Memory Storage Types on basis of their storage phenomena: Electrical

Magnetic

Optical

Electrical

a. Registers

b. Cache

c. RAM

i. Static & its types

ii. Dynamic & Its types

d. ROM and its Types

e. USB

f. SSD ( Solid State Drive )

Magnetic

1) Floppy Drive/Disk

2) Magnetic Disk (SATA / with different RPMS)

3) Magnetic Tape

Optical

1) CD

2) DVD

3) Rewriteable CD / DVD

4) Blu-Ray Disk

Discuss memory hierarchy with reasoning & you guys are supposed to discuss the following concepts
regarding each memory type:

1) Storage Phenomena ( How does it store 0/1)

2) Write Phenomena

3) Read Phenomena

4) Delete Phenomena

5) Search Phenomena
 The Superior University, Lahore
Task-5 (Spring 2022)
Course Title: Object Oriented Programming (LAB) Course Code: CS-2403 Credit Hours:
Instructor: Prof. Muhammad Aqeel Program Name: MCS
Semester: 2 Batch: F21 Section: 2-A Maximum Marks:
Student’s Name: Assad Ullah Arshad Reg. No. MCSM-F21-004

Memory Storage Types

Memory Storage Types on basis of their storage phenomena:
There are three types of memory storage:
1. Electrical
2. Magnetic
3. Optical

Electrical Storage:
 Any device used to store electronic/digital data or information. This includes
but is not limited to desktop/laptop computers, servers, network devices, magnetic
tape, cell phones, Smartphones, PDAs, portable storage drives, flash drives, fax
machines, copiers and digital cameras.

Electronic Storage devices:

a. Registers
b. Cache
c. RAM
i. Static & its types
ii. Dynamic & Its types
d. ROM and its Types
e. USB
f. SSD (Solid State Drive)

Memory Hierarchy:

Registers:
A register is a temporary storage area built into a CPU. Some registers
are used internally and cannot be accessed outside the processor, while
others are user-accessible. Most modern CPU architectures include
both types of registers.
Internal registers include the instruction register (IR), memory buffer
register (MBR), memory data register (MDR), and memory address
register (MAR). The instruction register fetches instructions from the
program counter (PC) and holds each instruction as it is executed by
the processor. The memory registers are used to pass data
from memory to the processor. The storage time of internal registers is
extremely temporary, as they often hold data for less than a
millisecond.

1. Memory Hierarchy:
Usually, the register is a static RAM or SRAM in the processor of the
computer which is used for holding the data word which is typically 64
or 128 bits. The program counter register is the most important as well as
found in all the processors. Most of the processors use a status word
register as well as an accumulator. A status word register is used for
decision making, and the accumulator is used to store the data like
mathematical operation. Usually, computers like complex instruction
set computers have so many registers for accepting main memory,
and RISC- reduced instruction set computers have more registers.

2. Storage Phenomena:
Registers stores data in the form of bits if the data is n when registers
store n bits of data. Register stores data in the form of 0/1.

3. Write and Read:

Data can be write and read through the CPU with the help of instruction
given to the Registers by the CPU. Arithmetic Logic Units used to read
and write data during this process.

4. Delete and Search Phenomena:

Data cannot be delete or Search from the registers because it stores data
in temporary form.
Cache:

Cache is the temporary memory officially termed “CPU cache memory.” This

chip-based feature of your computer lets you access some information more
quickly than if you access it from your computer's main hard drive.
1. Memory Hierarchy:
Cache memory can also be found in the processor, however rarely it may be
another IC (integrated circuit) which is separated into levels. The cache
holds the chunk of data which are frequently used from main memory. When
the processor has a single core then it will have two (or) more cache levels
rarely. Present multi-core processors will be having three, 2-levels for each
one core, and one level is shared.

2. Storage Phenomena of Cache:

In Cache Memory Data stores with help of Instruction given by the CPU. When
Instruction is given then it flow in the form of cache levels named as L1 L2 L3
data flow through these levels and reached in the main memory in the form of 0/1
form. In the first level data flow is fast as compared to 2nd. In 2nd data flow is fast
as compared to 3rd.

3. Write or Read Phenomena:

Whenever a Processor wants to write or read a word, it checks to see if the address
it wants to write or read the data to, is present in the cache or not. If address is
present in the cache i.e., Write Hit or Read Hit.

4. Delete the cache:

The fast way with a shortcut. Press the keys [Ctrl], [Shift] and [del] on your
Keyboard. Select the period "since installation", to empty the whole browser cache.
Check the Option "Images and Files in Cache". Confirm your settings, by clicking
the button "delete browser data".
5. Search Phenomena:
Right-click on the Start button and click on Task Manager. 2. On the Task Manager
screen, click on the Performance tab > click on CPU in the left pane. In the right-
pane, you will see L1, L2 and L3 Cache sizes listed under “Virtualization” section
RAM:
RAM stands for random-access memory, but what does that mean? Your
computer RAM is essentially short term memory where data is stored as the
processor needs it. This isn't to be confused with long-term data that's stored
on your hard drive, which stays there even when your computer is turned
off.
A. Memory Hierarchy:
 Most of the main memory in a general purpose computer is made up of
RAM integrated circuits chips, but a portion of the memory may be
constructed with ROM chips.
RAM are available in two possible operating modes:

i. Static
ii. Dynamic

i. Static & its types:

SRAM (static RAM) is a type of random access memory (RAM) that
retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied. Unlike
dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be continuously refreshed, SRAM
does not have this requirement, resulting in better performance and lower
power usage.
Types:
MOFSET is one of the two types of SRAM chips; the other is the
bipolar junction transistor. The bipolar junction transistor is very fast but
consumes a lot of energy. MOFSET is a popular SRAM type
1. Storage Phenomena of SRAM:
Static Random Access Memory is a type of RAM that holds data in a static form,
that is, as long as the memory has power. Unlike dynamic RAM, it does not need
to be refreshed. SRAM stores a bit of data on four transistors using two cross-
coupled inverters. The two stable states characterize 0 and 1.
2. Read and write Phenomena:
During read and write operations another two access transistors are used to
manage the availability to a memory cell. To store one memory bit it
requires six metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
 (MOFSET).MOFSET is one of the two types of SRAM chips; the other is
the bipolar junction transistor. The bipolar junction transistor is very fast but
consumes a lot of energy. MOFSET is a popular SRAM type.

ii. Dynamic its types:

1. Storage Phenomena of DRAM:

Dynamic random access memory is a type of random-access memory used
in computing devices. DRAM stores each bit of data in a separate passive
electronic component that is inside an integrated circuit board. Each electrical
component has two states of value in one bit called 0 and 1. This captivator needs
to be refreshed often otherwise information fades. DRAM has one capacitor and
one transistor per bit as opposed to static random access memory (SRAM) that
requires 6 transistors. The capacitors and transistors that are used are exceptionally
small. There are millions of capacitors and transistors that fit on one single
memory chip.
2. Read Phenomena:
When a cell is in the read state an entire row is read out and the refresh is
written back.
3. Write Phenomena:
When in a "write state a whole row is read out, one value is changed, and
then the whole row is rewritten. Depending on the system, there are DRAM chips
that contain a counter while others systems rely on a peripheral refresh logic which
includes a counter. DRAM's access time is around 60 nanoseconds, while SRAM
can be as low as 10 nanoseconds. As well, DRAM's cycle time is a lot longer than
SRAM's. The cycle time of SRAM is shorter because it does not need to stop
between accesses and refreshes.

B. Storage Phenomena of RAM:

RAM is volatile memory used to hold instructions and data of currently running
programs. It loses integrity after loss of power. RAM memory modules are installed
into slots on the computer motherboard. Read only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile:
Data stored in ROM maintains integrity after loss of power. While ROM is read
only, some types of ROM may be written to via flashing, as we will see shortly in
the Flash Memory section
C. Read and Write Phenomena:
 RAM contains multiplexing and de-multiplexing circuitry, to connect the
data lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually
more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, and RAM
devices often have multiple data lines and are said to be "8-bit" or "16-bit",
etc. devices.

ROM:
ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It refers to computer memory
chips containing permanent or semi-permanent data. Unlike RAM, ROM is non-
volatile; even after you turn off your computer, the contents of ROM will remain.
Almost every computer comes with a small amount of ROM containing the boot
firmware.
Types of ROM:
ROM is further classified into 4 types:

a.  ROM
b. PROM
c. EPROM
d. EEPROM

PROM:
PROM was first developed by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956. An example of a
PROM is a computer BIOS in early computers.

EPROM:
EPROM, in full erasable programmable read-only memory, form of
computer memory that does not lose its content when the power supply is
cut off and that can be erased and reused. EPROMs are generally employed
for programs designed for repeated use but that can be upgraded with a later
version of a program.

EEPROM:
EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-
modifiable read-only memory (ROM) that allow users to erase and
reprogram stored data repeatedly in an application. In contrast to EPROM
 chips, EEPROM memory does not need to be removed from the computer in
order to modify the data.

1. Storage Phenomena of ROM:

Because ROM is read-only, it cannot be changed. It is permanent and non-volatile

meaning it also holds its memory even when power is removed. By contrast
random access memory (RAM) is volatile it is lost when power is removed. In a
typical modern computer there are numerous ROM chips located on the
motherboard and a few on expansion boards. The chips are essential for the basic
input/output system.
2. Read and Write Phenomena:
Boot up reading and writing to peripheral devices, basic data management and the
software for basic processes for certain utilities. ROM may also be referred to as
Mask ROM (MROM). Mask ROM is a read-only memory that is static ROM and
is programmed into an integrated circuit by the manufacturer. An example of
MROM is the bootloader or solid-state ROM the oldest type of ROM

USB:
The term USB stands for "Universal Serial Bus". USB cable assemblies are
some of the most popular cable types available, used mostly to connect computers
to peripheral devices such as cameras, camcorders, printers, scanners, and more.

1. Storage Phenomena of USB:

A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface that enables communication
between devices and a host controller such as a personal computer (PC) or
smartphone. It connects peripheral devices such as digital cameras, mice,
keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices, external hard drives and flash drives.
Because of its wide variety of uses, including support for electrical power, the USB
has replaced a wide range of interfaces like the parallel and serial port.

SSD (Solid State Drive):

A simple USB flash drive (or thumb drive) is an example of solid-state drive
technology. An SSD is a larger, more complex device that aggregates pools of
NAND flash storage, the type of storage also found in MP3 players and digital
cameras.

1. Storage Phenomena of SSD:

An SSD is a type of nonvolatile storage media that stores persistent data on solid-
state flash memory. Two key components make up an SSD: a flash controller and
NAND flash memory chips.

2. Read and Write Phenomena:

The architectural configuration of the SSD controller is optimized to deliver high
read and write performance for both sequential and random data requests. SSDs are
sometimes referred to as flash drives or solid-state disks. Unlike a hard disk drive.
An SSD has no moving parts to break or spin up or down. A traditional HDD
consists of a spinning disk with a read/write head on a mechanical arm called an
actuator. The HDD mechanism and hard disk are packaged as an integrated unit.
Businesses and computer manufacturers have used spinning disk historically,
owing to their lower unit cost and higher average durability, although SSDs are
now common in desktop and laptop PCs.

Magnetic:

Floppy Drive/Disk:
A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a disk of thin,
flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular
plastic shell.

Storage Phenomena of Floppy Disk:

When you save a file on a floppy disk, the operating system moves the read/write
heads of the disk drive towards empty sectors, records the data and writes an entry
for the directory.
Read and Write Phenomena:
When you open a file on a floppy disk, the operating system the OS looks for its
entry in the directory, moves the read/write heads to the correct sectors, and reads
the file into the RAM area.
A floppy disk drive or floppy drive, is a hardware device that reads data storage
information. It was invented in 1967 by a team at IBM and was one of the first
types of hardware storage that could read/write a portable device. FDDs are used
for reading and writing on removable floppy discs. Floppy disks are now outdated,
and have been replaced by other storage devices such as USB and network file
transfer.

Magnetic Disk (SATA / with different RPMS):

1. Storage Phenomena of Magnetic Disk:

A hard disk drive is a non-volatile computer storage device containing magnetic
disks or platters rotating at high speeds. It is a secondary storage device used to
store data permanently, random access memory (RAM) being the primary memory
device. Non-volatile means data is retained when the computer is turned off.
Hard drives need a read only memory (ROM) controller board to instruct the
read/write heads how, when and where to move across the platters. Hard drives
have disks stacked together and spin in unison. The read/write heads are controlled
by an actuator, which magnetically reads from and writes to the platters. The
read/write heads float on a film of air above the platters.

Magnetic Tape:
1. Storage Phenomena of Magnetic tape:
Magnetic tape is a type of physical storage media for different kinds of data. It is
considered an analog solution, in contrast to more recent types of storage media,
such as solid state disk (SSD) drives. Magnetic tape has been a major vehicle for
audio and binary data storage for several decades, and is still part of data storage
for some systems. One use of magnetic tape that still exists is tape vaulting for the
storage of physical records. In this process, technicians and other professionals
back up digital data to magnetic tape to secure it in physical vaults as a redundant
strategy in the event of disasters or other emergencies.

Optical:

CD:
Storage Phenomena of CD:
A CD-ROM usually stores 650 MB of data. A Compact disc read-only memory
(CD-ROM) is a storage device that can be Read but not written to.CD-ROM was a
common convention for delivery of audio and other data through the years before
small solid-state flash drives and other devices began to take over.
DVD:
Storage Phenomena of DVD:

A DVD-ROM stores around 4.38 GB of data. A typical DVD-ROM can hold up to

17 GB/s of data if both sides of the disc are writable. A DVD-ROM permanently
stores data files which cannot be changed, written over or erased.
A personal computer (PC) with a DVD-ROM or a DVD-RAM drive is designed to
read a DVD-ROM disc. Generally, DVD-ROM disc is not equipped to be used with
a DVD drive connected to a home theater system or television. But many DVD-
ROM drives can generally read a DVD movie disc.

Rewriteable CD / DVDs:
Rewriteable DVD:
A DVD-ROM is one of the various types of DVDs. A blank DVD is generally a
DVD-R or DVD+R, which has a read-write format. The +R or -R references the
format standards and is a rewritable or recordable DVD.

CD Rewriteable:

CD-Read Writable refers to an optical CD that may be written and rewritten

multiple times. CD-RW allows for data erasing during each rewritable session.
However, data cannot be changed during CD-RW sessions. Some
CD-RW discs have a multisession feature, in which additional data may be written
at a later time if extra space is available.

Blu-Ray Disk:
Storage Phenomena of Blu-Ray Disk:
Blu-ray technology gets its name from the blue-violet laser that is used to
read Blu-ray disks. Compared to a DVD's red laser, a blue laser permits more
information to be stored at a greater density. For example, while a DVD can
store15 GB per layer, a Blu-ray disk can store 25 GB per layer, and dual-layer disks
can hold up to 50 GB. Compared to a DVD, Blu-ray also provides much higher
resolution; while a DVD with standard definition can provide definition of
720x480 pixels, Blu-ray high definition has 1920X1080 pixel resolution.