the metallic end of the black lead of the transistor between which there is no conduction "
multimeter to the base and the metallic end of the red forward as well as in reverse bias. These terminalsw"
lead to anyone of the two remaining legs of the be emitter and collector, if it is not so, transistor s
transistor. damaged. Now use third terminal as base and cheu
7. Note the resistance of the transistor in the multimeter. whether it conducts with one of the terminals and dos
There may be two possible conditions: not conduct with other terminal showing low
(a) If the resistance of the transistor is high, then it is resistance in forward bias between base-emitter en
ap-n-p transistor.
higher resistance in forward bias between base a
(b) Ifthe resistance of the transistor is low, then it is a collector, then the given transistor is in working orde
n-p-n transistor. Precautions
C. To observe the unidirectlonal flow of current . The multimeter should be for appropr
in adjusted
case of a diode and an LED: range.
8. Adjust the multimeter 2. The multimeter should be handled carefully sine
by
the selector switch to
measure
d.c.current upto mA range.
10 is a very sensitive device.
(a) For diode: 3. A suitable current should be allowed to pass thro
an electronic
9. Connect p-region of the p-n junction diode to 'tve' component otherwise the compon
terminal of the battery. The n-region is connected to may be damaged.
the metallic end of the red lead of the multimeter and 4. The base of the transistor should be checked tirst a
black lead to the negative terminal of the then emitter or collector.
battery.
Activity-4 N
Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation (displacement)
Incident Angle of incidence
of a beam of light incident obliquely on glass slab.
a
ray A
A
Apparatus Required N
Glass Glass slab
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing Angle of
Refractedd
pins, oftice pins, protractor. ray refraction
N
Theory
When a ray oflight is incident on a glass slab obliquely, it
bends towards the normal. When this ray is incident on
Angle of
emergence . Lateral
displacement
the second face of the glass slab, it is refracted from glasSS N
to air, therefore it bends away from the normal. The Emergent ray
emergent ray is parallel to the direction of incident ray. Fig. 6. Refraction of ray of light through a glass slab

The perpendicular shift in the

of the incident ray,
path Procedure
when it emerges from glass to air, is called lateral
1. Fix a plane white sheet of paper on a drawing board
displacement or lateral deviation
using drawing pins.
 Activities 111

a rectangular glass slab and put it symmetrically 7. Remove the glass slab and draw a straight line
2 Tà
middle of the paper.
in the
through R and S. The line RS represents the
the boundary ABCD of the rectangular glass
.
Mark
emergent ray which meets the face CD at Y.
pencil.
slab by a 8. Draw normal N,N, at point Y on face CD. Measure
normal N ,N2 at a point X on the face AB.
4. Draw the angle between the normal NN, and the
Draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal
lere PQ is an incident ray andi is the angle of emergent ray, which comes to be equal to the angle of
N,N.Here
incidencei.
incidence.

9. Produce the line PQX forward which meets the face

pins at oints P and Q on the line
5. Fix
two
PQ DC at point Z. Draw a normal TZ on line YRS. TZ is
distance 10 cm than it.
separated by a or more
the lateral displacement.
See the images of pins P and Q through the face cD
10. Repeat the experiment for two more times with
ofthe glass slab and fix two pins Rand S at a distance
of 10 cm in such a way that the images of pins P and Q different angle of incidence and observe the lateral
are covered by the pins R and S and all lie in a displacement each time.
straight line.

Observations
Table for measurement of angle of emergence and lateral deviation

s. No. Angle of incidence i (degree) Angle Lateral displacement (d)

of emergence e (degree)
300
2. 45
3. 60
Result
1. The angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle of emergence (e).
2. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray.
3. The lateral displacement increases with increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions
1. The drawing board should be made of some soft wood.
2. Pins should be fixed vertically on the drawing board.
3. The glass slab should be of uniform thickness.
4. The angle of incidence taken should lie between 30° to 65°.
5. The distance between the pins should be about 10 cm.
6. The feet of the pins (not their heads) should be in the same straight line.
7. While fixing pins, the eye should be at a distance of 25 cm from the nearest pin.
8. Use a very sharp pencil for geometrical work.

Sources of Error
1. The glass slab may not be of uniform thickness.

2. The feet of pins may not be in the same straight line.

3. Human error may occur in measurement of angles.