IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)

e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 19, Issue 3 Ser. IV (May. – June. 2022), PP 08-18
www.iosrjournals.org

Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for

Hhaynu micro-hydropower plant – Mbulu, Tanzania
Daniel H. Ngoma1) Jafari Mwanza1) and Adam Faraji2)
1) Lecturer, Arusha Technical College (ATC), P. O. Box 296, Arusha 23105, Tanzania
2) Assistant Lecturer, Arusha Technical College (ATC), P. O. Box 296, Arusha 23105, Tanzania

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
Micro-hydropower plants are very applicable in rural and off-grid areas where water resources become
available. This is because they can be installed with fraction of the cost as compared to large hydropower plants
or even grid extension. Also, in rural and off-grid areas, the population density is small and very sparsely
distributed which makes it un-economical for the development of large electricity supply projects. In this case
the mini and micro energy projects are the suitable technology to be used to supply power to the consumer load
demand in the rural and off-grid areas. One of the sustainable ways to do is to use the available water resources
like small rivers to develop micro-hydropower plants. The effective use of water from local rivers to develop
micro-hydropower plants have proven to be sustainable way of electricity generation. But despite all these
positive outcomes, studies have shown that many of the available rural areas micro-hydropower potential sites
are facing reduced water volumetric flow due to irrigation activities and also lack high site heads due to the
nature of the landscape. In this case, the development of a micro-hydropower for electricity generation is
limited to specific type of hydro turbine technology called crossflow turbine. This is because this type turbine
technology can accommodate wider range of flow discharge and head values in the micro and mini scale of
hydropower technology range. The crossflow turbines can also be developed locally and adapted to the local
rural environments and also have been proven to be very robust with less operational and maintenance costs.
Thus, why there is a need to customize this technology in the local rural area in terms of turbine design in order
to standardize the local manufacturing and this is the main motivation that this design study have been
addressing.
Keywords:Crossflow, Hhaynu, Micro-hydropower, Hydro turbine, Generator, Electricity, Mbulu, Tanzania
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Date of Submission: 28-05-2022 Date of Acceptance: 10-06-2022
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1. Introduction
The type of turbine to be used in Hhaynu micro-hydropower project has been selected based on the
data obtained from the site area. In this case, two site measured parameters are required for the determination of
turbine type selection and these parameters are the available volumetric flow of the river (Q) and site head (H).
On the other hand, in literature, there are two general types of a water turbines, Reaction turbine and Impulse
turbines on which each type fits on specific site characteristic for it to be selected for a particular application. In
terms of their characteristics reaction turbines requires a substantial amount of water flow discharge while
impulse turbines are much more dependable on medium and high head site locations [1].
From the site feasibility study report, the determined volumetric flow for Hhaynu river is 0.9 m 3/s on
which the results from the hydrological study shows that only 0.45m3/s (50% flow) is the feasible discharge
flow for the micro-hydro turbine system on which it will make provision for environmental flow during the dry
season. In addition to that, the maximum gross head obtained after taking the site measurements is 25m and this
is the distance from the forebay area to the power house location[2]. Using these two values which have been
obtained from the site measurements, then the type of turbine technology to be used for this research project is
obtained by using the following two diagrams in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.

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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Figure 1.1: Turbine selection chart based on head and flow discharge [3]

As shown in Figure 1.1 the cross-reference lines for the site measured values of the net head of 22.71 m
(25 m gross head) and turbine discharge of 0.45 m3/s with the 79.5 kW turbine mechanical power which falls
under crossflow turbine category and therefore this type of turbine technology will be used in this research
project. Alternative turbine selection chart has been used based in Figure 1.2 below which also shows similar
results for the selected crossflow turbine technology. Both charts show that crossflow turbines have a wider
range of head and flow discharge values from low to medium values, thus why they are mostly applicable to
micro-hydropower systems in developing countries like that of Hhaynu micro-hydropower plant in Mbulu,
Tanzania as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Turbine application range chart with the crossflow turbine [4]

2. Material and Methods

2.1 Turbine transmission
The micro-hydro turbine transmission involved the turbine rotational speed in RPM and also transmission speed
ratio between the turbine and generator pulleys.
2.1.1 Turbine speed
Cross flow turbines use pulley and belt as the transmission drive from the turbine to the generator unit which
means that the turbine speed is usually lower than the generator speed. In calculating the generator speed the
following formula is used[5].
(Hg )0.745 (1)
N = 513.25 x
Pm

Where; N = Turbine speed in RPM, Hg = Gross head (m) and Pm = Mechanical/Turbine Power (kW)
So, substituting the values we get;
(25)0.745
N = 513.25 x = 513.25 x 1.234
79.5
N = 633.30 RPM

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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Choose the standard turbine speed to be 635 RPM

2.1.2 Turbine – Generator Speed Ratio

Generator speed 1500 RPM
Speed ratio = = = 2.3622
Turbine speed 635 RPM
Thus, the Turbine – Generator speed ratio is 1:2.3622

Table 1: Summary of main turbine design values

S/N Parameter Value Unit Remarks
1 Turbine speed 635 RPM Standard value
2 Speed ratio 1:2.36 - -
3 Turbine torque 1.5 kNm -
4 Turbine shaft diameter 60 mm Standard value

2.2 Turbine parameters

2.2.1 Turbine shaft diameter
The turbine shaft diameter is calculated using the Power – Torque equation as follows;
P = T.𝜔 (2)

Where; P = Mechanical Power, T = Torque, 𝜔 = Rotational speed in radians per second and N = speed in
revolution per minute (RPM)
Making T the subject gives the following;
P 2xπxN
T = and 𝜔 is given as
𝜔 60
P x 60 79.5 𝑥 10 3 x 60
So, T = = = 1,196.154 NM
2xπxN 2 x π x 635
Then, Tmax = 1.25 x T = 1.25 x 1,196.154 = 1,495.1928 Nm
Also, the torque can be calculated using the following shear stress equation as follows;
πd 3 τ
s (3)
T=
16
Where: τs = shear stress of steel = 42MPa
Re-arranging the equation gives the following;
16 x T 16 x 1,495.1928
d3 = = 6 = 1.814 x 10
−4
π x τs 3.14 x 42 x 10
d = 0.0566m = 56.61mm = ≈60mm
So, the diameter of the turbine shaft is 60mm

Figure 1.3: Turbine shaft diameter

2.2.2 Turbine runner outer diameter

The outer diameter of the turbine runner is calculated using the following equation;
40 x H 40 x 25
Do = = = 0.31496m
N 635
Do = 315mm

Figure 1.4: Turbine runner outer diameter

2.2.3 Turbine runner length and runner blade spacing
The turbine runner length is given using the following equation;
𝑄𝑥𝑁 (4)
L=
50𝑥𝐻

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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

0.45 x 635
L= = 0.2286 m
50 x 25
Turbine length, L = 228.6 mm ≈ 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐦𝐦

Figure 1.5: Turbine runner length

Turbine runner blade spacing:
Blade jet entrance (te) = K. Do
Where; K = constant value = 0.087
te = 0.087 x 315mm = 27.405mm ≈ 28 mm
Take standard blade spacing value of
te = ≈ 𝟑𝟎 𝐦𝐦
2.2.4 Turbine runner tangential spacing and runner blade number
Tangential spacing (tb) = 0.174 x Do
tb = 0.174 x 315mm = 54.81mm ≈55mm
Take the standard tangential spacing value, tb = 55mm [This is also called Radial Rim Width (a)]
Turbine runner blade number:
π x Do 3.14 x 315
Minimum number of runner blade (Z) = = = 17.98 ≈ 18
tb 55
But, the recommended number of runner blade should be at least 30% more than the calculated value in order to
make it effective, so in this case the design number of runner blades,
1
Z = ( x 18) + 18 = 24
3
Thus, the turbine runner blade number is 24
2.2.5 Water jet thickness and nozzle area to the runner
Water flow jet thickness (tj) = 0.29 x Do
tj = 0.29 x 315mm = 91.35mm ≈ 𝟗𝟐 𝐦𝐦
So, the water jet thickness to the turbine entry is 92mm

Figure 1.6: Turbine nozzle area

2.2.6 Nozzle area
Area = L x W
Area = 0.23 x 0.092 = 0.02116 m2
Area = 2.116 x 10−2 m2
Size of penstock pipe diameter to connect the nozzle
The area is given using the following formula,
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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

π x d2 (5)
Area (A) =
4
4xA 4 x 2.116 x 10 −2
Re-arranging the equation gives, d2 = = = 2.6955 x 10−2
π 3.14
D = 0.16418m = 164.18mm
So, the size of the penstock pipe diameter to connect to the turbine nozzle is 164.18mm (take 165 mm) which is
equivalent to 6.5” pipe size.
2.2.7 Inner diameter of the turbine runner and radius of blade curvature
Inner diameter of the runner (Di) = Do – 2 x radial rim width
Di = 315 – 2 x 55 = 205mm
Radius of blade curvature:
Radius of the blade curvature (Rc) = 0.163 x Do
Rc = 0.163 x Do = 0.163 x 315mm = 51.345mm
Rc = ≈ 𝟓𝟐 𝐦𝐦
So, the diameter of the pipe for blades = 2 x Rc = 2 x 52mm = 104mm
Thus, the selected value of the blade curvature should be from class C steel pipe of size 4”.
Do − Di
Alternatively, Do = Di + 2Rc which gives Rc =
2
2.2.8 Water jet velocity and turbine arc length
The water jet velocity is calculated on the impulse turbines (Crossflow and Pelton) using the following equation;

Vj = 2gH (6)

Vj = 2 x 9.81 x 25 = 490.5 = 22.147 m/s

Vj = 22.147m/s
Thus, the water jet velocity, Vj is 22.15m/s
Turbine arc length:
π x Rc x Q 0
The arc length (S1) = rQ =
180
3.14 x 52 x 72 0
S1 = = 65.312 mm
180
S1 = ≈ 66 mm
Pipe cut for turbine blades:
Size diameter 104 mm (4”)
Then, C = π x D = 3.14 x 104 = 326.56 mm
326 .56 326 .56
So; = = 4.95 pieces
S1 66
Note: Cut 4 pieces of 4” diameter steel pipe to make the turbine blades.
2.2.9 Water Pressure and Force to the turbine nozzle
In water power systems, the power inside the turbine is given by;

Pt = pQ (7)

Where: p = pressure (kN/m2), Q = Flowrate (m3/s), Pt = Turbine (kW)

Pt 75.5 kW 2
Then, p = = m3 = 166.67kN/m
Q 0.45 s
F
But pressure (p) = when re-arranging this equation gives the following
A
F=pxA
But, Area = L x W
A = 0.23 x 0.092 = 0.02116 m2
So; Force (F) = p x A = 166.67 x 0.02116 = 3.5267 kN
Therefore, the Force exerted to the turbine runner through the nozzle, F = 3.53 kN
Alternatively, Power (Pt) = Water Force (Fw) x Velocity (Vj)
Pt 75.5 kW
Force (Fw) = = = 3.386 kN
Vj 22.147 m/s
Then the distributed force at the turbine entry = F1 = F/L = 3,530N/m x 0.23
Therefore, the distributed water force on the turbine = 811.9N

2.3 Penstock pipe calculations

The penstock is the steel pipe that conveys water with pressure from the forebay to the turbine unit in the power
house. The water in the forebay is stored in a form of potential energy and when delivered to the turbine through
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a penstock pipeand produce kinetic energy which rotates the hydro turbine. On the other hand, the penstock steel
pipe wall thickness depends on the pipe materials, diameter and operating pressure and is calculated as follows:
2.3.1 Penstock diameter and thickness[6]

Dp = 2.65 x (n2 x Q2 x Lp/Hg)0.204 (8)

Where: Dp = penstock diameter,

n = manning coefficient for the mild steel penstock pipe = 0.012
Q = design flow discharge = 0.45 m3/s
Lp = length of the penstock = 162 m
Hg = Gross head = 25 m
So, in this case;
Dp = 2.65 x ((0.012)2 x (0.45)2 x 162/25)0.204
= 2.65 x (0.000144 x 0.2025 x 6.48) 0.204
= 2.65 x (1.88956 x 10-4)0.204 = 0.460918 m
Dp = 460 mm
Therefore, the size of the penstock pipe selected to supply the design discharge to the turbine is 460mm dimeter
(18”)
From literature, the minimum wall thickness is given by the following equation) [7]

𝐷𝑝 +508 (9)
tp = + 1.2 mm
400

tp = minimum penstock thickness (mm)

Dp = penstock diameter = 460 mm
So,
460mm +508
tp = + 1.2 mm
400
tp = 2.42 mm+ 1.2 mm
tp = 3.62 mm = ~ 4mm
Therefore, the thickness of the steel penstock pipe selected is 4 mm
2.3.2 Water flow velocity in the penstock
The water flow discharge to the turbine passes through the penstock pipe and is given by the following equation:

Q = AV (10)

Where;
Q = water flow discharge, A = penstock pipe area and V = water flow velocity
Making V the subject from the above equation gives;
Q 4xQ
V= = 2
A πd
4 x 0.45 1.8
V= = = 2.7091
π x (0.46)2 0.664424
Water flow velocity V in the penstock is 2.7 m3/s
(Recommended water flow velocity in the penstock pipe range between 1 m/s – 2.8 m/s) [8]
2.3.3 Area of the Penstock pipe
Area of the penstock pipe is given by the following equation;
π x (d)2 π x (0.46)2
A= = = 0.166
4 4
Therefore, the computed area of the penstock is 0.166 m2
2.3.4 Penstock head loss
Head loss in the penstock can be calculated using the following equation:

10 x n 2 x Q 2 (11)
Head loss = x Lp
𝐷𝑝5

Where; n = Manning value, Q = Design flow discharge, Dp = Diameter of the penstock and Lp = Length of the
penstock
10 x (0.012 )2 x (0.45)2
Head loss = x 162 = 0.014158 x 162 m = 2.294m
(0.46)5
Head loss = 2.29m
Therefore, the net head is given;
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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Net head = Gross head – head loss = 25m – 2.29m = 22.71 m

Net head is 22.71 m
2.3.4.1 Percentage of head loss
Head loss 2.29m
% Head loss = = = 0.0916
Gross head 25m
Head loss = 9.16 %
(The recommended economical head loss for most small hydropower schemes should be below 10%) [9].

Table 2: Summary of penstock pipe design values

S/N Parameter Value Unit Remarks
1 Penstock diameter 460 mm 18” Standard value
2 Water velocity in the penstock 2.7 m/s 1m/s – 2.8m/s so, OK
3 Area of the penstock pipe 0.166 m2 -
4 Penstock head loss 2.29 m -
5 Percentage of head loss 9.16 mm < 10% so, OK

2.4 Pulley and belt design

In order to calculate the pulley and belt parameters, the following standard values have been selected based on
the turbine and generator design calculations:
Turbine design parameters:
(a) Turbine speed = 635 RPM
(b) Turbine Power = 79.5 kW
(c) Turbine operation time 24 hours
Generator design parameters:
(a) Generator speed = 1500 RPM
(b) Generator Power = 75.5 kW
(c) Synchronous, 3 phase, 90 KVA with power factor 0.8
(d) Generator pulley diameter = 150mm (OK because > 140)
(e) Generator operation time 24 hours

2.4.1 Turbine pulley design

2.4.1.1 Turbine pulley diameter using speed ratio
In calculating the turbine-generator speed ratio the turbine and generator speed and diameter ratios need to be
considered.
N d2
Speed ratio = 1 =
N2 d1
N1 d2 635 150
Speed ratio = = = =
N2 d1 1500 d1
150 𝑥 1500
d1 = = 354.33mm
635
Therefore, the pulley diameter d1 of the turbine side is 354.33 mm as shown inTable 3.

Table 3: Generator and Turbine pulley dimensions.

Generator Pulley Turbine pulley Closest standard Turbine
diameter (mm) diameter (mm) Turbine pulley speed
diameter (mm) (RPM)

150 354.33 355 635

2.4.1.2 Sizing of the belt length

The belt length is determined using the following relation

π(D+d) (D−d)2 (12)

Belt length (L) = 2C + +
2 4C

Where: C = centre distance and d = diameter of pulley

π(505 +150 ) (355 −150 )2
L = 2 x 505 + +
2 4 x 505
L = 1802.85mm + 20.8045 mm
L = 1823.654 mm

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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

The closest standard v-belt length is SPB wedge belt SPB1825 with 17mm top width and 13mm height.

Figure 1.7: Designed V-belt section

2.4.1.3 Turbine pulley belt speed

The turbine velocity is given with the following equation:

d (13)
Velocity = xω
2

2πN
Where; 𝜔 is the rotational turbine speed given as; 𝜔=
60
So;
0.355 633 .80
Velocity = xπx = 11.77 m/s (OK because < 40)
2 30
Therefore, the belt velocity of the turbine pulley is 11.17 m/s
2.4.1.4 Belt centre distance
Centre distance C is calculated as follow;
C = d + D = 150mm + 355mm = 505mm
But the exactly centre distance can be calculated using the following formula;

C = A + 𝐴2 − 𝐵 (14)

L π (D−d)2
But A = - (d + D) and B =
4 8 8
Taking L = 1825mm and substituting the values to the above A and B equations gives;
1825 π
A= - (150 + 355) = 258.0375mm
4 8
(355 −155 )2
B= = 5,253.125mm 247.
8
Then, C = 258.037 + (258.037)2 − 5253.125 = 505.6869mm
Therefore, the actual centre distance for the belt is 505.69mm
2.4.1.5 Power per belt
Interpolating from the given Table on page 63 [10]
- Rated power per belt = (20.75 + 23.56)/2 = 22.155 kW
- Additional power = (1.50 + 1.75)/2 = 1.625 kW
Therefore, the basic power per belt = 22.155 kW + 1.625 kW = 23.78 kW
2.4.1.6 Correction power per belt
From Table on page 58 the combined correction factor is 0.85[10]
Therefore, correction power per belt = 23.78 kW x 0.85
Correction power per belt = 20.213 kW
2.4.1.7 Number of belts
Number belt for the belt design is given as follow;
Total power 75.5 kW
Number of belts = = = 3.735
Correction power per belt 20.213 kW
Therefore choose 4 belts as standard
2.4.1.8 Net driving force
The net driving force from the turbine pulley is given from the following equation;
Fd = Ff - Fb
The above equation can also be derived from the torque formula as;
Torque = Fd x r (15)

where r = radius of the turbine pulley (177.5mm) and T = Torque (1,495nm)

T 1,495.185nm
Then, Fd = = = 8,423.58N
r 0.1775 m
Therefore, the driving force for the turbine pulley system is 8.423 kN

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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Table 4: Summary of pulley and belt drive design values

S/N Parameter Value Unit Remarks
1 Turbine pulley diameter 355 mm Standard value
2 Generator pulley diameter 150 mm
3 Length of the belt 1825 mm SPB1825
4 Belt velocity 11.7 m/s < 40 so, OK
5 Belt centre distance 505.69 mm -
6 Number of belts 4 pcs -
7 Net driving force 8.42 kN -

2.5 Electrical system components

The electrical components consist of the generator system and transmission system. These components are
related to the electrical power produced and transmission to the consumers.
2.5.1 Generator system
The generator system will be operated with the following rated design values:
Frequency, f = 50 Hz
Rated power, Pe = 75.5 kW
Efficiency, eff = 95%
Rated speed, N = 1500 RPM
Number of poles, p = 4
Power factor, p.f. = 0.8
The generator power is calculated based on the available turbine mechanical power using the following
equation;
Pe = turbine mechanical power x generator efficiency
(Refer to the turbine mechanical power, Pm = 0.45m3/s x 9.81m/s2 x 25m x 0.72 = 79.46kW) Therefore,
Electrical Power,
Pe = 79.46 x 0.95 = 75.49 kW
Pe = 75.5 kW

Figure 1.8: Efficiency range with design flow discharge for different turbines[5]

The generator power output will be supplied to the consumer load through the local grid connections in the area.
The generator design output value is very much influenced by the turbine output power.
The synchronous speed, 𝜔s of the generator is related to the speed N and is given as:

2πN (16)
𝜔s =
60

At the rated condition N = 1500 RPM

2π x 1500
So, synchronous speed 𝜔s = = 157 rad/s
60
This can also be calculated using the following equation;
4πf 4π x 50
𝜔s = = = 157 rad/s
𝑝 4
In the actual speed of the generator changes due to load changes and this affects the actual speed of the
generator. This speed value is the difference between the actual speed and synchronous speed and is the one that
determines the instantaneous generator speed under different loading condition as shown inTable 5.
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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Table 5: Generator power and speed at different rated capacity

Generator Generator Generator speed Remarks
Power (kW) speed (RPM) (rad/s)
75 1500 157 Rated capacity
40 1520 159.09 Minimum load
101.8 1494 156.37 Maximum load

Therefore, the difference in speed (RPM) from the above three scenarios can be calculated as follows;
60
∆N = ∆𝜔 (17)
2π

60
At low power demand, ∆N = x (159.09 − 157) = 19.97 RPM (this indicate a generator speeds up which is
2π
over speed during low demand)
60
At high power demand, ∆N = x (156.37 − 157) = - 6.01 RPM (this indicate a generator slows down which
2π
is under speed during high demand)

3. Conclusion
In designing hydro turbines, many parameters need to be considered on which most of them are
obtained from a particular site. Two of the most deterministic parameters to be considered are the design flow
discharge (Q) and site head (H) which are obtained from the particular site during feasibility study and data
measurements. In additional to that, the two measured parameters can also be used to determine the type of
turbine technology to be used in a particular hydropower project by using standard turbine selection charts. On
the other hand, when turbine design capacity needs to be determined, the value of flow discharge (Q) and site
head (H) are also used as inputs to determine the turbine power using the standard formulas. Thus, using the
results from the current study for the turbine design, the flow discharge for Hhaynu micro-hydropower plant was
0.45 m3/s with the site head of 25m and based on the turbine selection charts, the selected turbine type falls
under the crossflow turbine technology. The crossflow turbine technology has wider values of flow discharge
and head in the medium range which make them to be widely used for micro-hydropower projects in off-grid
rural areas. The crossflow turbines can also be adapted locally with a simple design which results to low in
maintenance cost and thus makesmost of the micro-hydropower projects sustainable.

Acknowledgement
This turbine design project was funded by the Rural Energy Agency (REA) in collaboration with Arusha
Technical College – (ATC) as part of the Hhaynu Micro-hydropower project development in Mbulu - Tanzania
and my research activitieswas conducted at Arusha Technical College – Tanzania

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[8]. Mohibullah, M., A.M. Radzi, and M.I.A. Hakim. Basic design aspects of micro hydro power plant and its potential development in
Malaysia. in PECon 2004. Proceedings. National Power and Energy Conference, 2004. 2004. IEEE.
[9]. Singh, D., Micro Hydro Power, Resource Assesment Handbook, An Initiative of the Asian Pacific Center for Transfer of
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 Innovative design of crossflow hydro turbine system for Hhaynu micro-hydropower

Appendix: Crossflow turbine parts

1.Manual / semi-automatic floodgate

2.Connection to the penstock
3.Inspection door
4.Turbine case
5.Guard for pulley and belt
6.Pulleys with a cogged driving belt
7.Generator
8.Generator fixing slide with belt tightening pulley
9.Flow regulation (manual or automatic)
10.Bearing
11.Frame
12.Lifting points

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