CHAPTER 8: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

I. NATURE OF THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

A. Introduction - Elements of the Cognitive Perspective

● The cognitive perspective is both the oldest and one of the youngest members of the
psychological community -- old because discussions of the nature of knowledge, the value of
reason, and the contents of the mind date back at least to the ancient Greek philosophers
● The focus is the scientific study of memory and cognition—broadly defined as “the mental
events and knowledge we use when we recognize an object, remember a name, have an idea,
understand a sentence, or solve a problem”
○ Emphasis is on everyday thinking, even though the study of abnormal thinking can help
us understand cognition better at times
● The cognitive view of learning can be described as a generally agreed-upon philosophical
orientation
● Cognitive psychologists assume that mental processes exist, that they can be studied
scientifically, and that humans are active information processors
● In the past few years, the study of memory and cognition has become interdisciplinary and often
is called cognitive science—the study of thinking, language, and, increasingly, the brain
○ It views cognition as the operation of a very complex but coordinated system of multiple
memory components interacting rapidly and simultaneously

B. Cognitive vs. Behavioral Views

● The cognitive and behavioral views differ in their assumptions about what is learned
● Cognitive view - knowledge and strategies are learned, then changes in knowledge and
strategies make changes in behavior possible
● Behavioral view - the new behaviors themselves are learned
● Both behavioral and cognitive theorists believe reinforcement is important in learning, but for
different reasons
○ The strict behaviorist maintains that reinforcement strengthens responses; cognitive
theorists perceive reinforcement as a source of information about what is likely to
happen if behaviors are repeated or changed
1. Views of Learning
● In the cognitive view, learning is extending and transforming the understanding we already
have, not simply writing associations on the blank slates of our brains
● Instead of being passively influenced by environmental events, people actively choose, practice,
pay attention, ignore, reflect, and make many other decisions as they pursue goals
● Older cognitive views emphasized the acquisition of knowledge, but newer approaches stress
its construction
2. Goals
● The goal of behavioral researchers is to identify a few general laws of learning that apply to all
higher organisms—including humans, regardless of age, intelligence, or other individual
differences
● Cognitive psychologists study a wide range of learning situations
● Because of their focus on individual and developmental differences in cognition, they have not
been as concerned with general laws of learning
○ This is one of the reasons that no single cognitive model or theory of learning represents
the entire field
C. Brain and Cognitive Learning
● The brain continues to change throughout life, and learning affects those changes
● One study found that part of the brain hippocampus is larger in taxi drivers than in other car
drivers, and this increased size is related to the length of time the person has been driving a taxi
○ The explanation is that part of the brain grew larger because it was used more in
navigating around the city (Maguire et al., 2000)
● In another study, when people learned to read musical notations, they developed an automatic
response to just looking at a sheet of music—they read it without being told to, and their motor
cortex prepared to play the notes (Stewart, Henson, Kampe, Walsh, Turner, & Frith, 2003)
● Observing and visualizing also support learning because the brain automatically responds
○ For example, when observing someone perform an action, the area of the observer’s
brain that would be involved in the action is activated just by watching—the brain
rehearses the action it sees another person perform
○ These areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action and when
performing the action have been called mirror neurons in monkeys (where they were
first discovered) and mirror systems in humans because the activated areas in humans
contain millions of neurons (Ehrenfeld, 2011; Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Gallese, & Fogassi,
1996)
● When you actually look at an object, a certain area of the brain is activated
○ Just mentally visualizing the object activates at least two thirds of the same area of the
brain (Ganis, Thompson, & Kosslyn, 2004)\
● Clearly, the brain is involved whenever learning takes place
○ “We start with the idea that the brain has evolved to educate and be educated, often
instinctively and effortlessly”
○ The brain shapes and is shaped by cognitive processing activities
○ Even at the neural level, new synapses are formed a few minutes after a child is
unsuccessful at processing information
○ So unsuccessful processing triggers development too (Siegler, 2004)
● Because of the continuing development of the brain, particularly as the prefrontal cortex
matures, children become more able to integrate past and present experiences
○ An infant or a toddler reacts impulsively, but the 8-year-old can remember and reflect
○ Analysis, control, abstraction, memory space, speed of processing, and interconnection
of information make self-regulation and continuing cognitive development possible
○ Many of these developmental and brain changes involve knowledge—a key element in
the cognitive perspective

D. Importance of Knowledge in Cognition

● Knowledge and knowing are the outcomes of learning
○ Knowing is more than the end product of previous learning; it also guides new learning
○ The cognitive approach suggests that one of the most important elements in the learning
process is what the individual brings to new learning situations
○ What we already know is the foundation and frame for constructing all future learning
○ Knowledge determines to a great extent what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn,
remember, and forget (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Sawyer, 2006)
1. General and Specific Knowledge
● Knowledge in the cognitive perspective includes both subject-specific understandings (math,
history, soccer, etc.) and general cognitive abilities, such as planning, solving problems, and
comprehending language (Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996)
 ● Some is domain-specific knowledge that pertains to a particular task or subject
○ For example, knowing that the shortstop plays between second and third base is specific
to the domain of baseball
● Some knowledge, on the other hand, is general—it applies to many different situations
○ For example, general knowledge about how to read or use a computer or focus
attention is useful both in and out of school
● There is no absolute line between general and domain-specific knowledge
○ When you were first learning to read, you may have studied specific facts about the
sounds of letters. At that time, knowledge about letter sounds was specific to the domain
of reading. But now you can use both knowledge about letter sounds and the ability to
read in more general ways (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2012). And
learning in school generally requires both domain-specific and domain-general
knowledge and skills.
● To have knowledge of something is to remember it over time and to be able to find it when you
need it
○ Cognitive psychologists have studied memory extensively and have learned more about
knowledge in the process

E. Information Processing System

● Early information processing views of memory used the computer as a model
○ Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to
change its form and content, stores the information, retrieves it when needed, and
generates responses to it
○ But for most cognitive psychologists, the computer model is only a metaphor for human
mental activity

Information is encoded in sensory memory, where attention determines what will be held in short-term memory
for further use. In short-term memory, new information connects with knowledge from long-term memory.
Thoroughly processed and connected information becomes part of long-term memory and can be activated to
return to short-term memory

● According to this model, stimuli from the environment (input) flow into the sensory registers, one
for each sensing modality (seeing, hearing, tasting, etc.)
○ From there, some information is encoded and moves to short-term memory
 ○ Short-term memory holds information very briefly, combines it with information from
long-term memory, and with enough effort, moves some information into long-term
memory storage
○ Short-term memory is also responsible for generating responses or output
● This model proved helpful, but also incomplete
○ For example, in the model, information moved through the system mostly in one way,
from sensory registers to long-term memory, but research indicated many more
interactions and connections among the processes
○ The model could not explain how out-of-awareness memories or knowledge could
influence learning or how several cognitive processes could happen
simultaneously—like many small computers operating in parallel
● A more recent cognitive science information processing model retains some of the features of
the old approach, but emphasizes the role of working memory, attention, and the interactions
among the elements of the system, as shown in Figure 8.2, which is based on several sources
(Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2010; Bruning et al., 2011; Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012)

Information is encoded in sensory memory, where perception and attention determine what will be held in
working memory for further use. In working memory, executive processes manage the flow of information and
integrate new information with knowledge from long-term memory. Thoroughly processed and connected
information becomes part of long-term memory, and when activated again, becomes part of working memory.
Implicit memories are formed without conscious effort. All three elements of the system interact with each other
to guide perception; represent, organize, and interpret information; apply and modify propositions, concepts,
images, schemas, and strategies; construct knowledge; and solve problems. Attention has a role in all three
memory processes and in the interactions among them.

II. Memory
a. Sensory Memory (pp. 320-323)
- Sensory memory is the initial or first step in the processing of incoming stimuli from
the environment (sounds, sights, scents, etc.) into information that individuals can
understand. Sensory memory is also known by the terms sensory buffer, iconic
memory (for pictures), and echoic memory (for sounds).
i. Capacity, Duration and Contents
● The capacity of sensory memory is tremendous, and it can store far more
information than humans can manage at any given time. However, this vast
amount of sensory information is fast. It only lasts around 3 seconds.
ii. Perception
● Perception as we can recall from General Psychology is the process of
perceiving a stimulus and assigning meaning to it. This meaning is created
by combining physical world representations with our prior knowledge. For
example, consider the following symbols: 13. You would reply "B" if asked what
letter it is. You'd reply "13" if someone asked you what number it is. The symbols
themselves stay the same; their meaning changes depending on your
expectation to recognize a letter or a number, as well as your understanding of
how Arabic numbers and the Latin alphabet appear.
a. Bottom Up
i. The process from sensory input to recognized objects probably
goes through several stages. The initial phase involves extracting
or analyzing characteristics to create a rough sketch. The stimulus
must be examined into features or components and organized into
a meaningful pattern "from the bottom up," this feature analysis
is known as data-driven or bottom-up processing.
b. Gestalt Theorists
i. As perception continues, the features are organized into patterns.
Gestalt theorists, a kind of psychologist that investigated these
processes in Germany early in the twentieth century (and later in
the United States). Gestalt refers to people's ability to arrange
sensory information into patterns or connections. It comes from
the German word "pattern" or "configuration."

c. Top-Down Processing
i. Learning would be pretty slow if all perception was based only on
feature analysis and Gestalt concepts. At the last stage of
perception, the features and patterns detected are combined in
light of the context of the situation and our existing knowledge or
called Top-Down Processing or Conceptually Driven Processing.
So to recognize patterns rapidly, in addition to noting features, we
use context and what we already know about the situation or our
knowledge about words or pictures or the way the world generally
operates. In Figure 8.2, the role of knowledge in perception is
represented by the arrows between long-term memory (stored
knowledge), working memory, and sensory memory.
iii. Role of Attention
● Life would be impossible if every variation in color, movement, sound, smell,
temperature, and other characteristics ended up in working memory.
Fortunately, attention is selective. We restrict the possibilities of what we will
perceive and comprehend by paying attention to certain stimuli while
ignoring others. Because what we pay attention to is influenced to some extent
by what we already know and what we need to know. All three memory
processes indicated in Figure 8.2 are involved in and influenced by attention.

● Attention is also affected by:

a. what else is happening at the time,
b. by the type and complexity of the task,
c. by the resources you bring to the situation, and
d. by your ability to control or focus your attention.

Some students with attention-deficit disorder have great difficulty focusing

attention or ignoring competing stimuli.

But attention takes effort and is a limited resource. I imagine you have to
work a bit to pay attention to these words about attention! We can pay attention
to only one cognitively demanding task at a time (Sternberg & Sternberg,
2012). For example, when I was learning to drive, I couldn’t listen to the radio
and drive at the same time. After some practice, I could listen, but I had to turn
the radio off when traffic was heavy. After years of practice, I can plan a class,
listen to the radio, and carry on a conversation as I drive. This is possible
because many processes that initially require attention and concentration
become automatic with practice. Actually, automaticity is probably a matter of
degree; depending on how much practice we've had, the scenario, and whether
we're consciously concentrating our attention and guiding our own cognitive
processes, we're more or less automatic in our performances. For example,
even experienced drivers might become very attentive and focused during a
blinding blizzard—and no one should text or talk on a cell phone while driving.
But the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety found that over half of the adult drivers
in the United States admit to using a phone while driving, even though research
has shown that driving while chatting is equivalent to driving while drinking.

iv. Attention and Multitasking

● Multitasking
a. Multitasking
i. Drivers who text or chat say they are multitasking, and often they
think all is fine.
ii. Adolescents are multitasking more than ever, perhaps because
they have access to so much technology. In one survey of 8- to
18-year-olds, about one third reported multitasking with
multimedia while they do their homework and also using media
about 6 to 7 hours each day on average (Azzam, 2006).
● Multitaskers often see no problems, but is multitasking a good idea?
 a. Research by David Meyer and his colleagues at the Brain, Cognition, and
Actions Laboratory at the University of Michigan says it depends (cited in
Hamilton, 2009).

● Two types of multitasking

a. Sequential multitasking
i. In which you switch back and forth from one task to another, but
focus on only one at a time.
b. Simultaneous multitasking
i. In which there is overlapping focus on several tasks at time.

● Also, the content of the tasks makes a difference. Some tasks, such as
walking and chewing gum, call on different cognitive and physical resources; and
both walking and chewing are pretty automatic. But other complex tasks, such as
driving and talking on the phone, require some of the same cognitive
resources—paying attention to traffic and paying attention to what the caller is
saying. The problem with multitasking comes with simultaneous, complex tasks.

● For tasks that are at all complicated, no matter how good you have become at
multitasking, your performance of the task will suffer (Hamilton, 2009). As
soon as you turn your attention to something else, the brain starts to lose
connections to what you were thinking about, like the answer to question 4 in
your math assignment. To find that brain pathway again (to spread activation
toward the needed information) means repeating what you did to find the path in
the first place, so finding the answer to question 4 takes more time. In fact, it can
take up to 400% longer to do a homework assignment if you are
multitasking (Paulos, 2007).

● Terry Judd (2013) summarizes the effects of multitasking for most people:
“While there is some evidence that multitasking efficiency—that is, the mechanics
of multitasking—can be improved through practice (Dux et al., 2009) any
advantage this confers would appear to be more than offset by a reduction in the
encoding of information acquired during multitasking into both shorter and
longer-term memory” (p. 366). In complicated situations, the brain prioritizes and
focuses on one thing. You may be able to listen to quiet instrumental music in the
background while you study, but favorite songs with words will steal your
attention away and it will take time to get back to what you were doing.

v. Attention and Teaching

● The first step in learning is paying attention.
a. Resource-limited
i. Students cannot process information that they do not recognize or
perceive (Lachter, Forster, & Ruthruff, 2004). But how successfully
information is processed depends on several things, not just
attention. Some tasks are resource limited. Performance on those
tasks will improve if we allocate more resources, for example, turn
off the iPod and give the complicated lecture your full attention.
b. Data-limited
 i. Other tasks are data limited, which means that successful
processing depends on the amount and quality of the data
available. If the quality of the information available is inadequate,
then no matter how hard we focus our attention, we will not be
successful.
c. Automated
i. It happens without much attention because we have practiced it so
thoroughly, for example, the way an expert musician moves her
fingers on the strings of a guitar (Bruning et al., 2011).

● Many factors in the classroom influence student attention. These factors can
all be used to gain attention.
a. Bright colors,
b. Underlining, highlighting of written or spoken words
c. Calling students by name
d. Surprise events
e. Intriguing questions
f. Variety in tasks and teaching methods
g. Changes in voice level, lighting, or pacing

● Although students also need to maintain attention

a. They have to stay focused on the important features of the learning
situation.
vi. Guidelines: Gaining and Maintaining Attention

b. Working Memory
● the “workbench” of the memory system
● the interface where new information is held temporarily and combined with
knowledge from long-term memory to solve problems or comprehend a lecture,
for example.
● This information held briefly in working memory points your thinking toward the
knowledge you need to retrieve from long-term memory to understand and solve
 problems, so working memory “contains” what you are thinking about at the
moment (Demetriou, Spanoudis, & Mouyi, 2011).
● Unlike sensory memory or long-term memory, working memory capacity is
very limited—something many of your professors seem to forget as they race
through a lecture while you work to hold on to and make sense of their words and
PowerPoints.
The Difference between short term memory and working memory
● Short-term memory is not exactly the same as working memory.
● Working memory includes both temporary storage and active processing—the
workbench of memory—where active mental effort is applied to both new
information and old information from your store of knowledge—your long-term
memory.
● But short-term memory usually means just storage, the immediate memory for
new information that can be held for about 15 to 20 seconds (Baddeley, 2001).
● Early experiments suggested that the capacity of short-term memory was only
about 5 to 9 (the “magic 7,” + or -2) separate new bits of information at once (G.
A. Miller, 1956).
● Alan Baddeley and his colleagues are responsible for the model of working
memory that is central to our current understanding of human cognition
(Baddeley, 2007; Eysenck, 2012; Jarrold, Tam, Baddeley, & Harvey, 2011).

In this model, working memory is composed of at least four elements:

a. the central executive that controls attention and other mental resources
(the “worker” of working memory)
b. the phonological loop that holds verbal and acoustical (sound)
information
c. the visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial information
d. the episodic buffer where information from the phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory is integrated together to
create representations based on verbal, spatial, and visual information.
● Actually, the interaction among the components of working memory takes place
in the long term memory system where the visuospatial sketchpad activates
visual meaning (semantics) in long-term memory, the phonological loop activates
verbal meaning (language), and long-term memory for events and episodes
integrates all this visual and verbal information to make sense of it all.

ii. Central Executive

● The central executive supervises attention, makes plans, and decides what
information to retrieve and how to allocate resources.
iii. Phonological Loop
● Is a speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing
(refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory. It briefly holds verbal
information and keeps it active by keeping it “in the loop”—rehearsing and paying
attention to the information.
iv. Visuospatial Sketchpad
● The visuospatial sketchpad is the place in your mind where you manipulated the
image.
v. Episodic Buffer
 ● If working memory is the workbench of memory, the episodic buffer is the
workbench of working memory.
● The episodic buffer is the process that brings together and integrates information
from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under
the supervision of the central executive, to create complex memories, such as
storing the appearance, voice, words, and actions of an actor in a film to create a
complete character
vi. Duration and Contents of Working Memory
● It is clear that the duration of information in the working memory system is short,
about 5 to 20 seconds, unless you keep rehearsing the information or process it
in some other way. It may seem to you that a memory system with a 20-second
time limit is not very useful, but, without this system, you would have already
forgotten what you read in the first part of this sentence before you came to these
last few words. This would clearly make understanding sentences difficult.
● The contents of information in working memory may be in the form of sounds and
images that resemble the representations in sensory memory, or the information
may be structured more abstractly, based on meaning.
vii. Cognitive Load and Retaining Information
● 3 Kinds of Cognitive Load
The cognitive load of a task is not an absolute “weight.” The extent of cognitive load in a given situation
depends on many things, including what the person already knows about the task and what supports are
available (Kalyuga, Rikers, & Paas, 2012).
a. Intrinsic
i. “is unavoidable”
ii. It is the amount of cognitive processing required to figure out the
material.
iii. That amount depends on how many elements you have to take
into account, how complicated the interactions among the
elements are, and your level of expertise in the problem area
(Antonenko, Paas, Grabner, & van Gog, 2010).
b. Extraneous
i. “Avoidable or Manageable”
ii. The cognitive capacity you use to deal with problems not related
to the learning task,
iii. Like trying to get your roommate (spouse, children, partner) to quit
interrupting you or struggling with a disorganized lecture or a
poorly written textbook (not this one of course!). Instruction can
help manage extraneous load by providing supports, focusing
attention on the main ideas, and generally supplying scaffolding
c. Germane
i. “Desirable”
ii. The good cognitive load is called germane because it is directly
related to (germane to) high-quality learning.
iii. Comes from deep processing of relevant information—organizing
and integrating the material with what you already know and
forming new understandings.
 iv. Instruction can support this process by asking students to explain
the material to each other or to themselves, draw or chart their
understandings, take useful notes, and use other strategies

● Retaining Information in Working Memory

a. Information in working memory must be kept activated in order for it to be
retained. Activation is high as long as you are focusing on information, but
activation decays or fades quickly when attention shifts away.
b. Holding information in working memory is like a circus performer keeping
a series of plates spinning on top of several poles. The performer gets
one plate spinning, moves to the next plate, and the next, but has to
return to the first plate before it slows down too much and falls off its pole.
If we don’t keep the information “spinning” in working memory—keep it
activated—it will “fall off”.
● Two types of Rehearsals for retaining Information in Working memory
a. Maintenance rehearsal
i. Involves repeating the information in your phonological loop or
refreshing information in your visuospatial sketchpad.
b. Elaborative rehearsal
i. Involves connecting the information you are trying to remember
with something you already know—with knowledge from long-term
memory.
● Levels of Processing Theory
a. Craik and Lockhart (1972) first proposed their levels of processing
theory (sometimes called depth of processing theory) as an alternative to
short-/ long-term memory models, but levels of processing theory is
particularly related to the notion of elaborative rehearsal.
b. According to the levels of processing theory, if I ask you to sort pictures of
dogs based on the color of their coats, you might not remember many of
the pictures later. But if I ask you to rate each dog on how likely it is to
 chase you as you jog, you probably would remember more of the
pictures. To rate the dogs, you must pay attention to details in the
pictures, relate features of the dogs to characteristics associated with
danger, and so on.
c. This rating procedure requires elaborative rehearsal (associating the
information with what you already know), so processing is deeper and
more focused on the meaning, not the surface features, of the photos.
d. The limited capacity of working memory can also be somewhat
circumvented by the process of chunking.
i. Because the number of bits of information, not the size of each bit,
is a limitation for working memory, you can retain more information
if you can group individual bits of information.
ii. This is why when we memorize information such as phone
number we tend to group the numbers together:
1. Instead of memorizing it straightly 09186789980
2. We tend to memorize it as 0918 678 99 80
iii. You just used chunking to group the string of numbers into
memorable chunks, so you could hold more in memory. Also, you
brought your knowledge of the world to bear on the memory task.
iv. Chunking helps you remember a password or social security
number.
● Forgetting
Information may be lost from working memory through interference or decay
a. Interference
i. Interference is fairly straightforward: Processing new information
interferes or gets confused with old information. As new thoughts
accumulate, old information is lost from working memory.
b. Decay
i. If you don’t continue to pay attention to information, the activation
level decays (weakens) and finally drops so low that the
information cannot be reactivated—it disappears altogether.
Some cognitive psychologists argue that interference is the main factor in
forgetting in working memory—your mind starts processing other information and
the previous information is “written over”

Actually, forgetting is very useful. Without forgetting, people would quickly

overload their working memories and learning would cease. Also, it would be a
problem if you remembered permanently every sentence you ever read, every
sound you ever heard, every picture you ever saw. Finding a particular bit of
information in all that sea of knowledge would be impossible. It is helpful to have
a system that provides temporary storage and that “weeds out” some information
from everything you experience
viii. Individual Differences in Working Memory
● Developmental differences
a. Three basic aspects of memory improve over time: memory span or the
amount of information that can be held in short-term/working memory,
memory processing efficiency, and speed of processing. As they get
older, children can process many different kinds of information (verbal,
 visual, mathematical, etc.) faster, so increased speed of processing
seems to be a general factor. In addition, the increase in speed with age
is the same for American and Korean children, so increasing processing
speed with age may be universal
b. These three basic capacities act together and influence each other; more
efficient processing allows greater amounts to be held in memory, for
example (Demetriou, Christou, Spanoudis, & Platsidou, 2002). You
experienced this effect of efficient processing when you remembered
HBOUSACIALOLATM by chunking the letters into HBO USA CIA LOL
ATM. Your more efficient and faster processing expands your memory
span. Young children have fewer strategies and less knowledge, so they
have more trouble with memorizing a longer series. But as they grow
older, children develop more effective strategies for remembering
information. Most children spontaneously discover rehearsal around age
5 or 6 and continue to use it. Also around age 6, most children discover
the value of using organizational strategies, and by 9 or 10, they use
these strategies spontaneously. So, given the following words to learn
● Individual differences
a. Besides developmental differences, there are other individual variations in
working memory, and these differences have implications for learning
b. For elementary school students, growth in working memory (but not
simple short-term memory) is related to reading abilities and reading
comprehension; problems with working memory are associated with
reading disabilities.
c. Working memory is related to academic achievement, math computation,
and solving complex word problems in math in elementary school. For
young children, growth in working memory and attention control during
the preschool years predicts emergent literacy and number skills.
d. Working memory span is also related to scores on intelligence tests. If a
task requires controlled attention or higher-level thinking, then working
memory probably is a factor in performing that task. Some people seem
to have more efficient working memories than others and differences in
working memory may be associated with giftedness in math and verbal
areas.

c. Long-Term Memory
● Storage of information over an extended period.
● This type of memory tends to be stable and can last a long time.

(Contents of Long-Term Memory)

1. Declarative
● Knowledge that can be declared through words, and symbol
systems of all kinds (Braille, sign language, dance or musical
notation, mathematical symbols, and so on)
● “Knowing that” something is the case
● It includes knowing specific facts or generalities, or personal
preferences, or rules
2. Procedural
 ● “Knowing how” to do something;
● It is knowledge in action
○ is about learning as you go through the process itself.
○ It can not be simply stated then expected to be absorbed
right then and that
● Procedural knowledge must be demonstrated
3. Self-Regulatory / Conditional
● Knowing how to manage your learning
○ How to use your declarative and procedural knowledge
● A crucial aspect here is knowing how and where to apply various
strategies at various scenarios
● It could be specific to a subject area or more general

(Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic)

Explicit memory
● Knowledge from long-term memory that can be recalled and consciously
considered.
● We are aware of these memories and we know and remember them.
1. Semantic memory
● Memory for meaning, including words, facts, theories, and concepts.
● These memories are not tied to particular experiences and are
represented and stored as propositions, images, concepts, and schemas

A) Propositions and propositional networks

● Proposition is the smallest unit of knowledge that can be judged
true or false
● Propositions that share information are linked in what are called
propositional networks wherein it is the meaning not the exact
worlds nor the order of words that is stored in network
● It is this meaning that is stored in memory that sets relationships
among propositions
● It is possible that most information is stored and represented in
propositional networks. Also because propositions are networked
or linked together, recalling one bit of information could trigger or
activate another.
B) Images
● Representations based on the structure or appearance of the
information
○ As we form images, we try to remember or recreate
physical attributes and the setting of such information
● Images are useful in making many practical decisions as when
see images “in your mind’s eye”, it helps you to visualize things
and whether which choice would be best in a particular scenario
● It may also be helpful in abstract reasoning as proven and claimed
by scientists
 Two are better than one: Words and Images
● Dual coding theory suggests that information is stored in
long-term memory as either visual or verbal units or both
● Psychologists who agree with this point of view believe that
information coded both visually and verbally is the easiest to learn
C) Concepts
● A concept is a mental representation used to group similar
events, ideas, objects, or people into a single category
○ Concepts are only abstractions which do not exist in the
real world. They only help us organize various amounts of
information into manageable units
● Early research assumed that people create concepts based on
rules about their defining attributes or distinctive features. This
defining attributes theory of concepts suggests that we recognize
specific examples by noting key required features
● A prototype is the best representative of its category - an
example that has the most important “core” features of the
category
● Theory-based ideas are ideas we create about the world to make
sense of things.
○ Some of the knowledge used to create concepts based on
theories may be implicit and out-of-awareness, for
example, what makes for “good music”—I just know it
when I hear it
● Exemplars are our actual memories of objects or events that we
use to compare with an item in question to see if that item belongs
in the same category as our exemplar.
○ Prototypes are probably built from experiences from
exemplars
D) Schemas
● Abstract knowledge structures that organize vast amounts of
information.
● It is a mental framework that guides our perception and helps us
make sense of our experience based on what we already know
and what we expect to happen
● It tells us what features are typical of a category, what to expect
about an object or situation
● It helps us to form and understand concepts
● Story Grammar
○ helps students to understand and remember stories.
○ To comprehend a story, we select a schema that seems
appropriate. Then we use this framework to decide which
details are important, what information to seek, and what to
remember. It is like the schema is a theory about what
should occur next in the story
2. Episodic Memory
● Memory for information tied to a particular place and time, especially
information about the events or episodes of your own life
 ● It is about the events we have already experienced
● It also keeps track of the order of things, so it is a good place to store
jokes, gossip or plots from film
● Flashbulb memories - memories for dramatic or emotional moments in
your life. These moments are vivid and complete. So when we have
strong emotional reactions, memories are stronger and longer
Implicit Memories
4. Out-of-awareness memories
5. Classical Conditioning - is learning through association. In classical
conditioning two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response.

1. Procedural Memory
● Memory for procedural knowledge
● Memory for skills, habits, and how to perform tasks
● It may take a while to learn a procedure but once learned, this
knowledge tends to be remembered for a long time
a. Scripts
● Action sequences or plans for actions stored in memory
● For very young children, scripts seem to help them organize and
remember the predictable aspects of their world
● In terms of human survival, it is probably useful to remember what
is likely to keep happening and to notice when something is out of
place
b. Productions
● Specify what to do under certain circumstances. If A occurs, then
do B.
● The more practiced the procedure, the more authentic the action
and the more implicit memory
2. Priming Effects
● Activating information that already is in long term memory through
some out-of-awareness process
● It may be the fundamental process for retrievals as associations
are activated and spread through the memory system
● Occurs when an individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus
influences his or her response to a subsequent stimulus, without
any awareness of the connection.

(Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory)

(A) Spreading Activation
● The size of the network in long-term memory is huge, but only small parts
from it are activated at any one time. Information is retrieved in this
network through spreading activation.
● When a particular proposition or image is active— when we are thinking
about it—other closely associated knowledge can be primed or triggered
as well, and activation can spread through the network (J. R. Anderson,
2010).
● Retrieval from long-term memory occurs partly through the spreading of
activation from one bit of knowledge to related ideas in the network.
 (B) Reconstruction
● It is a cognitive tool or problem-solving process that makes use of logic,
cues, and other knowledge to construct a reasonable answer by filling in
any missing parts (Koriat, Goldsmith, & Pansky, 2000).
● Sometimes reconstructed recollections are incorrect.

(C) Forgetting and Long-Term Memory

● Information appears to be lost from long-term memory through time

decay and interference.
● Forgetting is due to neural connections, like muscles, growing weak
without use. After 25 years, it may be that the memories are still
somewhere in the brain, but they are too weak to be reactivated. Also, the
physiological deterioration that comes with age could account for the later
declines because some neurons simply die (J. R. Anderson, 2010).
● Aside from this, Newer memories may interfere with or obscure older
memories, and older memories may interfere with memory for new
material.
● However, Even with decay and interference, long-term memory is
remarkable. Information in working memory can be lost and forgotten, but
information stored in long-term memory may be available for a long time,
given the right cues (Erdelyi, 2010).

(D) Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory

● The major individual difference that affects long-term memory is knowledge.

● Another factor could be interest. To develop expert understanding and recall in a
domain requires the “continuous interplay of skill (i.e., knowledge) and thrill (i.e.,
interest)” (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Schulze, 1994, p. 334).
● When people have more domain-specific declarative and procedural knowledge,
they are better at learning and remembering material in that domain (Al- exander,
1997).

III. Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications

A. Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections

1. Elaboration - adding meaning to new information by connecting with already existing
knowledge.
● form of rehearsal that leads to deeper levels of processing because the
information is thoroughly analyzed and connected with existing information
● builds extra links to existing knowledge.
• translate information into their own words
• create examples
• explain to a peer
2. Organization - Material that is well-organized is easier to learn and to remember than
bits and pieces of information, especially if the material is complex or extensive.
● Chunking - putting small bits of information into larger, more meaningful chunks.
(1) For example: Memorizing phone numbers, you break them into smaller
bits and remember the first 4 digits, the middle 3, and the last 4
 ● Structure - help you learn and remember both general definitions and specific
examples. This serves as a guide back to the information when you need it.
(1) Hierarchy or outline method
3. Imagery - information coded both visually and verbally is easiest to learn
● Limitations of multiple representations in teaching
(1) Research has shown that just using multiple representations (such as
words, pictures, diagrams, charts, animations, etc.) does not necessarily
lead to better learning.
(2) Students, especially younger ones, need support such as color coding
to draw attention to relevant relations in pictures and diagrams, or
frequent checks for understanding with corrections if they are forming
misconceptions (Berthold & Renkl, 2009).
● Recommendations:
(1) Give students multiple ways to understand—use both pictures and
explanations. But don’t overload working memory—“package” the visual
and verbal information together in bite-size (or memory-size) pieces
(2) Teach students directly how to learn from illustrations or how to draw
their own.
4. Context - Aspects of physical and emotional context—places, rooms, moods, the people
with us—are learned along with other information.
● Later, it will be easier for you to remember something if the current context is
similar to the original one
● Studies show that studying for a test under “test-like” conditions may result in
improved performance.
● Make Lessons Meaningful
● Meaningful lessons
○ Written in a vocabulary that makes sense
○ Tied with more familiar words and ideas
○ Well-organized
○ Has clearly connected elements
○ Uses examples and analogies
● Mnemonics - systematic procedures for improving memory. Mnemonics build meaning
by connecting what is to be learned with established words or images
(1) loci method - from the Latin word locus, meaning “place.”; it is also called
“Memory Palace” because it uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments
in order to enhance the recall of information
(2) Acronyms - an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words
(3) Chain mnemonics - instead of simply listing down all the words you need to
remember, you connect the first item to be memorized with the second, the then
with the third, and so on
■ Forming a phrase or sentence
■ Visual association or story
■ Auditory-based techniques
(i) Rhyme - e.g. “I before E, except after C, or when sounding like A,
like in neighbor and weigh.”
(ii) Music - Singing to a familiar song or tune
(4) Keyword method - mnemonic system that has been most extensively
researched in teaching and used in foreign language learning
 ■ 3Rs
(i) Recode the to-be-learned vocabulary item as a more familiar,
concrete keyword
(ii) Relate the keyword clue to the vocabulary item’s definition
through a sentence
(iii) Retrieve the desired definition.
■ Example
(i) The keyword method has been used extensively in foreign
language learning. For example, the Spanish word carta (meaning
“letter”) sounds like the English word cart. Cart becomes the
keyword: You imagine a shopping cart filled with letters on its way
to the post office, or you make up a sentence such as “The cart
full of letters tipped over”.
● Rote memorization - Memorization based on repetition

Challenge Solution

Serial-position effect Part learning

● We tend to remember ● Breaking the list into smaller
items at the beginning segments
and at the end of the list, ● Breaking a list into several shorter
but forget those in the lists means there will be fewer
middle. middle items to forget.

Massed practice Distributed practice

● Studying all at once for an ● Breaking down study sessions into
extended period smaller chunks and distributing it
● Leads to cognitive over a longer period
overload, fatigue, and ● Gives time for deeper processing
lagging motivation. and strengthens the connections in
the neural network of the brain.
What is forgotten after one session
can be relearned in the next.

● Research has consistently shown that even though distributed practice

leads to better learning and remembering, students including adults
prefer massed practice. How can we encourage distributed practice in
class?
○ Review important information every several weeks—keep
updating these reviews with recent information.
○ Re-expose students to important information in homework
assignments.
○ Give exams and quizzes that are cumulative, so students will be
motivated to review and space out their study sessions on their
own.
● The greatest challenge teachers face is to help students think and
understand, not just memorize.
● Unfortunately, many students view rote memorization and learning as the
same thing. Howard Gardner (1994) argued that “In the absence of …
 flexibility and adaptability, the education that students receive is worth
little.” He instead promotes “teaching for understanding”.
B. Development of Procedural Knowledge
● One characteristic that distinguishes experts from novices in every arena, from reading
to medical diagnosis, is that the experts’ declarative knowledge has become
“proceduralized,” that is, incorporated into routines they can apply automatically
without making many demands on working memory (explicit -> implicit memory)

1. Automated Basic Skills - Skills that are applied without conscious thought
● Cognitive Stage - when we are first learning, we rely on declarative knowledge
and general problem-solving strategies to accomplish our goal
(1) “Think about” every step
(2) Heavy cognitive load on working memory
(3) Trial-and-error phase
● Associative Stage
(1) Individual steps of a procedure are combined or “chunked” into larger
units.
(2) One step smoothly cues the next.
● Autonomous Stage - the whole procedure can be accomplished without much
attention.
(1) Holds for the development of basic cognitive skills in any area, but
science, medicine, chess, and mathematics have been most heavily
researched.
(2) Requires many hours of successful practice to make skills automatic
2 Critical Factors:
a) Prerequisite knowledge - If students don’t have the essential prior knowledge
(concepts, schemas, skills, etc.), the cognitive load on working memory will be
too great.
b) Practice with feedback - allows you to form associations, recognize cues
automatically, and combine small steps into larger condition-action rules, or
productions
i) practice should include a simplified version of the whole process in a real
context. Practice in real contexts helps students learn not only how to do
a skill but also why and when.
2. Domain-Specific Strategies - Consciously applied skills that organize thoughts and
actions to reach a goal.
● Not all procedures can be automatic, even for experts in a particular domain.
(1) For example, no matter how expert you are in driving, you still have to
consciously watch the traffic around you because conditions are
constantly changing.
● Teachers need to provide opportunities for practice in many different
situations—for example, practice reading with package labels, magazines, books,
letters, operating manuals, web pages and so on.
C. Guidelines: Helping Students Understand and Remember
1. Make sure you have the students’ attention.
2. Help students separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most
important information.
3. Help students make connections between new information and what they already know.
 4. Provide for repetition and review of information.
5. Present material in a clear, organized way.
6. Focus on meaning, not memorization.

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