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Disaster Resilience and Green Growth

Series Editors
Anil Kumar Gupta, National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, India
Sivapuram Venkata Rama Krishna Prabhakar, Climate Change Adaptation - NRM
Group, Institute of Global Environment Strategies, Kanagawa, Japan
Akhilesh Surjan, Humanitarian, Emergency and Disaster Management Studies,
College of Indigenous Futures, Arts and Society, Charles Darwin University, Australia
Disaster Management is an emerging discipline of higher education, research and
practice. Over the years, interrelation between environment, climate change and
disasters have attained significant recognition. Environmental and anthropogenic
factors are known key attributes of both hazard-risk and vulnerability and, therefore,
are critically important in delineating risk-management solutions. Integrating Eco-
system based and Nature Based Solutions with development programmes offer
sustainable, economically viable and acceptable options to support resilience of
infrastructure, urban, rural and peri-urban systems, livelihoods, water, health and
food security, and promotes people centric approaches, as prevailing current
concerns.
Integrated implementation of the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction,
Paris Climate Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030) is a
global concern, necessitating institutions in UN, academia, governments and society
to take lead, and synchronize the UNDRR Agenda to aligned national, sub-national
and local actions. Disaster management under the on-going paradigm shift lays
special focus on risk mitigation and sustainability concerns along with safeguarding
and restoring resources, livelihoods and businesses, and at the same time integrating
ecological safeguards and carbon neutrality into disaster relief and recovery includ-
ing reconstruction. EcoDRR is now being advocated by the UN agencies, academia
and field practitioners. Researchers and professionals across these domains look
eagerly for publications to fulfil their knowledge support demands.
The book series offers a comprehensive coverage combining the domains of
environment, natural resources, engineering and management studies for addressing
disaster risk and resilience in an integrated and holistic manner. It covers range of
themes under following indicative broad groups:
• Urban, rural, peri-urban, infrastructure and industrial resilience
• Ecosystems, Nature based solutions and Green Growth Strategies
• Resilient agriculture, natural resources, livelihood and food systems
• Resilient Health including safety, resources and occupational health
• Crisis management, relief and recovery with sustainability concerns
The series involves renowned experts and academicians as volume-editors and
authors, from all the regions of the world. Series brings forth latest research,
approaches and perspectives for disaster resilience and management, from both
developed and developing parts of world under one umbrella. It is curated and
developed by authoritative institutions and experts to serves global readership on
this theme.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16471

Shalini Dhyani • Anil Kumar Gupta •
Madhav Karki
Editors

Nature-based Solutions for

Resilient Ecosystems and
Societies
Editors
Shalini Dhyani Anil Kumar Gupta
National Environmental Engineering Centre for Excellence on Climate Resilience
Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) National Institute of Disaster Management
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India New Delhi, India
IUCN Commission on Ecosystems
Management (CEM)
Gland, Switzerland

Madhav Karki
Knowledge-Policy Management
CGED-Nepal
Kathmandu, Nepal

ISSN 2662-4885 ISSN 2662-4893 (electronic)

Disaster Resilience and Green Growth
ISBN 978-981-15-4711-9 ISBN 978-981-15-4712-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

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Singapore
Foreword by the IUCN President

South Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change impacts due to
high population density and fragile environment. The most impacted ecosystems are
agricultural, fresh water, mountain, and coastal ecosystems. All the countries in the
region are signatories to the SDG and the Paris Agreement. However, the region is
facing intractable challenges in meeting these global goals and targets due to
ecosystem degradation, loss of biodiversity, persistent poverty, hunger, pollution,
and weak governance. These challenges are doubly difficult to address for coastal,
mountainous, and dryland communities in the region. Close to 2.5 billion people
mostly living in the downstream plains directly depend on the ecosystem goods and
services, especially water originating from the Himalayas for their survival. Climate
change has caused severe impacts on these natural resources due to rapid melting of
ice and snow and affecting region’s fresh water supply. Natural habitats of flora,
fauna, and the ecosystems as a whole are affected that has increased the threats to the
livelihoods of millions of people living both upstream and downstream. Agriculture
and natural resource sectors face gravest risks in the region due to changes observed
in seasonality of rainfall and presence of too much or too little water. However, there
are also emerging opportunities in terms of new areas opening up for agriculture in
the upper slopes and likely increase in the volume of water supply in the short run
due to glacier melting. Therefore, finding appropriate nature-based solution such as
ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) and eco-system-based disaster risk reduction
(EcoDRR) has become a necessity to tackle these complex challenges. It is rather
an urgent priority due to large-scale poverty and underdevelopment in the South
Asian countries as the climate change and globalization processes have dramatically
affected the capacity and skills of the countries and communities to adapt to these
changes.
The ecosystem services sectors can definitely improve the capacity of countries
and communities to adapt and mitigate the future risks and reduce and manage the
current vulnerabilities. These are collectively described as nature-based solutions
(NBS) by the authors of this book. The chapters contain reports of both research-
based findings and synthesis of knowledge gathered over several years by the

v
vi Foreword by the IUCN President

authors. Since, the sustainability at every level, from an individual household to the
global community, depends on secure supplies of the equitable access to water, food,
and energy in a healthy environment, most emphasis has been placed on protecting
productive ecosystems that include both human modified and natural ecosystems.
Since South Asia is experiencing the fastest rate of urbanization, some of the articles
also cover urban ecosystems and the role of NBS in protecting and managing them.
In summary, this book includes important use and potential of NbS in addressing
challenges posed by climate change, natural disasters, food and energy crisis, water
scarcity and desertification, loss of biodiversity, degradation of ecosystems, migra-
tion, and rapid urbanization.
I congratulate the authors for their insightful analysis of their work and good
writing suitable for reading by general public, especially policy makers. I also
warmly congratulate the editors—Shalini Dhyani, Madhav Karki, and Anil Kumar
Gupta, all CEM members—for their timely and laudable efforts to produce this book
in record time. I am sure this book will be an important contribution to the IUCN
CEM’s knowledge pool. I thank Springer for publishing this volume. I am sure
readers will not be disappointed by reading this useful book. I wish the authors all
success in their endeavor.

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Zhang Xinsheng

24 February, 2020
From the Desk of the Chair IUCN-CEM

In the last few years, disasters across the world have taken center stage in global
news. Frequency of disasters has increased tremendously primarily due to increasing
human interference with nature especially their role in changing climate. Recurring
floods, cyclones, coastal storms, landslides, and tsunamis not only cost many human
lives but also suppress the development and economic growth.
Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change impacts due to high
population density and fragile environment. The most impacted ecosystems are
forests, fresh water, marine, dry land, mountain, and coastal ecosystems. Countries
in the region are signatories to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2015, and
the Paris Agreement. However, the region is facing intractable challenges in meeting
global goals and targets due to persistent environmental degradation, loss of biodi-
versity, poverty, hunger, pollution, and weak governance. These challenges are
becoming more difficult to manage, especially in coastal, mountainous, and arid
ecosystems of the region. Close to 2.5 billion people mostly living in the down-
stream area directly depend on the ecosystem goods and services, especially water
originating in the cryosphere of the Himalayas to meet their food, energy, water, and
environmental security. Climate change has resulted in severe impacts on cryosphere
creating new hazards in the form of glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) formed due
to rapid melting of ice and snow. Melting of permafrost is creating landslides and
other extreme events. Natural habitats of flora and fauna and the ecosystems as a
whole are affected, increasing the threats to the livelihoods of millions of people in
the region. Agriculture and natural resources sectors, on which the livelihoods of
half a billion poor in the region depend, face gravest risk to these changes in the
seasonality, duration and amount of rainfall, river discharge of water, and amount of
groundwater resources. Coastal, dry land, and riverine ecosystems are highly vul-
nerable facing different levels of threats due to increasing developmental and climate
stresses. Building consensus and raising awareness on the protection of nature for
our common future have been considered the most important safeguard against
growing disaster risks in the warming earth.

vii
viii From the Desk of the Chair IUCN-CEM

Therefore, finding appropriate nature-based solution (NbS) such as ecosystem-

based adaptation (EbA) and ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (EcoDRR) is a
necessity to tackle these intractable challenges. Since, climate change and globali-
zation processes have accelerated the pace of change so dramatically that the
capacity and skills of countries and communities to adapt have been constantly
challenged, more innovative and robust tools have become necessary. It is rather an
urgent priority due to large-scale poverty and underdevelopment in South Asian
countries. The vital importance of using nature and ecosystems for reducing disaster
and climate risks is still not well tapped in the region. The agriculture and
bio-resource sector can definitely help to adapt to the change, mitigate the future
risks, and reduce and manage the current vulnerabilities.
The book chapters report both research-based findings and synthesis of knowl-
edge gathered over several years by the authors. Since sustainability at every level,
from an individual household to the global community, depends on secure supplies
of and equitable access to water, food, and energy in a healthy environment, most
emphasis has been placed on protecting productive ecosystems that include both
human modified and natural ecosystems. Since South Asia is experiencing the fastest
rate of urbanization, some of the chapters also cover urban ecosystems and the role
of ecosystems and restoration of urban green and blue spaces in protecting and
managing them.
In summary, this book contains important use and potential of NbS in addressing
challenges posed by climate change, natural disasters, food and energy crisis, water
scarcity and desertification, loss of biodiversity, degradation of ecosystems, migra-
tion, and rapid urbanization. I congratulate the authors for their insightful analysis of
their work and good writing suitable for reading by the general public, especially
policy makers. I also warmly congratulate the editors Shalini Dhyani, Madhav
Karki, and Anil Kumar Gupta and all CEM members for their timely and laudable
efforts to produce this book in record time. I am sure this book with tested and
established examples and case studies will be an important contribution to the IUCN
CEM’s knowledge pool. I thank Springer Nature for publishing this volume. I am
sure readers will not be disappointed by reading this useful book.

CEM/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Angela Andrade

Acknowledgments

Putting together a book on a relatively futuristic topic of nature-based solutions

would not have been possible without having support and contributions from many
dedicated and hardworking authors. We are enormously grateful to many interna-
tional and national experts, scientists, and researchers who volunteered their pre-
cious and busy time out of their heavy academic engagements and helped to
critically review the book chapters. We truly appreciate their cooperation and good
understanding in meeting our rather strict paper submissions and review deadlines.
Many of our supporters deserve special appreciations.
We sincerely thank Dr. Paras Pujari and Dr. Parikshit Verma for their valuable
support during the preparation of this book. We are grateful to many of our very hard
working and supportive research scholars, without whose critical support our efforts
alone would not have been enough to bring out this book in time. We specially thank
Ms. Kavita Bramhanwade, Ms. Sunidhi Singh, and Ms. Jayshree for their help in
overseeing formatting and language correction to avoid major mistakes. We are also
grateful to Dr. Debbie M. F. Bartlett, Greenwich University, UK, and Ms. Saon
Bhattacharya for their invaluable language editing support of some chapters of this
book. We also acknowledge the help of Dr. Bart Kolodziejczyk, an IUCN CEM
member from Australia. Finally, the production team members deserve special
appreciation for guiding us through the process of publishing this work. Despite
our best efforts to avoid any mistake, it is however possible that there might be some
errors remaining during the fast pace of production that we had to manage. Editors
gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and encouragements from the Director
CSIR-NEERI Dr. Rakesh Kumar and Executive Director Maj. Gen. Manoj K.
Bindal, VSM, towards the promotion of NBS and ecoDRR as sustainable strategies
of DRR.
Each individual chapter included in this book was finalized with the primary
responsibility of the author and coauthors. The editors have gone through all the
chapters included and reviewed them with careful scrutiny following international
standards including ethics of publication. We shall be highly obligated to receive
constructive comments and suggestions from readers for further improvement of our

ix
x Acknowledgments

publications in future editions. Any errors found in this book are the collective
responsibility of the chapter authors and of the editors. Last but not least, we thank
our family members, especially our parents, spouse, and children, for their under-
standing, patience, and encouragement to continue and complete this mammoth task
well in time.
In closing, we express our gratitude to the IUCN President Hon. Zhang Xinsheng
and the IUCN CEM Chair Dr. Angela Andrade.

Shalini Dhyani
Anil Kumar Gupta
Madhav Karki
Contents

1 Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions

in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Shalini Dhyani, Madhav Karki, and Anil Kumar Gupta

Part I Decision Making Tools for Mainstreaming NbS

2 Scaling up Spring Revival in the Himalaya: Graduating from
Spring-Centric to Aquifer-Centric Nature-Based Solutions . . . . . . . 29
Sandeep Tambe, Subash Dhakal, Deepak Dhakal,
Ghanashyam Sharma, Pem Norbu Sherpa, Himanshu Kulkarni,
Nima Tashi Bhutia, Dinesh Dhakal, Sarika Pradhan, U. K. Sinha,
Archana Tiwari, Ghanashyam Kharel, Indrani Phukan,
and M. L. Arrawatia
3 Ecosystem-Based Integrated and Participatory Watershed
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Mohan Prasad Wagley and Madhav Karki
4 Nature-Based Solution for Balancing the Food, Energy,
and Environment Trilemma: Lessons from Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Syed Ajijur Rahman and Himlal Baral
5 Wetlands as Buffers for Water-Mediated Disaster Risks:
Policy and Programming Opportunities in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ritesh Kumar, Ridhi Saluja, and Dushyant Mohil
6 Landscape Character Assessment: A Method to Include
Community Perspectives and Ecosystem Services in Land-use
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Debbie M. F. Bartlett

xi
xii Contents

7 Linking NbS with Water Management: A Case of South

Megacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chandra Bhushan Kumar and Sonali Ghosh

Part II Evidence and Examples of NbS Implementation

8 Forest Landscape Restoration as a NbS Strategy for Achieving
Bonn Challenge Pledge: Lessons from India’s Restoration Efforts . . . 133
Anushree Bhattacharjee
9 Guns and Roses: Forest Landscape Restoration as a Nature-Based
Solution in Areas of Armed Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Sonali Ghosh and C. Ramesh
10 Leveraging Conservation Benefits through Ecosystem-Based Services
Approach and Community Engagement in Wetland and Riparian
Ecosystems: The Case of Conserving Black-Necked Crane
and White-Bellied Heron in Bhutan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Kinley Tenzin and L. Norbu
11 Geo-Information Tools in Implementing Nature-Based Solutions
from High Altitude Wetlands: From Mapping to Decision-Making
Support for Disaster Risk Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Parul Srivastava and Neeraj Agarwal
12 Promoting Nature-Based Solution (NbS) Through Restoration
of Degraded Landscapes in the Indian Himalayan Region . . . . . . . 197
I. D. Bhatt, Vikram S. Negi, and R. S. Rawal
13 Temporal Changes in Livelihood and Land Usage Patterns: Case
Study of a Primitive Tribe, Van Raji, from Uttarakhand, India . . . 213
Pankaj Tewari, Ripu Daman Singh, Pratap Nagarkoti,
and Surabhi Gumber

Part III Advanced Institutional Provisions and Policies for NbS

14 Nature-Based Solutions for Restoration of Freshwater Ecosystems:
Indian Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Rooprekha Dalwani and Brij Gopal
15 Applicability of Nature-Based Solution Through Green
Infrastructure Approach to Enhance Green Cover in Urban
Transition Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Shruti Lahoti, Ashish Lahoti, and Osamu Saito
16 Climate Adaptive Agricultural Interventions for Food, Nutritional,
Health and Livelihood Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Pradeep Kumar Dubey, Ajeet Singh, Rajan Chaurasia,
and P. C. Abhilash
Contents xiii

17 Agroforestry as a Nature-Based Solution for Reducing Community

Dependence on Forests to Safeguard Forests in Rainfed Areas of
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Manoj Kumar and Hukum Singh
18 Trees, Shrubs and Herbs for Slope Stabilization in Landslide
Prone Areas of Eastern Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
D. Adhikari, R. Tiwary, P. P. Singh, B. R. Suchiang, I. M. Nonghuloo,
and S. K. Barik

Part IV Insights to Research Innovations in NbS

19 Permeable Pavements as Sustainable Nature-Based Solutions
for the Management of Urban Lake Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Harini Santhanam and Rudrodip Majumdar
20 Habitat Suitability Modelling and Nature-Based Solutions:
An Efficient Combination to Realise the Targets of Bonn
Challenge and SDGs in South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Shalini Dhyani, Sunidhi Singh, Rakesh Kadaverugu, Paras Pujari,
and Parikshit Verma
21 Role of Tropical Floodplain Wetlands in Carbon Sequestration:
A Case Study from Barak River Basin of Assam, Northeast India . . . 365
Priyanka Sarkar and Tapati Das
22 Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk
Reduction in Eastern Himalayan Forests of Arunachal Pradesh,
Northeast India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Purabi Saikia, Amit Kumar, Diksha, Preet Lal, Nikita,
and Mohammed Latif Khan
23 Nature-Based Solution Entry Points Through Sectoral Policies,
Strategic Instruments and Business Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Shweta Bhardwaj, Anil Kumar Gupta, Shalini Dhyani, and Muralee
Thummarukudy
24 New Pathways for NbS to Realise and Achieve SDGs and Post 2015
Targets: Transformative Approaches in Resilience Building . . . . . . 435
Pritha Acharya, Anil Kumar Gupta, Shalini Dhyani,
and Madhav Karki
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Shalini Dhyani is Senior Scientist with Critical Zone Group of Water Technology
and Management Division in CSIR-NEERI, India. She is South Asia Regional Chair
for IUCN CEM (Commission on Ecosystems Management) (2017–2020), IPBES
lead author for Sustainable Use of Wild Species (2018–2021), regional assessment
of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Asia Pacific (2015–2018), and reviewer of
first order draft of IPCC Sixth Assessment Report of WGII (2019). Her work focuses
on the interlinkages of ecological, human, and social systems using sustainability
science approaches. Dr. Shalini has worked on biodiversity inclusive impact assess-
ment across India and has also contributed to many NGT and judiciary projects. Her
work on understanding the drivers of loss for biodiversity for developing recovery
approaches for natural ecosystems and disaster proofing growing urban sprawls of
India is important. Dr. Shalini was awarded IUCN-CEM Chair Young Professional
Award at World Parks Congress 2014 in Australia for her excellent research and
publications on forests in the Himalayan region. In 2010 she was selected among
100 women for their exceptional work by the Asian Rural Women’s Coalition,
Malaysia, for her work to reduce pressure from forests. Fodder Bank Model devel-
oped by her was among ten best cases of SAARC countries in 2014. She is the
recipient of various financial grants from reputed organizations, viz. UNEP,
UNESCO, IPBES, UNEP-WCMC, APN, GIZ, FAO, IUCN, UNU, European
Union-LEANES, Rufford SGP, DST, etc. She is the author of more than 30 research
publications, involved as editor, and reviewer of many peer-reviewed prestigious
high-impact journals.

Anil Kumar Gupta is Professor and Head of the Division of Environment and
Disaster Risk Management in the National Institute of Disaster Management
(NIDM) of India. He leads the Centre for Excellence on Climate Resilience and
implementing projects, viz. CAP-RES, National Agriculture Disaster Management
Plan, Health Resilience and Capacity Building-National Health Adaptation Plan,

xv
xvi Editors and Contributors

Crisis Management Plan to Deal with Contamination of Water Bodies, and Disaster
Management Plan of the Ministry. He is the nodal officer for facilitating international
cooperation (UNCCD, UNFCCC), coordination with central government ministries
for disaster management. He is an Expert Team Member of WMO Climate State-
ment, South Asia Core Group Member of IUCN-CEM, and vice-chairman of the
Association of Occupational and Environmental Health. Dr. Gupta is a sustainability
risk management strategist working in the areas of disaster management and envi-
ronment and climate resilience for more than 25 years experience of working with
national, sub-national, and business administrations. He is credited with preparing
national and sectoral disaster management plans, human resource capacity develop-
ment plans, national action plan for chemical disaster management, national drought
manual, institutional expansion strengthening plan, sub-national planning, climate
actions, SDG implementation and pilots, etc. He implemented programs for officials
of African and Asia-Pacific nations and policy dialogues in cooperation with UN
agencies, CDKN, GIZ, IUCN, ISET, OPML, ADPC, etc. besides India. He was a
member of Government/Ministerial delegations abroad and contributed to interna-
tional policy processes including Bangkok Declaration, HFA-2/SFDRR, etc. He has
published several books, process guidance/manuals, and policy/research papers, has
contributed to EIAs, risk/vulnerability studies, and impact and need analysis, and has
taught at different programs.

Madhav Karki is the Executive Director and founder of the Centre for Green
Economy Development, Nepal (www.cgednepal.org), and the expert member of
the Govt. of Nepal’s Environment Protection Council. He is a member of the
Multidisciplinary Expert Panel of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem (IPBES). He is also the Deputy Chair of the IUCN Commission on
Ecosystem Management (CEM). He was the co-chair of the Regional Assessment of
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Asia Pacific Region (2015–2018) commis-
sioned by the Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES)—a UN agency. He also worked as the Deputy Director General (DDG)—
Programs and Knowledge Management in the International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, and Senior Program Office in
IDRC, Canada’s Delhi office, from 1995 to 2005. Dr. Madhav Karki has over
40 years of professional experiences in Biodiversity Conservation, Natural
Resources Management, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation, and Sustain-
able Development across Hindu Kush Himalaya, South/Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Dr. Karki has more than 100 professional publications. He is currently working as
the Team Leader for Watershed Management in the ADB/Govt. of Nepal supported
Bagmati project on River Basin Improvement. He is also leading the Adaptation at
Scale Prize Project supported by DFID. Dr. Karki has been Lead Evaluator and team
member in a number of sustainable land management, landscape conservation, and
climate change and sustainable development projects and programs in SE Asia and
Nepal. Madhav is also the global Task Force Member of the Indigenous and Local
Knowledge set up by the IPBES/UN.
Editors and Contributors xvii

About the Authors

P. C. ABHILASH is senior assistant professor of sustainability science in the
Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development at Banaras Hindu University
in Varanasi, India, and his research interest lies in adaptive and sustainable agricul-
tural practices and agroecosystem management.

Pritha ACHARYA is associated with NIDM under the project Climate Adaptive
Planning for Resilience and Sustainability (CAP-RES). She has also worked with
IUCN India under their flagship business and biodiversity program.

Dibyendu ADHIKARI is a senior researcher in the Department of Botany at

North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong. He uses observational, empirical, and
predictive modeling approaches to understand the distribution of threatened,
endemic, and invasive species, and the application of the generated knowledge in
their conservation and management.

Neeraj AGARWAL has more than 3 years of experience in the field of remote
sensing and GIS technologies. His research expertise is in the areas of natural
resource management and forestry application using SAR and optical remote sensing.

M. L. ARRAWATIA served in the Indian Forest Service at several positions, viz.

Chairman of the Sikkim Public Service Commission, Additional Principal Chief
Conservator of Forests, and as Secretary, Department of Science and Technology
and Climate Change in the Government of Sikkim. He grounded participatory
approaches with a number of pro-people policies such as Sikkim Biological Diver-
sity Rules, 2005, Sikkim Trekking policy, 2005, Mountain Guardians Policy, 2006,
and the Participatory Wetland Conservation guidelines, 2006.

Himlal BARAL is a scientist within the Forests and Environment program of

CIFOR. He is Chair of Forest Specialist Group of IUCN CEM.

Saroj Kanta BARIK is Director of CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow. His research interest comprises diverse areas of ecology and environment
and includes plant diversity inventory, conservation and bio-prospection, ecosystem
structure and function, ecological modeling, population, molecular and chemical
ecology, carbon sequestration, and impact of climate change on species and
ecosystems.

Debbie M. F. BARTLETT is a Chartered Landscape Architect and Fellow of the

Chartered Institute for Ecology and Environmental Management. Currently, she is a
Principal Lecturer at the University of Greenwich. She is also working on an
EU-funded project on the effectiveness of green/blue infrastructure for mitigating
heat stress in public open space.
xviii Editors and Contributors

Shweta BHARDWAJ works at the National Institute of Disaster Management as

Research Fellow under Climate Adaptive Planning for Resilience and Sustainability
(CAP-RES) and looking at the Climate Proofing component under the CAP-RES
project.

Indra D. BHATT works as a scientist in G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan

Environment and Sustainable Development, Almora, India. Dr. Bhatt has over
20 years of research experience in the field of biodiversity conservation. He was
President of Environmental Sciences (106th session of the Indian Science Congress),
and he is lead author for IPCC working group II—Impacts, adaptation, and
vulnerability.

Anushree BHATTACHARJEE is presently engaged with The Nature Conser-

vancy India as a NRM and biodiversity conservation specialist. She is a Chevening
Research, Science, and Innovation Leadership Fellow, 2020, at the University of
Oxford. She developed the forest landscape restoration program for IUCN in India
and coauthored India’s progress report on Bonn Challenge.

Nima Tashi BHUTIA presently works as Senior Planning Coordinator for

MGNREGA program under the Rural Management and Development Department,
Government of Sikkim. He is also the winner of the India Development Marketplace
2007 by the World Bank.

Rajan CHAURASIA is CSIR-NET-SRF in the Institute of Environment & Sus-

tainable Development at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in Varanasi, India. His
research interests are crop diversification and emerging agricultural practices for
environmental sustainability.

Rooprekha DALWANI has worked as an advisor in MoEF and CC, Government

of India, with more than 34 years of her work experience in water quality manage-
ment and environmental conservation. She was responsible for the preparation of
many policy documents for the Ministry, including the uniform protocol on water
quality, standards for bacterial quality in wastewater, and guidelines for NLCP.

Tapati DAS is Assistant Professor in Assam University, Silchar, India. Her area of
specialization is aquatic ecology, biodiversity and management, and wetland eco-
system service.

Deepak DHAKAL is a physics teacher in Gangtok, Sikkim, and he has been

involved in groundwater studies of Sikkim Himalayas using environmental isotopes
techniques.
Editors and Contributors xix

Dinesh DHAKAL is presently working as Assistant Urban Planner at Sikkim State

Disaster Management Authority under Land Revenue and Disaster Management
Department, Government of Sikkim.

Subash DHAKAL presently works as Assistant Director in the Rural Management

and Development Department, Government of Sikkim, has worked in effective
implementation of springshed, and has experience of working in flagship rural
development programs of Government of India.

DIKSHA has completed her MSc in Geoinformatics and is presently pursuing her
PhD in Urban Hazard Risk and Resilience in major urban centers of the Himalayas
from the Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India.

Pradeep Kumar DUBEY is a UGC-NET-SRF in the Institute of Environment &

Sustainable Development at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in Varanasi, India.
His main research interests include climate resilient and adaptive agricultural
practices.

Sonali GHOSH is an Indian Forest Service officer with more than 20 years of work
experience in the field of forest and natural heritage wildlife in India. As part of her
job, she has worked as a field manager in UNESCO world heritage sites of
Kaziranga and Manas in India. She has co-edited books such as Cultural Landscapes
of Asia and Wild Treasures: Reflections on Natural World Heritage Sites in Asia, an
Anthology.

Brij GOPAL is an aquatic ecologist and a former Professor of Environmental

Science at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He has investigated all
aspects of plant ecology, biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, water quality, eco-
nomic valuation, conservation, restoration, and management of all kinds of aquatic
ecosystems from high altitude lakes to floodplains, coastal lagoons, and mangroves.

Surabhi GUMBER is working on adaptive features of tree species in fire-prone

ecosystems of the Himalayas with focus on climate change and sustainable devel-
opment issues in the Himalayas.

Rakesh KADAVERUGU is an Environmental Engineer working as Senior Scien-

tist in CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur. He has experience of modeling natural and modified
ecosystems.

Mohammed Latif KHAN has made contributions to understand the forest regen-
eration dynamics, population biology of rare, endangered and threatened species,
and in assessing threat status of forests and their resources in the Eastern Himalayan
region and Central India. He is a recipient of many national and international
fellowships.
xx Editors and Contributors

Ghanashyam KHAREL has experience of working in environment, climate

change, and springshed management in Sikkim and North Eastern Region of
India. He is also a coauthor of springshed handbook (Dhara Vikas Handbook)
published by the Government of Sikkim and Indo-German Project.

Himanshu KULKARNI leads ACWADAM, which is India’s leading think tank

on India’s groundwater resources. He has worked closely with the government in
crafting policies and programs on groundwater and more recently in shaping the new
National Water Policy.

Amit KUMAR is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Geoinformatics at the

Central University of Jharkhand, India. He is a member of IUCN-Commission on
Ecosystem management (South Asia), National Association of Geographers, India
(NAGI), and Global Forest Biodiversity Initiatives (GFBI), USA.

Chandra Bhushan KUMAR works as a member of Indian Civil Service for more
than two decades in extremely diverse, complex, and challenging politico-cultural
settings in the largest democracy of the world. He blends his field experiences with
theoretical frameworks to inform the process of governance so that the development
challenges find sustainable, just, equitable, and inclusive solutions.

Manoj KUMAR is a scientist and in-charge at GIS Centre of Forest Research

Institute (FRI), Dehradun, and an IUCN CEM member. He has initiated work on
developing a forest growth simulation model to study the functional relationship of
plants with the environment that could be used for climate change impact studies.

Ritesh KUMAR heads Wetlands International South Asia. A natural resources

economist by training, Ritesh has nearly two decades of work experience on
wetlands of South Asia. He is also a nominated member of the Scientific and
Technical Review Panel of Ramsar Convention and a coordinating lead author at
the Inter-governmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES).

Ashish LAHOTI is independent researcher and master planner by profession and

also works as a professional Urban Designer in Tokyo, Japan. In his Master Planning
professional experience over 15 years, he has worked over vast geographies, mostly
fast urbanizing nations, including India, Thailand, China, Bhutan, South Korea as
well as Japan.

Shruti LAHOTI works in editorial office for the Journal of Sustainability Science
and is pursuing her PhD in Sustainability Science at UNU-IAS, Tokyo, Japan. Her
research interest includes ecosystem services provided by traditional production
landscapes, urban landscape planning, and green infrastructure.
Editors and Contributors xxi

Preet LAL is a final year student of Integrated MTech in Geoinformatics at the

Central University of Jharkhand and presently doing his final year dissertation at
IISER, Bhopal.

Rudrodip MAJUMDAR is a Nuclear Engineer working as Assistant Professor

with National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, India. He has extensive
work experiences in the areas of plasma fusion energy, renewable energy, and
thermal energy storages, and he is keen to explore innovative and cost-effective
technologies for sustainable development.

Dushyant MOHIL is Project Manager with Wetlands International South Asia. He

leads implementation of Partners for Resilience program in India for promoting the
use of ecosystem-based approaches as wetlands restoration for building community
resilience.

Pratap NAGARKOTI works as a Senior Programme Manager of Central Hima-

layan Environment Association (CHEA). He has more than 15 years of experience
working in the Himalayas for the holistic development of communities through
sustainable usage of natural resources.

Vikram S. NEGI works as a scientist at G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan

Environment and Sustainable Development, Almora, India. He has experience
working on the restoration and rehabilitation of waste/degraded land and rural
technology extension through community participation.

NIKITA has completed her Integrated MTech in Geoinformatics from the Central
University of Jharkhand, Ranchi.

Ibadahun Mary NONGHULOO is a PhD student at North-Eastern Hill Univer-

sity, Shillong. Her research interests include forest diversity, plant diversity, nutrient
dynamics, ecosystem services, and conservation of forest ecosystems.

Lungten NORBU had served for 32 years with the Forest Department, Royal
Government of Bhutan, before joining the Royal Society for Protection of Nature.
He has worked on NRM issues including Payment for Environment Services (PES),
Bhutan REDD+ strategy preparation.

Indrani PHUKAN is an applied geologist and a Senior Advisor in GIZ, Climate

Change Adaptation in North Eastern Region Project New Delhi. She has more than
19 years of experience in the natural resources management and climate change
adaptation sectors.
xxii Editors and Contributors

Sarika PRADHAN is presently posted as Additional Secretary-cum-Project Direc-

tor for MGNREGA in the Rural Management and Development Department, Gov-
ernment of Sikkim. She has been instrumental in the successful implementation of
several national and state government programs.

Paras PUJARI is Principal Scientist in Critical Zone Group of Water Technology

and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Insti-
tute. He works in the field of near-surface geophysics with focus on hydrogeological
and environmental processes integrated with groundwater modeling studies.

Syed Ajijur RAHMAN is regional coordinator (South and South-East Asia) for the
International Working Party on Forest Landscape Ecology-IUFRO, 8.01.02. He has
extensive field research experience in several countries. His main occupational
interest is directly linking conservation with livelihoods-oriented development.

C. RAMESH is an Indian Forest Service Officer and serving as a Faculty at the

Central Academy for State Forest Service, Dehradun, imparting training to the state
forest officers. He has worked almost in the insurgency-prone landscape of western
Assam, where he worked for the conservation of natural resources and upliftment of
tribal communities.

Ranbeer Singh RAWAL is Director at G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan

Environment & Sustainable Development, Almora, India, and has extensively
worked to expedite the flow of R&D-based evidences for decision support on
environment and sustainable development in the Indian Himalayan region. He is
the recipient of ICFRE Award of Excellence and ISCA Platinum Jubilee Presenta-
tion Award, and he has been lead author for IPBES Asia Pacific Regional
Assessment.

Purabi SAIKIA is Assistant Professor in the Department of Environmental Sci-

ences at the Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, since May 2013. She is an
active member of IUCN-Commission on Ecosystem Management, South Asia, as
well as Global Forest Biodiversity Initiatives (GFBI), USA.

Osamu SAITO is Principal Researcher at the Institute for Global Environmental

Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Kanagawa, and a faculty member at United Nations
University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Tokyo,
Japan. He has worked on ecosystem services provided by traditional rural production
landscapes (Satoyama) in both Japan and other Asian countries. He has been lead
author for IPBES and managing editor of the Sustainability Science journal
published by Springer.

Ridhi SALUJA is Technical Officer with Wetlands International South Asia. She
specializes in wetland condition assessment, change dynamics, and landscape
ecology.
Editors and Contributors xxiii

Harini SANTHANAM is an environmental scientist working as Assistant Profes-

sor with National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, India. Her research
interests include the use of integrated modeling approaches for aquatic ecosystem
investigations, studying the ecosystem-human nexus over the land-water-air contin-
uum, and investigating short-term and long-term changes of lacustrine systems using
environmental proxies.

Priyanka SARKAR is a Senior Research Fellow in Assam University, Silchar,

India. Her research focuses on understanding how the various ecological aspects of
floodplain wetlands in the tropics are related to the socio-economic dimensions,
livelihood sustenance and human well-being, and investigating the carbon seques-
tration potential of wetlands.

Ghanashyam SHARMA is currently the Program Manager at The Mountain

Institute-India based at Gangtok and a nominated member in various committees
of the State Government of Sikkim and Government of India.

Pem Norbu SHERPA currently serves as Dhara Vikas Coordinator under

MGNREGA, Rural Management and Development Department, Government of
Sikkim.

Ajeet SINGH is a senior research fellow in the Institute of Environment & Sus-
tainable Development at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in Varanasi, India. His
research interests lie in harnessing agrobiodiversity and biocultural diversity for food
and nutritional security.

Hukum SINGH works as a scientist in Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. His

current research focuses on the response of plants to elevated CO2, temperature and
other abiotic stresses, radiation and nutrients fluxes in forest and wetland ecosys-
tems, and climate change modeling.

Prem Prakash SINGH is a PhD student at North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.

He is engaged in research related to plant diversity, species distribution modeling,
Oak forest ecology, and conservation of threatened plants.

Ripu Daman SINGH works as researcher at Central Himalayan Environment

Association (CHEA). He is presently working in a major multi-site, multi-partner
research project on Himalayan Timberline, supported by the National Mission on
Himalayan Studies, MoEF&CC, India.

Sunidhi SINGH is a researcher and project assistant in Critical Zone Group of

Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engi-
neering Research Institute with an interest in Natural Resources Management.
xxiv Editors and Contributors

U. K. SINHA works as Head of Isotope Hydrology Section in Bhabha Atomic

Research Centre, Mumbai, and is involved in hydrological investigations using
environmental isotopes in solving various hydrological problems for societal
benefits.

Parul SRIVASTAVA has over 16 years of research and teaching experience in the
Application of Geo-spatial Technology. Her research expertise includes the appli-
cation of geo-spatial technology in forest ecology, protected area management,
climate change, and alternate energy resource mapping.

Blessing Roy SUCHIANG is a PhD student at North-Eastern Hill University,

Shillong. His research interest includes the study of forest hydrology, ecosystem
services, and plant diversity.

Sandeep TAMBE is a member of the Indian Forest Service. He has been instru-
mental in effectively implementing livelihood programs and reviving Himalayan
springs in the Khangchendzonga landscape. He was among the 25 persons of the
year by the Forbes India magazine in 2010 and received the T. N. Khoshoo
Memorial Award, 2012, to mention a few.

Kinley TENZIN is the Executive Director (ED) of the Royal Society for Protection
of Nature (RSPN), Bhutan. He has long experiences in conducting research program
planning, co-ordination, and monitoring. He is also part of a technical team to
address emerging issues of conservation and development.

Pankaj TEWARI is Executive Director of Central Himalayan Environment Asso-

ciation (CHEA), based at Nainital, India, and an IUCN CEM member. He has
extensively worked in the field of environmental research, sustainable mountain
development, and livelihood security of rural communities with focus on appropriate
technologies.

Muralee THUMMARUKUDY is the Chief of Disaster Risk Reduction in the UN

Environment Programme. He is an internationally renowned expert in disaster
response and has been involved in post-disaster response across the world.

Archana TIWARI works as an Assistant Professor in Physics at Sikkim Univer-

sity, Gangtok, India. Her research interests include preparation of metallic and alloy-
based nanoparticles for the detection of organic and inorganic contaminants in water.

Raghuvar TIWARY is a PhD student at North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.

His research interests include plant diversity, species distribution modeling, molec-
ular ecology, invasive species, and conservation of threatened plants.
Editors and Contributors xxv

Parikshit VERMA is Principal Scientist in Critical Zone Group of Water Tech-

nology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute. His work includes monitoring and modeling biotic and abiotic
interactions in groundwater-dependent ecosystems.

Mohan Prasad WAGLEY is Senior Research Fellow in CGED, Nepal. He has

worked as Director General of the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management, Nepal. As a Watershed Management specialist, he currently works as
consultant in various government and donor-supported development projects in
forestry and watershed management in Nepal.
Abbreviations

AbC Area-based Conservation

AFR100 African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative
AMF Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
AMRUT Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
ASTER GDEM V2 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer Global Digital Elevation Model Version 2
ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
AUD Ambedkar University Delhi
BAP Bagmati Action Plan
BBTC Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Ltd.
BEI Building Environment Index
BHU Banaras Hindu University
Bn Battalion
BNC Black-necked crane
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BRBIP Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project
BRP Badrivan Restoration Programme
BTAD Bodoland Territorial Areas Council
BTF Bhutan Trust Fund for Conservation
BZUCs Buffer Zone User Committees
BZUGs Buffer Zone User Groups
CA Conservation agriculture
CAS Climate Adaptation Services
CBA Community-based adaptation
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBD United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
CBST Community-based sustainable tourism
CCa Community Conserved Areas
CERC Central Electricity Regulator Commission
CGED, Nepal Centre for Green Economy Development, Nepal

xxvii
xxviii Abbreviations

CHEA Central Himalayan Environment Association

CHFST Contour Hedgerow Farming System Technology
CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research
CITES Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species
COP Conference of Parties
CPSU Central Public Sector Undertaking
CRZ Coastal Regulation Zone
CSE Centre for Science and Environment
CSIR-NEERI CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
CWSRF Clean Water State Revolving Fund
DDMA District Disaster Management Authority
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DJB Delhi Jal Board
DoFPS Department of Forest and Park Services
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
EAWM Ecosystem approach to watershed management
EbA Ecosystem-based Adaptation
EbA Ecosystem-based approaches
EbM Ecosystem-based Management
EC Electrical Conductivity
EcoDRR Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction
EDC Electricity distribution companies
EDCs Eco-development committees
EE Ecological Engineering
EEO Energy Efficiency Obligations
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EKW East Kolkata Wetlands
EMS Environmental Management System
ER Ecological Restoration
ESS Ecosystem Services
ETF Eco Task Force
EU European Union
FGD Focus group discussion
FLR Forest Landscape Restoration
FSI Forest Survey of India
FYM Farmyard manure
GAs Green areas
GBI Green Building Index
GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion
GGP Global Gross Product
GI Galvanized iron
GI Green Infrastructure
GI Green Infrastructure
GLADA Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement
Abbreviations xxix

GLASOD Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation

GLOF Glacial Lakes Outburst Floods
GMWL Global Meteoric Water Line
GP Green Power
GPDP Gram Panchayat Development Plan
GPFLR Global Partnership for Forest Landscape Restoration
gpm Gallons per minute
GUIDE Gujarat Institute for Desert Ecology
HAWs High Altitude Wetlands
HHC Higher Himalayan Crystallines
HHD Higher Himalayan Domain
HKH Hindu Kush Himalayan
HMHs Hydrometeorological hazards
IBMTCL Indo-Bhutan Manas Tiger Conservation Landscape
ICAR Indian Council of Agriculture Research
ICDP Integrated Conservation and Development Projects
ICF International Crane Foundation
ICFRE Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
IDS-N Integrated Development Society, Nepal
IGP Indo-Gangetic Plain
IHR Indian Himalayan Region
ILK Indigenous and Local Knowledge
INDCs Intended Nationally Determined Targets
INTACH Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
IPPC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPZ Island Protection Zone
IRBM Integrated River Basin Management
IRMS Isotopic Ratio Mass Spectrometry
IVI Importance Value Index
IWM Integrated Watershed Management
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
JFM Joint Forest Management
KBA Key Biodiversity Areas
KII Key Informant Interviews
KRC Knowledge Resource Centre
KU Kachchh University
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LDN Land Degradation Neutrality
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
LHD Lesser Himalayan Domain
LMWL Local Meteoric Water Line
LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas
LST Land Surface Temperature
LULC Land Use Land Cover
xxx Abbreviations

MCT Main Central Thrust

MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme of Govt. of India
MoAF Ministry of Agriculture
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MPAs Marine Protected Areas
NAP National Afforestation Programme
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NbS Nature-based Solution
NCBS National Centre for Biological Science
NCF Nature Conservation Foundation
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NDWI Normalized Difference Water Index
NFPP Natural Forest Protection Programme
NIFoS National Institute of Forest Science
NMC Nagpur Municipal Corporation
NMEEE National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
NP Jigme Singye National Park
NPCA National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems
NPV Net present value
NRAA National Rainfed Area Authority
NRCP National River Conservation Plan
NTFP Non-timber forest product
NUC Neglected and underutilized crops
NUHHP National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy
NUS Neglected and underutilized species
ODF Open Defecation Free
OSV Off-season vegetable cultivation
PCA Phobjikha Conservation Area
PES Payment for Ecosystem Service
PICP Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavers
PIWM Participatory integrated watershed management
PPS Permeable Pavement Systems
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PSM Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms
PVTG Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Group
R&D Research and Developmental
RAMBLE Research and Monitoring in the Banni Landscape
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
RF Ripu-Chirang Reserved Forests
RG Resource Group
Abbreviations xxxi

RMDD Rural Management and Development Department, Government

of Sikkim
RNR Renewable Natural Resources
ROAM Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology
RRPs Rural Resource Persons
RS Remote Sensing
RSPN Royal Society for Protection of Nature
SAC Space Applications Centre
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SCP Smart City Project
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SDM Species Distribution Modeling
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SEOs Strategic Environmental Opportunities
SEPE Socio-ecological Production Ecosystem
SERI Shristi Eco-Research Institute
SFDRR Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction
SFP Social Forestry Programme
SHG Self-Help Group
SLCP Sloping Land Conversion Program
SLWM Sustainable land and water management
SMOW Standard Mean Ocean Water
SNNP Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park
SNU Shiv Nadar University
SOM Soil organic matter
SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
SWEET Sloping Watershed Environment Engineering Technology
TCL Tiger Conservation Landscape
TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
UAW Assess the amount of Unaccounted Water
UAW Unaccounted Water
UGI Urban Green Infrastructure
UGSs Urban Green Spaces
UHI Urban Heat Islands
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UN-FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UN-SDGs United Nation Sustainable Development Goals
UNU-IAS United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study
of Sustainability
VAM Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza
VGF Viability Gap Funding
WDCD World Day to Combat Desertification
 xxxii Abbreviations

WLS Wildlife Sanctuary

WRI World Resources Institute
WWAP World Water Development Report
WWF World Wildlife Fund

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